OCCUPATIONAL

HEALTH AND SAFETY

Short course

Module 1: Introduction to Occupational health and safety

2023 Training
Learning Outcomes

 After completing this unit, you should be familiar with the following concepts and
issues:
 Key principles and aim of occupational health and safety (OHS) programmes
 Occupational health scenario in Zambia
 Different types of occupational hazards
 Science of ergonomics and its relevance to occupational health
 Definition and Context of Occupational Health and Safety

 Occupational health and safety is a discipline with a broad scope involving many specialised fields.
 It encompasses the social, mental and physical well-being of workers that is the “whole person”.
 This unit aims at providing students with general background information on OHS, and on the
magnitude and variety of health and safety problems worldwide.
 It would help develop an understanding of the ergonomic, physical, chemical, biological,
psychological and social determinants of OHS.
 Occupational health and safety is the discipline concerned with preserving and protecting human
resources in the workplace.
 As per the definition adopted by the Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health (1950),
occupational health is the adaptation of work to man and of each man to his job. It has the
following components.
 Promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well being of
workers in all occupations;
 Prevention among workers of departures from health caused by their working conditions
 Protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors adverse to health; and
 Placing and maintenance of a worker in an occupational environment adapted to his physiological
and psychological equipment.
 DEF: Occupational health deals with all aspects of health and safety in the workplace and has a
strong focus on primary prevention of hazards. The health of the workers have several
determinants, including risk factors at the workplace leading to cancers, accidents, musculoskeletal
diseases, respiratory diseases, hearing loss, circulatory diseases, stress related disorders and
communicable diseases and others.
 Historical and Legal Context

 The origins of occupational health and safety concerns can be traced back to the Industrial
Revolution (late 18th to 19th century), which was marked by innovations like cotton spinning and
textiles, steam engines, iron founding etc.
 This resulted in the emergence of cotton mills, semi-automated factories and iron industries,
which became the „leading sectors‟, which established the base for the Industrial Revolution.
 Although the Industrial Revolution contributed to economic development, it had a negative impact
on the health and safety of the workers working in these factories and industries.
 Men and women workers were exposed to harmful gases, toxins, acids, extreme heat and cold
temperatures, light and sound that had a harmful impact on their physical, social, and
psychological health.
 The injuries, diseases and health hazards faced by workers as a result of the Industrial Revolution
drew the interest of scholars and leading thinkers of that period, who felt that issues of industrial
health and hygiene must be addressed.
 Occupational health and safety is a cross disciplinary area and it interacts with other
disciplines such as occupational medicine, occupational or industrial hygiene, public health,
safety engineering, ergonomics, toxicology, epidemiology, health physics, environmental
health, industrial relations, public policy, industrial sociology, medical sociology, social law,
labor law, and occupation health psychology.
 Although the urgency to address the occupational (industrial) health and safety issues
emerged during the Industrial Revolution, it becomes much more crucial to address the issue
at present with the tremendous expansion of cities across the world, further resulting in wide
spread industrialization and growth of population.
 Issues of health, hygiene and hazard control are essential and have to be dealt with by state
governments and other bodies responsible for ensuring the safety and well-being of all
workers, by ensuring that there are health and safety policies, systems in every workplace
and that these are implemented in the best possible manner.
 Occupational health has therefore gradually developed from a mono-disciplinary risk oriented activity
to a multidisciplinary and comprehensive approach that considers an individual's physical, mental
and social well-being, and general health and personal development.
 Across the world, Acts, legislations, and policies were created with the objective of ensuring good
health and safe work environments for all workers. Every country has its own act and policy on OHS
 OH&S ACT OF 2010: An Act to establish the Occupational Health and Safety Institute and provide
for its functions; provide for the establishment of health and safety committees at workplaces and for
the health, safety and welfare of persons at work; provide for the duties of manufacturers, importers
and suppliers of articles, devices, items and substances for use at work; provide for the protection of
persons, other than persons at work, against risks to health or safety arising from, or in connection
with, the activities of persons at work; and provide for matters connected with, or incidental to, the
foregoing.(SOURCE: Occupational health and safety, Ministry of labor, Zambia)
 Fundamental Objectives and Principles of Occupational Health and
Safety

 Objectives of Occupational Health and Safety The prime objective of OHS at a global level is to
ensure that health and safety is accessible to every worker employed in any sector across the
economy.
 The World Health Organisation (WHO) since its inception has included elements of occupational
health in its policy.
 The need to protect the worker from occupational health hazards and promote safety of all at the
workplace has been emphasized in key documents of WHO - the Constitution of the WHO,
Declarations of Alma Ata Declaration, Global Strategy on Occupational Health for All, WHO
General Programmes of Work and several resolutions of the World Health Assembly.
 As a result of the changing work-life trends and the growing demand for higher productivity from
the worker, there is an urgent need to address issues of OHS at the workplace for each worker.
Based on this vision, the Network of WHO Collaborating Centres in Occupational Health,
comprising of 52 research and expert institutions from 35 countries, met up twice to discuss the
need for a new Global Strategy in Occupational Health
 According to the document, Global Strategy on Occupational Health for All, the ten high priority
objectives proposed by the strategy are as follows:
 Strengthening of international and national policies for health at work and developing the necessary
policy tools
 Development of healthy work environment
 Development of healthy work practices and promotion of health at work
 Strengthening of OHS
 Establishing of support services for occupational health
 Development of occupational health standards based on scientific risk assessment
 Development of human resources for occupational health
 Establishment of registration and data systems, development of information services for experts,
effective transmission of data and raising of public awareness through public information
 Strengthening of research
 The document therefore lays emphasis on creating policies, structures, systems and
activities for addressing OHS needs at the workplace.
 It highlights the need for adequate support services and human resources for
implementing the new strategy.
 Importance is laid on collaboration within the WHO, which is between the International
Organisations and NGOs and the various disciplines associated with occupational
health issues at national and at local levels.
 Principles of Occupational Health and Safety

 Occupational health and safety is a multi-disciplinary field, covering issues related to law,
medicine, technology, economics and industry specific concerns.
 The core occupational health and safety principles put forth by the ILO are as follows:
 1. All workers have rights. Workers, as well as employees and government, must ensure that
these rights are protected and foster decent conditions of labour.
 As the International Labour Conference stated in 1984:
- Work should take place in a safe healthy environment;
- Conditions of work should be consistent with workers‟ well-being and human dignity;
- Work should offer real possibilities for personal achievement, self-fulfilment and service society .
 2. Occupational health and safety policies must be established. Such policies must be implemented
at both the governmental and enterprise levels.
-They must be effectively communicated to all parties concerned.
 3. There is a need for consultation with the social partners (that is, employers and workers) and
other stakeholders. This should be done during the formulation, implementation and review of such
policies.
 4.Prevention and protection must be the aim of occupational health and safety programmes and
policies.
-Efforts must be focused on primary prevention at the workplace level. Workplaces and
working environment should be planned and designed to be safe and healthy.
5. Information is vital for the development and implementation of effective programmes and policies.
-The collection and dissemination of accurate information on hazards and hazardous
materials, surveillance of workplaces, monitoring of compliance with policies and good practices, and
other related activities are central to the establishment and the enforcement of effective policies.
 6. Health promotion is a central element of occupational health practice. Efforts must be made to
enhance workers‟ physical, mental and social well- being.
 7. Occupational health services covering all workers should be established. Ideally all workers in all
categories of economic activity should have access to such services, which aim to protect and promote
workers‟ health and improve working conditions.
 8. Compensation, rehabilitation and curative services must be made available to workers who suffer
occupational injuries, accidents and work related diseases. Action must be taken to minimize the
consequences of occupational hazards.
 9. Education and training are vital components of safe, healthy working environments. Workers and
employers must be made aware of the importance and the means of establishing safe working
procedures. Trainers must be trained in areas of special relevance to different industries, which have
specific OHS concerns.
 10. Workers, employers and competent authorities have certain responsibilities, duties and obligations.
For example, workers must follow established safety procedures; employers must provide safe
workplaces and ensure access to first aid; and the competent authorities must devise, communicate and
periodically review and update occupational health and safety policies.
 Workplace and Health
 Work is an important component of an individual‟s daily life. A major proportion of an individual‟s life is
spent at the „workplace‟, where he or she is expected to display their commitment and sincerity in
performing various tasks.
 In contemporary times, workplaces demand a high degree of expertise and competency from its
workers in every task they perform.
 This means that a worker‟s time and quality of work both play key roles in determining their
performance and in ensuring the output produced.
 Therefore, the question that needs to be asked is that are workplaces only emphasising on the
„performance of tasks‟ and on the „output produced‟
 What about the individual? Has any concern been shown towards protecting or restoring the well-
being of the worker?
 This would mean addressing concerns like a worker‟s health, safety measures within the workplace, a
pleasant and secure working environment, policies or systems contributing to an employee‟s physical,
social and psychological well-being.
 Thus, approaching the workplace or an occupation from the perspective of health and safety is a crucial
requirement and is the very basis of OHS.
 Work receives considerable attention due to its social and economic importance.
 The primary function of work in any society is to produce and distribute goods and services.
 Not enough attention is paid to the importance that work has for the individual. However, studies
have shown that work plays a crucial and unparalleled psychological role in developing self-
esteem and a sense of work.
 Work for which there is no economic reward is also satisfying and personally gratifying. This
refers to work such as childcare, care for the sick and aged, household-work, voluntary work etc.
 Work receives considerable attention due to its social and economic importance. The primary
function of work in any society is to produce and distribute goods and services. Not enough
attention is paid to the importance that work has for the individual.
 However, studies have shown that work plays a crucial and unparalleled psychological role in
developing self-esteem and a sense of work. Work for which there is no economic reward is also
satisfying and personally gratifying.
 This refers to work such as childcare, care for the sick and aged, household-work, voluntary work
etc.
 When we say safe and secure work environment, we are not only referring to the availability of
safe and hazard free equipment or tools within the workplace, but also aspects such as human
relations within the workplace, which have a direct impact on the physical and psychological
health of the individual.
 For example, how do the men behave with the women at the workplace?
 How is the behavior of an employer towards his or her employee?
 Does any employee face various forms of harassment such as sexual harassment, bullying
from a fellow staff member or a senior, which makes him or her insecure and reduces their
productivity, further resulting in illness and health problems?
 Does the workplace have policies such as a health and safety policy, prevention of sexual
harassment policy and other policies, which ensure that everyone working in the work place is
secure and is free from stress?
 These are questions that every workplace should be finding solutions to and addressing
 The role of the Governing Board or the management of an organisation holds importance, as they are the
key people responsible for framing systems and policies within the workplace and implementing them.
 If the senior management, the Human Resource Department and team leaders or coordinators work
towards ensuring a conducive work environment, which is healthy and safe for all workers, then the
organisation as a whole will benefit.
 Particular emphasis should be given to women and children, and there should be enough mechanisms in
all workplaces to ensure that their health and safety requirements are addressed, as they are the most
vulnerable.
 In factories, construction work, mines, railway stations, power-plants, jewellery making, weaving factories
etc., workers work in the midst of dust; extreme heat and cold temperatures; strong/bad light and loud
sounds, where they face numerous physical, biological, chemical health hazards.
 Women and children working in factories with bad lighting or for longer working hours are prone to
danger.
 Thus every workplace must strive towards ensuring the well-being of all its employees irrespective of their
sex, class, caste and ethnic identities.
 Occupational health and safety issues are relevant in the present period. The concept of
establishing safe and healthy workplaces is acquiring importance across the world.
 Workplaces both formal and informal, must introduce preventive measures in the workplace to
reduce the number of accidents or health hazards at the workplace. The key concepts associated
with OHS are “health promotion” and “well-being” of the individual.
 The ILO states that health promotion and well-being at work programmes focus on the promotion
of workers and their families‟ health through preventive programmes in a number of areas. These
are drug and alcohol abuse, HIV/AIDS, workplace stress, violence at work and the promotion of
tobacco free workplaces.
 The approach adopted by ILO is the social dialogue approach, resulting in the implementation of
initiatives by the workplace and community.
 The ILO engages in dialogue with workers, employers, government, NGOs and undertakes steps
towards promoting the good health and safety of all workers and secure work environments.
 The definition of a healthy workplace extended by WHO is “A healthy workplace is one in which
workers and managers collaborate to use a continual improvement process and promote the
health, safety and well-being of all workers and the sustainability of the workplace by considering
the following based on identified needs:
 Healthy and safety concerns in the physical work environment;
 Health, safety and well-being concerns in psychosocial work environment including personal
health resources in the workplace.
 Ways of participating in the community to improve the health of all the workers, their families and
other members of the community” (SOURCE;World Health Projects and Activities, World
Health Organisation, p.9)
 Interaction between Work and Health
 The social and economic importance of work receives considerable attention because a primary
function of work in any society is to produce and distribute goods and services.
 Far less attention is paid to the importance of work to the individual, yet it is clear from recent
research that work plays a crucial and unparalleled psychological role in the formation of self-
esteem and a sense of order.
 It is believed that work for which there is no economic gain, such as childcare, care for the aged
and voluntary work, also has its rewards and contributes to personal gratification.
 There is a continuous two-way interaction between a person and the physical and psychological
working environment; the work environment may influence the person's health either positively or
negatively and productivity is, in turn, influenced by the worker's state of physical and well-being.
 Work when it is well adjusted and productive can be an important factor in health promotion, e.g.
partially disabled workers may be rehabilitated by undertaking tasks suited to their physical and
mental limitations and in this way, may substantially increase their working capacity
Occupational Hazards and Hygiene
 An occupational hazard can be defined as any condition that may adversely affect the
wellbeing or health of the exposed persons.
 Identification of hazardous agents and groups of workers potentially exposed to these
hazards are essential to characterize a workplace involving any occupational activity.
 Occupational hazards can be divided into two categories: safety hazards that cause
accidents that physically injure workers, and health hazards that result in the
developing of a disease.
 It is important to note that a “hazard” only represents the potential to cause harm.
Whether it actually does harm will depend on circumstances, such as the number of
workers exposed and the degree and duration of exposure.
 The occurrence or severity of occupational disease is related to the exposure to
factors on the job or in the work environment.
 Such factors can be:
 Physical – heat, noise, radiation, vibration, cold
 Chemical – solvents, pesticides, heavy metals, dust
 Biological – Tuberculosis, hepatitis B virus, HIV
 Psychosocial stressors – lack of control over work, inadequate personal support
 Mechanical –causes of work accidents and injuries
 Occupational Hygiene
 The profession that aims specifically at the prevention and control of hazards arising from work
processes is occupational hygiene. The goals include the protection and promotion of workers‟ health,
the protection of the environment and contribution to a safe and sustainable development.
 Definition Occupational hygiene is defined by the International Occupational Hygiene Association
(IOHA) as 'the discipline of anticipating, recognizing, evaluating and controlling health hazards in the
working environment with the objective of protecting worker's health and well being and safeguarding
the community at large.
 So, it involves the practice of identifying the hazardous agents (chemical, physical and biological) in the
workplace that could cause disease or discomfort, evaluating the extent of the risk due to exposure to
these hazardous agents, and the control of those risks to prevent ill-health in the long or short term.
 Occupational hygiene draws upon, yet integrates, background disciplines such as biology, chemistry,
physics, medicine, engineering, toxicology, environmental management etc.
 In part, it can be regarded as that aspect of the risk assessment field, which focuses on the interface
between workplace-derived hazards and chronic human health consequences.
 The management of these risks (by means of control programmes) is similarly an integral part of the
discipline.
 Practice of Occupational Hygiene (Step By Step Guide)
 The classical steps in occupational hygiene practice are:
1. The recognition of the possible health hazards in the work environment.
2. The evaluation of hazards, which is the process of assessing exposure and reaching
conclusions as to the level of risk to human health.
3. Prevention and control of hazards, which is the process of developing and implementing
strategies to eliminate, or reduce to acceptable levels, the occurrence of harmful agents and
factors in the workplace, while also accounting for environmental protection.
4. Participate in overall risk analysis and management of an agent, process or workplace, and
contribute to the establishing of priorities for risk management.
5. Understand the legal framework for occupational hygiene practice.
6. Educate, train, inform and advise persons at all levels, in all aspects of hazard communication.
 The ideal approach to hazard prevention is “anticipated and integrated preventive action”,
which should include:
1. Occupational health and environmental impact assessments, prior to the design and
installation of any new workplace.
2. Selection of the safest, least hazardous, and least polluting technology („cleaner
production‟).
3. Environmentally appropriate location.
4. Proper design, with adequate layout and appropriate control technology, including the
safe handling and disposal of the resulting effluents and waste.
5. Elaboration of guidelines and regulations for training on the correct operation of the
processes, including on the safe work practices, maintenance and emergency
procedures.
ERGONOMICS
INTRODUCTION TO ERGONOMICS

 Ergonomics is the application of scientific information concerning humans to the

design of objects, systems and environment for human use.
 The aim is to ensure that the job must fit the person in all respects and the work
situation should not compromise human capabilities and limitations.
 So, ergonomics comes into everything that involves people. Work systems, sports and
leisure, health and safety should all embody ergonomic principles, if well designed.
 The term “ergonomics” is derived from two Greek words: “ergon”, meaning work
and “nomoi”, meaning natural laws. Ergonomists study human capabilities in
relationship to work demands.
 It is 'the science of making the job fit the worker'; or in other words is 'the application
of human sciences to the optimisation of people's working environment`.
 In broader terms, ergonomics seeks to improve the match between the job and the
worker's physical abilities, information handling and workload capacities.
 Its fundamental importance is recognized in the International Labor Organisation,
which defines ergonomics as: “
 The application of the human biological sciences in conjunction with the
engineering sciences to the worker and his working environment, so as to
obtain maximum satisfaction for the worker which at the same time enhances
productivity.”
 Ergonomics seeks to adapt work to human physical and psychological capabilities and
limitations. In seeking this goal, it draws on many disciplines including anatomy,
physiology, psychology, sociology, physics, and engineering.
 Using Ergonomics
 How do you use ergonomics? Ergonomics incorporates elements from many subjects including
anatomy, physiology, psychology and design.
 Ergonomists apply their diverse knowledge to ensure that products and environments are
comfortable, safe and efficient for people to use.
 Knowledge of ergonomics is of great value in preventing ill-health and injury from work, as well as in
rehabilitating people (e.g. someone with back pain).
 For example, personal protective equipment will generally not be used unless it is acceptable to
employees, ( it should fit well be comfortable and not interfere unduly with the task for which it is
needed). Focal areas for ergonomists in any organisation are:
 Size and shape: Anthropometry is the branch of ergonomics that deals with human variability in
size, shape and strength. Tables of anthropometric data are used by the ergonomists to ensure that
places and items they are designing fit the user.
 Vision: Vision being the prime channel for information, designers should ensure that the users see
the workplace clearly. Many workers using computers cannot see their screens because of the glare
or reflection. Similarly, those doing precise assembly tasks under insufficient lighting suffer
eyestrain.
 Sound: Sound can be a useful way to provide information, especially for warning signals.
However, care should be taken not to overload this sensory channel.
 Job design: One goal of ergonomics is to design jobs to fit people. This means taking account of
differences such as size, strength and ability to handle information for a wide range of users. Then
the tasks, the workplace and tools are designed around these differences. This leads to improved
efficiency, quality and
 Human error: Human errors in nuclear and chemical industries, rail and sea transport, aviation,
etc. could be catastrophic. However, when disasters occur, the blame is often laid with the
operators, pilots or drivers concerned, and labelled as „human error‟. Often though, these errors
are caused by poor equipment and system design.
 Here ergonomists pay particular attention to the mental demands on the operators, designing tasks
and equipment to minimize the chances of misreading information or operating the wrong controls,
for example. job satisfaction.
 All in all The value of ergonomics is easily understood by anyone who has tried to do a
job using the wrong tools. The increased difficulty causes the job to take longer,
leading to frustration and loss of temper.
 This in turn leads to use of excessive force and increases the risk of a slip of the hand
and injury.
 In the wider world of industry and commerce, such problems arising from poor design
of jobs, machines or workplaces may lead to large-scale inefficiencies, risk taking,
increase in accidents and 'near-misses', and increases in absenteeism related to
dissatisfaction with the job.
THANK YOU