COURSE OUTLINE

IPH 2408: OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY

Introduction

Definition of terms; Historical perspective/evolution ; Aims of occupational health

Key principles of occupational health and safety

Occupational health hazards or workplace health hazards

Definition of terms, recognition of hazards

Types of hazards: physical Hazards ,mechanical hazards, psychosocial hazards, biological hazards,
chemical hazards, ergonomic hazards.

Hazards and identification methods, Risks and health outcomes

Occupational diseases/illnesses

Epidemiology; Preventive and protective measures

Occupational health services

Aims and functions

Fundamental principles of occupational health programs

Fire safety

Industrial pollution and health

Epidemiological surveillance; workplace audit,

Social security and health insurance

Safety and welfare provisions

National and international legislation on occupational safety

Occupational safety and health Act 2007- Laws of Kenya

INTRODUCTION
Definition of terms
Occupation – refers to a person’s usual or principal work especially as a means to earn a living.
Health – according to this context refers to protection from illnesses while carrying on your work.
Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being; not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity (WHO)
Public health is the science and the art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting
physical and mental health and efficiency through organized community efforts for the sanitation of
the environment , the control of community infections, the education of the individual in principles
of personal hygiene, the organization of medical and nursing service for the early diagnosis and
treatment of disease and the development of the social machinery which will ensure to every
individual in the community a standard of living adequate for the maintenance of health
(C.E.A.Winslow)
Safety-refers to protection from illnesses and injuries from tools and work related.
Occupational health is the application of public health principles and medical nursing and
engineering practice for the purpose of conserving, promoting and restoring the health and
effectiveness of workers through their place of employment.
Occupational safety is the working in conditions that are free from known dangers like clean, safe
environment and with right safety gears.
Occupational safety and health(OSH)
Occupational safety and health (OSH) is generally defined as the science of the anticipation,
recognition, evaluation and control of hazards arising in or from the workplace that could impair the
health and well-being of workers, taking into account the possible impact on the surrounding
communities and the general environment. It is an area concerned with protecting the safety, health
and welfare of people engaged in work or employment
Epidemiology is the study of how disease is distributed in populations and the factors that influence
or determine this distribution.
Broader definition of epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health
related states or events in specified populations and the application of this study to control of health
problems.
Historical perspective/Evolution of OSH
The scope of occupational safety and health has evolved gradually and continuously in response to
social, political, technological and economic changes. In recent years, globalization of the world’s
economies and its repercussions have been perceived as the greatest force for change in the world of
work, and consequently in the scope of occupational safety and health, in both positive and negative
ways. Liberalization of world trade, rapid technological progress, significant developments in
transport and communication, shifting patterns of employment, changes in work organization
practices, the different employment patterns of men and women, and the size, structure and life
cycles of enterprises and of new technologies can all generate new types and patterns of hazards,
exposures and risks.
Demographic changes and population movements, and the consequent pressures on the global
environment, can also affect safety and health in the world of work.
AIMS OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
Occupational health should aim at:
 The promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social
wellbeing in all occupations.
 The prevention amongst workers of departures from health caused by their working
conditions.
 The protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors adverse to
health.
 The placing and maintenance of the worker in an occupational environment adapted to its
physiological and psychological equipment.
 The adaptation of work to man and of each man to his job.
NB: Proper occupational health utilizes work as a factor in health promotion once occupational
hazards have been placed under control, work processes and tools adapted to human capacities and
limits can play an effective role in promoting mental and physical health.

KEY PRINCIPLES IN OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY

A number of key principles underpin the field of occupational health and safety. These principles are
all designed to achieve a vital objective so that work should take place in a safe and healthy
environment.

Core OSH principles

Occupational safety and health is an extensive multidisciplinary field, invariably touching on issues
related to scientific areas such as medicine – including physiology and toxicology – ergonomics,
physics and chemistry, as well as technology, economics, law and other areas specific to various
industries and activities. Despite this variety of concerns and interests, certain basic principles can be
identified, including the following:
1. All workers have rights. Workers, as well as employers and governments, must ensure that these
rights are protected and must strive to establish and maintain decent working conditions and a
decent working environment. This is to mean that:
 Work should take place in a safe and healthy working environment;
 Conditions of work should be consistent with workers’ well-being and human dignity;
 Work should offer real possibilities for personal achievement, self fulfillment and service
to society.
2. Occupational safety and health policies must be established. Such policies must be
implemented at both the national (governmental),county governments, and private enterprises
levels. These policies must be effectively communicated to all parties concerned.
3. A national system for occupational safety and health must be established. Such a system must
include all the mechanisms and elements necessary to build and maintain a preventive safety and
health culture. The national system must be maintained, progressively developed and periodically
reviewed.
4. A national programme on occupational safety and health must be formulated. Once
formulated, it must be implemented, monitored, evaluated and periodically reviewed.
5. Social partners that is, employers and workers and other stakeholders must be consulted. This
should be done during formulation, implementation and review of all policies, systems and
programs.
6. Occupational safety and health programs and policies must aim at both prevention and
protection. Efforts must be focused above all on primary prevention at the workplace level.
Workplaces and working environments should be planned and designed to be safe and healthy.
7. Continuous improvement of occupational safety and health must be promoted.
This is necessary to ensure that national laws, regulations and technical standards to prevent
occupational injuries, diseases and deaths are adapted periodically to social, technical and scientific
progress and other changes in the world of work. It is best done by the development and
implementation of a national policy, national system and national programme.
8. Information is vital for the development and implementation of effective
programmes and policies. The collection and dissemination of accurate information on hazards and
hazardous materials, surveillance of workplaces,to ensure that the workers monitoring of
compliance with policies and good practice, and other related activities are central to the
establishment and enforcement of effective policies.
9. Health promotion is a central element of occupational health practice. Efforts must be made to
enhance workers’ physical, mental and social well-being.
10. Occupational health services covering all workers should be established.
Ideally, all workers in all categories of economic activity should have access to such services, which
aim to protect and promote workers’ health and improve working conditions.
11. Compensation, rehabilitation and curative services must be made available to workers who
suffer occupational injuries, accidents and work related diseases.
12. Action must be taken to minimize the consequences of occupational hazards.
13. Education and training are vital components of safe, healthy working environments. Workers
and employers must be made aware of the importance of establishing safe working procedures
and of how to do so. Trainers must be trained in areas of special relevance to particular
industries, so that they can address the specific occupational safety and health concerns.
14. Workers, employers and competent authorities have certain responsibilities, duties and
obligations. For example, workers must follow established safety procedures; employers must
provide safe workplaces and ensure access to first aid; and the competent authorities must devise,
communicate and periodically review and update occupational safety and health policies.
15. Policies must be enforced. A system of inspection must be in place to secure compliance with
occupational safety and health measures and other labour legislation.

Fundamental principles of occupational health programs

1. Occupational health programs exist because individuals have occupations and work
together in groups.
2. The purpose of occupational health programs is to serve the workers health needs and
thereby improve their effectiveness.
3. The purpose of occupational health programs is best fulfilled when the members of
the occupational health team physician, public health officers, nurse, engineer and
allied personnel that provide services jointly and cooperatively.
4. Medical and administrative supervision of the occupational health programs are
necessary.

SCOPE AND PURPOSE OF OSH STANDARDS

Conventions and Recommendations on occupational safety and health may serve several purposes,
acting as:
• Fundamental principles to guide policies for promotion, action and management of occupational
hazards;
• General protection measures, for example, guarding of machinery, medical examination of young
workers or limiting the weight of loads to be transported by a single worker;
 • Protection against specific hazards of economic activity, such as mining, the building and industry,
commerce and dock work catering and pastry
• Protection of specific professions such healthcare workers and seafarers) and categories of workers
having particular occupational health needs (such as women or young workers);
• Protection against specific risks (ionizing radiation, benzene, asbestos); prevention of occupational
cancer; control of air pollution, noise and vibration in the working environment; measures to ensure
safety in the use of chemicals, including the prevention of major industrial accidents;
• Organizational measures and procedures relating, for example, to labour inspection or
compensation for occupational injuries and diseases. The employers and workers, to take active steps
towards achieving

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OR WORKPLACE HEALTH HAZARDS AND

RISKS
Definition
Hazard- is a situation that is likely to cause an accident, body injury acute or chronic health effect to
the worker or death to the worker or non-worker.
Risk: this is a situation that poses one or a worker to an occupational hazard.
effects of the hazards result into
 Occupational accidents and injuries
 Occupational diseases and ill health
 Death
 Damage to life and property
 Deterioration of quality of life.
 Economic losses e.g monetary losses and assets

Recognition of hazards
An individual can recognize hazards through the following:
1. Smelling
2. Hearing.
3. seeing,
4. feeling,
5. tasting

Types of occupational health hazards

Physical Hazards
These hazards that one can see, touch and feel.
They include excessive noise, extreme temperatures, excessive light, pressure e.g. gases under
pressure, Radiation (ionizing and non-ionizing), hazards like burns, fires, shocks, arc flash
Noise
Excessive noise can cause (hearing impairment/induces deafness, ulcers etc the effects take long time
to develop and it is gradual. the accepted limit for noise is(A) for a 8-hour shift
Heat
Excess heat can give rise to a condition known as heat stress on the body and this can result to : heat
cramps, heat stroke and heat exhaustion.
Light
Poor lighting can cause eye strain or damage the eye .excessive light can the eye due to ultr-violet
rays e.g. from welding works. such an exposure cause ‘arc eye’ a painful condition of the eye
Radiation
A common example is X-rays in the health facilities and industries. X-rays and other ionizing
radiation can cause skin burn or cancer
Pressure
Certain occupations such as diving and salvaging work under the sea, building tunnels under rivers
and other under water works can cause some type of disease known as “decompression sickness” or
‘compressed air sickness’
Mechanical Hazards
These may originate from the following systems and processes: boilers, air receivers, lifts and lifting
equipments ,presurised vessels(gases under pressure could explode), machines in motion etc. These
may cause temporary, permanent body injury or death.

Chemical Hazards
Chemicals in work places have potential of to cause both acute and chronic health effects. they are
categorized mainly as organic and inorganic chemicals. examples are heavy metals, agro-
chemicals ,solvents, mineral dusts. the effects of such chemicals may be:
 Acute(sudden)-results from high dose exposure
 Chronic(gradual)- results from low dose exposure
Exposure to chemical liquids or gases e.g ammonia,chlorine etc can cause immediate effects such as
coughing or chemical burns. Other chemicals effects are slow and take long to develop. Some
solvent vapours cause damage to the liver and nerve system over a period of time e.g. formaldehyde.
Some solvents e.g.benzene cause lung cancer

Biological Hazards
These are hazards due to microorganisms such as germs, bacteria, fungus, pollen grains, anthrax,
tetanus, insects, animals etc they are also known as bio-hazards.

Classical examples are:

Blood borne pathogens e.g. Ebola, Rift valley fever, HIV/AIDs, Marburg, Hepatitis B etc.

Airborne pathogens (air droplets) e.g.TB, influenza, swine flu,etc

Body fluid pathogens e.g. Hepatitis A,all types of bacteria including anthrax etc.

Psychosocial Hazards
These hazards may affect health both physical and mental. examples include:
 Various systems or arrangement of work i.e. shift work, night work, automated work.
 Interpersonal relationships
 Job demands
 Verbal abuse/humiliation including sexual harassment at workplace.
These hazards may affect the mental, morale or physical health of workers.

Ergonomic Hazards
It is a physical factor within the environment that harms the musculoskeletal system. ergonomic
hazards include uncomfortable workstations ,height, poor body positioning, lifting etc.
Artisan to star here next lesson.

Hazards identification Methods

 Workplace inspection
 Use of material safety data sheets
 Complaints and investigations
 Accidents at workplaces
 Hygiene and sanitation surveys
 Medical examination

Functions of an occupational health services

The main functions of an occupational health service are to:
 identify and assess the risks from health hazards in the workplace;
 watch for factors in the work environment and working practices that may affect workers’
health, such as sanitary installations, canteens and housing provided by the employer;
  advise on work planning and organization, including workplace design and the choice,
maintenance and condition of machinery, and other equipment and substances used in work;
 participate in the development of programmes for the improvement of work practices;
 collaborate in testing new equipment and Evaluating its health aspects advise on
occupational health, safety and hygiene, and on ergonomics and protective equipment;
 Health surveillance systems- pre-employment physical examination, Monitor workers’
health in relation to work.
 Try to make sure that work is adapted to the worker;
 contribute to vocational rehabilitation i.e introduce Employee Assistance Programme (EAPs)
 collaborate in providing training and education in occupational health and hygiene, and
ergonomics;
 organize first aid and emergency treatment; and
 Participate in the analysis of occupational accidents and occupational diseases.

Economic benefits of occupational health services

 Virtual elimination of lead poisoning in a group of factors making electrical accumulators.
 Substantial reduction in lost time accidents and time spent in getting treatment outside the
workplace
 Reduced absenteeism.
 reduction in workmen’s compensation paymen
Levels of occupational health services
 First Aid box-to be well equipped and must be available
 First Aid Room-in workplace of more than 50 workers and a nurse should man it.
 Clinic –for large firms. These are organisations with over 200 workers. they should manned
by a clinical officer and more than two nurses, a lab technician, a pharmacists and record
keeper.
 Hospital – they are good for a very big firm or big firms in very remote regions. They should
always have a doctor on call.

Special programs in the occupational health services include:

 Occupational eye protection program by providing googles.
 Hearing conservation by providing hearing muffins
 dental health programs
 backbone and spine injuries which may extend to the internal organs.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE VARIATIONS IN OCCURRENCE OF THE HAZARDS

1. Countries
The incidence of workplace fatalities varies enormously between countries. There appears to be a
significant difference between developed and developing countries:
• a factory worker in Pakistan is eight times more likely to be killed at work than a factory worker in
France;
• Fatalities among transport workers in Kenya are ten times those in Denmark;
• Construction workers in Guatemala are six times more likely to die at work than their counterparts
in Switzerland (World Bank, 1995).
2. Economic sectors
Occupational health and safety performance varies significantly between economic sectors within
countries. Statistical data show that agriculture, forestry, mining and construction take the lead in the
incidence of occupational deaths worldwide. The ILO.s Safe Work Programme has estimated, for
example, that tropical logging accidents causes 300 deaths per 100,000 workers. In other words,
three out of every 1,000 workers engaged in tropical logging die annually or, from a lifetime
perspective, on average every tenth logger will die of a work-related accident. Similarly, certain
occupations and sectors, such as meat packaging and mining, have high rates of work related
diseases, including fatal occupational diseases.
3. Sizes of enterprise
Generally, small workplaces have a worse safety record than large ones. It seems that the rate of fatal
and serious injuries in small workplaces (defined as less than 50 employees) is twice that in large
workplaces (defined as those with more than 200 employees).

GROUPS AT PARTICULAR RISK

Some groups seem to be particularly at risk or to find that their specific problems are overlooked. For
example:
1. Women workers- The special position of women workers needs attention. The gender
division of labour impacts most women safety and health in most workplaces, this is without
considering their reproductive health, maternity wellbeing and nature of their breastfeeding
schedule. This puts the health of mothers and children at risk. due to this there is a lot of
discrimination directed to women than to men. which goes well beyond reproductive hazards.
2. Home-base workers- There are many home-based workers, in both developed and developing
countries. Some countries regard them as ordinary employees, subject to normal safety and
health legislation. In most countries they are not included in legislation.
3. Part-time suffer from not being covered by safety and health provisions. Measures should be
taken to ensure that part-time workers receive the same protection as that accorded to
comparable fulltime workers.
4. Economically active migrants, most of them work in conditions that are abusive and
exploitative: forced labour, low wages, poor working environment, a virtual absence of social
protection, the denial of freedom of association and union rights, discrimination, xenophobia
and social exclusion all rob workers of the potential benefits of working in another count. The
safety and health risks associated with such conditions are compounded by the kinds of work
that most migrants do, namely hazardous and risky jobs, particularly in agriculture and
construction.
5. Workers in the informal economy- this group of people is exposed to poor working
environments, low safety and health standards, and environmental hazards which leads to
poor health or injury. Most informal workers and economies have little or no knowledge of
the risks they face and how to avoid them. The very nature of the informal economy makes it
almost impossible for governments to collect the vital statistics needed to take appropriate
remedial action, and, since much informal work takes place in homes, inspectorates cannot
investigate working conditions or get information and advice to the people who need it.
6. Children- Many children are involved in hazardous work and risky work because they are
either under age or live in abject poverty conditions which exposes them to manipulation.
They also don’t know their rights hence overworking and underpayment.
7. The ageing of the world workforce raises many concerns, including some relating to
occupational safety and health.
8. The accident rate of contract workers is on average twice that of permanent workers. this
because most employers don’t take too much concern on contractual employees.
9. Drivers. Most drivers suffer in the line of duty this is because of fatalities caused by road
accidents are suffered by people in the course of their work, but these deaths are treated as
road traffic accidents and not as work-related fatalities.
10. People living with disabilities: these are people with either physical disability, mental
disability, emotional or mobility disabilities

OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS IN DIFFERENT SECTORS

The Safework Programme of the International Labour Organisation (ILO) gives the following
examples of dangerous sectors of the economy:
 o Agriculture
o Mining and mineral extraction
o Building and Construction
o Fishing and fish mongering
o Shipbreaking
o Transport
o Manufacturing and production

Health services

In hospitals, hospital wards, ex-ray rooms, consultation rooms, laboratories and laundry rooms.
Health care workers are daily exposed to occupational hazards. These hazards puts their lives the
hazards include chemical and biological hazards.

General environment

Mainly physical hazards and improper waste disposal, poor drainage system
OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES

An occupational disease is any chronic ailment that occurs as a result of work or occupational
activity. It is an aspect of occupational safety and health. An occupational disease is typically
identified when it is shown that it is more prevalent in a given body of workers than in the general
population, or in other worker populations. Occupational hazards that are of a traumatic nature (such
as falls by roofers) are not considered to be occupational diseases.

Examples

Some well-known occupational diseases include:

1. Lung diseases

Occupational lung diseases include :

 asbestosis among asbestos miners and those who work with friable asbestos insulation.
 black lung (coal worker's pneumoconiosis) among coal miners,

 silicosis among miners and quarrying and tunnel operators.

 byssinosis among workers in parts of the cotton textile industry.

 Occupational asthma has a vast number of occupations at risk. Bad indoor air quality may
predispose for diseases in the lungs as well as in other parts of the body.

2. Skin diseases

Occupational skin diseases and conditions are generally caused by chemicals and having wet hands
for long periods while at work.

Occupational dermatitis is characterized by clearly demarcated areas of rash at sites of exposure.

Eczema is by far the most common,

urticaria, sunburn and skin cancer are also of concern.

High-risk occupations include:

 Hairdressing
 Catering
 Healthcare
 Printing
 Metal machining
 Motor vehicle repair
 Construction
Other diseases of concern
 Carpal tunnel syndrome(CTS) caused by compression of the median nerve travelling
through the carpal tunnel. its common among persons who work in the poultry industry and
information technology like typing.
 Computer vision syndrome among persons using information technology for hours

 Lead poisoning affecting workers in many industries that processes metals with lead or lead
compounds
 Occupational hearing loss is a damage to the inner ear from noise or vibrations due to
certain types of jobs or entertainment.

Diseases in different economic sectors

FISHING

Fishery has often been labelled as a dangerous occupation as a consequence of excess mortality and
morbidity rates as well as increased rates of hospitalization due to a number of diseases and injuries.
Despite the introduction of technological aids, the job as a fisherman continues to be physically
demanding, with frequent manual handling of heavy equipment in wet, slippery and moving
surroundings. In addition, fishermen are exposed to whole-body vibrations, harsh environmental
conditions (e.g. wind, cold, heat) which in combination with the other exposures may contribute to
an unhealthy work environment leading to an increased risk of negative health outcomes.

Conditions associated with fishing

1. Sunburns due to long hours exposure on direct sunlight.
2. Skin infections such as fungal and bacterial infections due to exposure to
contaminated water by humans through poor waste disposal.
3. Cracked skins due too much exposure to water and skins.
4. Unseen conditions such as winds and excessive water waves which might lead to boat
capsizing and killing the occupants.
5. Hiv/aids due to fish mongering activities. whereby unprotected sex is used in
exchange of fish between fish mongers and the community.
6. Being injured and harmed by marine animals such as crocodiles and hippopotamus.
7. Hearing loss due to excessive winds.
8. Fatal accidents.
9. Non-fatal accidents. such as lower limbs, head, neck, spine and traumas.
10. Fatal poisoning and asphyxia. this is related to inhalation of toxic water smokes, toxic
gases from anaerobic decay of unventilated holds.

Preventative and control measures of fishing diseases and conditions

The best prevention is to understand where and how these diseases can be caught and taking
precautions based on this knowledge. If you know you may come into contact with untreated water
such as flood waters, canals, ponds and rivers you can reduce the risk of infection by taking the
following precautions:

• Cover any open wounds such as cuts and scratches with waterproof plasters.

• Wear protective clothing such as gloves.

• Wash thoroughly and as soon as possible if you have entered the water.

• Assess the risk of the likelihood of contamination if contemplating entering fresh water,
particularly be aware of stagnant water.

• Carefully clean any open wounds obtained during time at fresh water.

• Employers have a duty to employees to inform them about the risks of their work
environment and to decrease the risk as far as is reasonably practicable. This includes PPE
provision and policy implementation based on risk assessment.

• Employees that work near water should be provided with a workers card that can be
presented to their doctor if symptoms appear. This means they can be diagnosed and treated
quickly, reducing the likelihood of severity of infections.

• Thoroughly clean all marine cuts and injuries with antiseptic and keep them dry and clean.
• If handling marine animals, wear thick protective gloves. Wear thick boots when wading or
fishing.
• For prevention of hiv/aids use protection and abstain.

CONSTRUCTION
The construction industry is not only the process of building. It involves many other types of work
aside from the building process, such as painting, landscaping, electrical supply,
telecommunications, plastering, and paving. All these types of work make up one industry, but each
of them involves different exposure to different health hazards.
The two broad categories of construction projects are building and civil engineering.
Building applies to projects involving houses.
Civil engineering involves to all the other built structures in the environment such roads, armed
forces tunnels, bridges, railways, dams, canals, and docks.
There are structures that fall in all categories e.g an airports involves extensive buildings, as well as
civil engineering in the creation of the airfield proper and a dock may involve warehouse building
and excavation of the dock with erection of the dock walls. Construction workers are exposed to a
wide variety of health hazards at work classified as:
 Chemical hazards: such as dusts, fumes, mists, vapors, or gases.
  Physical hazards, including extreme heat or cold, work in windy, rainy, snowy, or foggy
weather, non-ionizing ultraviolet radiation usually from exposure to the sun, and electric arc
welding
 Biological hazards: for instance animal attacks and histoplasmosis (a lung infection caused by
a common soil fungus). Workers may also be at risk of malaria or yellow fever if they work
in areas where these organisms and their insect vector are prevalent.
 Social hazards. these kind of projects require living in work camps away from one’s home
and family. These features of construction work, as well as heavy workload, limited control,
and limited social support are the factors associated with increased stress.
Building and construction diseases include:
i. Chest pains and lung disease. These are mostly upper respiratory and lower
respiratory diseases that occur due to exposure to chemical hazards like paint
dust and mould dust.
ii. Skin diseases and infections. e.g skin inflammation and contact demartitis
due to exposure to sunlight and winds.
iii. Cadminium poisoning .this is due to painting droppings that contain paint
chemical cadminium.
iv. Hearing loss due to excessive noise from construction activities such welding
activities.
v. Visual loss- this could occur when an eye accidently` whereby a chemical
gets into contact with the eyes and it damages the eyes. too much exposure to
light
vi. Psychosocial stress to workers due to family separation because of the nature
of the job.
vii. Physical injuries such as body cuts.
viii. Loss of body parts like fingers and lower limbs.
PREVENTION
For people working in the building and construction industry they should learn sources of hazards
and how to prevent them.
 Prevention at work
1. Protective gears such as googles, sand and cement gloves should be worn at all times
while at work.
2. Any clothes worn while working should be left at the site.
3. Construction nets to prevent winds, falls and sand breaks.
4. Get a tetanus vaccine to prevent one from clostridium tetani
5. Always wear safety boots.
6. Always wear ear muffins for prevention of hearing loss
 7. Always put on a mask to prevent you from inhaling gases and dust.
8. Never carry or eat anything in a construction site.

AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is the art and science of cultivating the soil, growing crops and raising livestock. It
includes the preparation of plant and animal products for people to use and their distribution to
markets.

Agriculture provides most of the world’s food and fabrics. Cotton, wool, and leather are all
agricultural products. Agriculture also provides wood for construction and paper products.

BRANCHES OF AGRICULTURE

1. Pomology- cultivation of fruits and fruits rearing

2. Horticulture – it involves cultivation of highly perishable foods and flowers

3. Aquaculture-rearing of marine animals such fish and crocodiles.

4. Livestock rearing – domestic animals for dairy, meat and leather production

5. Poultry rearing- rearing of birds chickens turkey etc

6. Herbal farming- miraa, tobacco, oregano, thyme etc

7. Apiculture-rearing of bees.

DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH AGRICULTURE.

i. Zoonotic diseases and such AVIAN FLU, swine flu, sleeping sickness, trachoma

ii. TICK-BORNE DISEASES

iii. Skin diseases such as sun burns.

iv. Food poisoning.

v. Feline diseases asthma

Hazards associated with agriculture.

i. Biological hazards: body parts amputations due to snake bites,

Chemical hazards : exposure to insecticides, herbicides and pesticides which contain dangerous
chemicals which are harmful to their health.
Physical hazards : Greenhouse heat, Mudslides, Soil erosion eroding their crops, Droughts, Floods,
Climate change, Invasion by locusts and moles, Insect bites e.g bees Too much exposure to sun
Effects of agricultural hazards and diseases
1. It threatens domestic activities and livestock rearing such yellow fever, swine flu, and avian

flu. These diseases can be passed from animal to humans and cause serious illnesses and

death.

2. Permanent disability from snake bites and some poisonous crawling animals like scorpions.

3. Physical injuries such abraisions and body bruises.

4. Allergies due to allergens produced by pollen grains.

5. Contact dermatitis and Skin diseases and conditions.

6. Parasitic infections.

7. Back aches.

People at risk of contracting these diseases and hazards are.

i. Poultry growers and their workers

ii. Flower growers.
iii. People working in green houses.
iv. Apicultural farmers.
v. Livestock farmers.
vi. Service technicians.
vii. Vetirinaries.
viii. Land surveyors
Prevention and control

• Personal hygiene

Proper hand washing is imperative to preventing dermatitis. It may be tempting to the worker to use

only water while washing hands; it is important to note that excessive use of water alone can also

cause irritation to the skin by removing its natural oils. Farmers should use the mildest soap possible

when hand washing. Knowing what form of soap to use can also be beneficial. For example,

granules are less irritating than fine powder. To remove grease and oils from hands and arms, a
waterless hand cleanser can be used. If the waterless cleansers do not remove the oil or grease, then

abrasive soap may be used.

Waterless cleansers and abrasive soaps should be used sparingly, however, and only when necessary.

• Substitution of a less harmful substance

Irritation may be even greater by adding soap and detergents after exposure to certain solvents;

chemicals from each substance may combine and accelerate skin damage. For industrial cleaning,

use the mildest detergent possible; use caution and watch for an increase in irritation.

• Enclosure of the process

The enclosure of the process refers to control measures that separate the farmers from the harmful

substances they use. At times, barriers of wood, plastic or tarp may be used to enclose the material

from people and animals. Always check the manufacturers label for proper enclosure. Make sure to

close all containers tightly before restocking to shelves. Non hazardous substances should be used

whenever possible.

• Automation of the work/protective devices

Whenever possible, use automated machinery or protective equipment for tasks that can be

hazardous to your skin.

• Attention to housekeeping details- this involves proper storage of substances, frequent disposal of

waste, prompt removal of spills, and maintenance of equipment to keep it free from dust, dirt and

drippings.

• Local exhaust ventilation systems

Local exhaust systems should be used and located to keep toxic substances away from the work area.

• Protective clothing

Protective clothing such as aprons and gloves should be carefully selected to prevent skin contact.
Not all protective clothing resists all substances. Manufacturer requirements are listed as to kind of

material, duration of recommended exposure, and time that gloves should be in contact with

substances.

• Barrier creams, skin cleansers

Barrier creams should be used when protective gloves and sleeves cannot be used. Barrier creams do

not offer as much protection as protective clothing and are not substitutes. Barrier creams should be

selected for protection against specific chemicals and caution in use as they too can contribute to

irritation problems.

• Convenient washing facilities

Washrooms should be convenient as much as possible. Farmers should carry disposable towels and

soap with them and use hot water whenever possible.

All of these factors should be considered in prevention of contact dermatitis by avoiding skin contact

whenever possible.

To continue from here.

Ergonomic
They are activities that involves working for long hours either standing or sitting, lifting very heavy
loads pushing and pulling of heavy loads. These kind of occupations affects the backbone, muscles,
tendons, the spine and the back side of the head.

Examples of Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs)

 Carpal tunnel syndrome

 Tendinitis
 Rotator cuff injuries (affects the shoulder)
 Epicondylitis (affects the elbow)
 Trigger finger
 Muscle strains and low back injuries

High Risk Occupations for MSDs

 Registered nurses, nursing assistants and psychiatric aides
 Firefighters and prevention workers

 Laborers and freight, stock and material movers

  Janitors and cleaners
 Heavy and tractor-trailer truck drivers
 Refuse and recyclable material collectors
 Stock clerks and order fillers
 Maids and housekeeping cleaners
 Light truck or delivery services drivers
 Telecommunications line installers and repairers
 Bus drivers, transit and intercity
 Production workers
 Police and sheriff patrol officers
 Heating, air conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers
 Plumbers, pipefitters and steamfitters
 Maintenance and repair workers, general

Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders in the Workplace

Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) affect the muscles, nerves, blood vessels, ligaments and tendons.
Workers in many different industries and occupations can be exposed to risk factors at work, such as
lifting heavy items, bending, reaching overhead, pushing and pulling heavy loads, working in
awkward body postures and performing the same or similar tasks repetitively. Exposure to these
known risk factors for MSDs increases a worker's risk of injury.
Work-related MSDs can be prevented. Ergonomics fitting a job to a person helps lessen muscle
fatigue, increases productivity and reduces the number and severity of work-related MSDs.
Impact of MSDs in the Workplace
 PHYSICAL IMPACTS most Work-related MSDs are among the most frequently reported
causes of lost or restricted work time.
 According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) in 2013, MSD cases accounted for 33% of
all worker injury and illness cases.

A Process for Protecting Workers

Employers are responsible for providing a safe and healthful workplace for their workers. In the
workplace, the number and severity of MSDs resulting from physical overexertion, and their
associated costs, can be substantially reduced by applying ergonomic principles.
Implementing an ergonomic process is effective in reducing the risk of developing MSDs in high-
risk industries as diverse as construction, food processing, firefighting, office jobs, healthcare,
transportation and warehousing. The following are important elements of an ergonomic process:
 Provide Management Support - A strong commitment by management is critical to the
overall success of an ergonomic process. Management should define clear goals and
objectives for the ergonomic process, discuss them with their workers, assign responsibilities
to designated staff members, and communicate clearly with the workforce.
 Involve Workers - A participatory ergonomic approach, where workers are directly involved
in worksite assessments, solution development and implementation is the essence of a
successful ergonomic process. Workers can:
 o Identify and provide important information about hazards in their workplaces.

o Assist in the ergonomic process by voicing their concerns and suggestions for
reducing exposure to risk factors and by evaluating the changes made as a result of an
ergonomic assessment.
 Provide Training - Training is an important element in the ergonomic process. It ensures
that workers are aware of ergonomics and its benefits, become informed about ergonomics
related concerns in the workplace, and understand the importance of reporting early
symptoms of MSDs.
 Identify Problems - An important step in the ergonomic process is to identify and assess
ergonomic problems in the workplace before they result in MSDs.
 Encourage Early Reporting of MSD Symptoms - Early reporting can accelerate the job
assessment and improvement process, helping to prevent or reduce the progression of
symptoms, the development of serious injuries, and subsequent lost-time claims.
 Implement Solutions to Control Hazards - There are many possible solutions that can be
implemented to reduce, control or eliminate workplace MSDs.
 Monitor and Evaluate Progress -

Personal protective equipments

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is protective clothing, helmets, goggles safety boots, ear
muffins, knee and ankle pads, chest guard, or other garments or equipment designed to protect the
wearer's body from injury or infection. The hazards addressed by protective equipment include
physical, electrical, heat, chemicals, biohazards, and airborne particulate matter. Protective
equipment may be worn for job-related occupational safety and health purposes, as well as for sports
and other recreational activities. Protective clothing is applied to traditional categories of clothing,
and protective gear applies to items such as pads, guards, shields, or masks, and others. PPE suits can
be similar in appearance to a cleanroom suit.

The purpose of personal protective equipment is to reduce employee exposure to hazards when
engineering controls and administrative controls are not feasible or effective to reduce these risks to
acceptable levels. PPE is needed when there are hazards present. PPE has the serious limitation that
it does not eliminate the hazard at the source and may result in employees being exposed to the
hazard if the equipment fails.

PREVENTING CTS IN KEYBOARD WORKERS

 Altering the way a person performs repetitive activities may help prevent inflammation of the
hand and the wrist.
 Replacing old tools with ergonomically designed new one can be very helpful.
 Rest periods and avoiding repetition. taking microbreaks
 Good posture
 Good office furniture
 Voice recognition software
 Keyboard and mouse tips i.e should be pressed without excessive force, innovative keyboards
designs may reduce hand stress.
PREVENTIVE AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES OF OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES AND
ILLNESSES

The incidence of accidents and work-related diseases and injuries in most occupational sectors is still
regrettably high; therefore there is an urgent need for preventive and protective measures to be
instituted at workplaces in order to guarantee the safety and health of workers. Occupational
accidents and diseases causes great pain, suffering and death to victims, threaten the lives of other
workers and their dependants. Occupational accidents and diseases also result in:
• Loss of skilled and unskilled but experienced labour;
• Material loss, i.e. damage to machinery and equipment well as spoiled products; and
• High operational costs through medical care, payment of compensation, and repairing or replacing
damaged machinery and equipment.
Occupational health problems arise largely from hazardous factors in the working environment.
Since most hazardous conditions at work are in principle preventable, efforts should be concentrated
on primary prevention at the workplace, as this offers the most cost-effective strategy for their
elimination and control. The planning and design of workplaces should be aimed at establishing
working environments that are conducive to physical, psychological and social well-being. This
means taking all reasonable precautions to avoid occupational diseases and injuries.
Workplace safety and health programmes should aim at eliminating the unsafe or unhealthy working
conditions and dangerous acts which account for nearly all occupational accidents and diseases.
This can be achieved in a number of ways:
 Engineering control
 Design of safe work systems to minimize risks.
 Substituting safer materials for hazardous substances
 Administrative or organizational methods.
 Use of personal protective equipment.
How particular occupational hazards are prevented depends on the nature of the various causal
agents, their mode of action and the severity of the risk.
1. Engineering control and housekeeping
Engineering control involves controlling the hazard at the source. The competent authority should
ensure that exposure to hazardous substances (such as asbestos, for instance), is prevented or
controlled by prescribing engineering controls and work practices which afford maximum protection
to workers.
One type of engineering control involves built-in protection as part of the work process concerned.
These engineering controls should be built in during the design phase; they may be implemented
later, but this tends to be more costly. Engineering controls may be more expensive to implement
than methods which depend on continual vigilance or intervention by the worker, but they are safer.
Examples include erecting guards around machines to prevent accidents or encasing a noise source
with a muffler.
Another form of engineering control is the mechanization process. This involves the use of a
machine to do dangerous work rather than exposing a worker to the hazard. An example is the use of
an automatic parts dipper on a vapour degreaser rather than having dipped parts into the tank by
hand.
Where the elimination of hazardous substances is not practicable in existing plants and processes,
employers or managers should apply technical measures to control the hazard or risk by changing the
process, so that the job is done in a completely different and safer way, or by enclosing the process
completely to keep the hazard from reaching the worker. If the problems still cannot be solved by
these methods, then methods such as local exhaust ventilation could be used to control the hazard.
These and other appropriate measures should be taken so that the exposure level is reduced to a level
which, in the light of current knowledge, is not expected to damage the health of workers, even if
they should go on being exposed at the same level for the duration of their working lives.
Good work practices and working methods can ensure that hazardous materials are contained before
they become a problem. Where complete containment has not been achieved, strict housekeeping
and personal hygiene are absolutely essential to ensure workplace and personal safety. In the
presence of toxic chemicals, for instance, strict personal hygiene must always be observed so as to
prevent local irritations or the absorption of such chemicals through the skin. Where hazardous
substances such as lead dust in a storage battery plant or asbestos dust in brake shoe manufacture are
involved, inadequate housekeeping can result in toxic materials circulating in the air.
There are several ways of maintaining good housekeeping; for example:
• vacuuming is the best way of cleaning up dust, as dry sweeping often makes the problem worse by
pushing dust particles back into the air; and
• Regular and thorough maintenance of machines and equipment will reduce dust and fumes.

2. Substitution
Where necessary for the protection of workers, the competent authority should require the
replacement of hazardous substances by substitute materials, in so far as this is possible. For
example, in the case of asbestos or products containing asbestos, national laws or regulations must
provide for its replacement, if technically practicable, by other materials and products or the use of
alternative technology, scientifically evaluated by the competent authority as harmless or less
harmful. There could be total or partial prohibition of the use of asbestos or of certain types of
asbestos or products containing asbestos in certain work processes. It is, however, necessary to
ensure that the substitute is really safer.

3. Work practices and organizational methods

Where the evaluation of the working environment shows that elimination of risk and total enclosure
of machinery are both impracticable, employers should:
 Reduce exposure as much as possible, through administrative or organizational measures, so
as to reduce the source of the hazard, so that risks are confined to some areas where
engineering control measures can be applied effectively.
 Adopt adequate work practices and working-time arrangements so that workers exposure to
hazards is effectively controlled.
 Minimize the magnitude of exposure, the number of workers exposed and the duration of
exposure, e.g. carry out noisy operations at night or during the weekend, when fewer workers
are exposed.

4. Personal protective equipment

When none of the above approaches is feasible, or when the degree of safety achieved by them is
considered inadequate, the only solution is to provide exposed persons with suitable personal
protective equipment and protective clothing. This is the final line of defence and should be used
only as a last resort, since it entails reliance on active cooperation and compliance by the workers.
Moreover, such equipment may be heavy, cumbersome and uncomfortable, and may restrict
movement.
Employers should consult workers or their representatives on suitable personal protective equipment
and clothing, having regard to the type of work and the type and level of risks. Furthermore, when
hazards cannot be otherwise prevented or controlled, employers should provide and maintain such
equipment and clothing as are reasonably necessary, without cost to the workers. The employer
should provide the workers with the appropriate means to enable them to use the individual
protective equipment. Indeed, the employer has a duty to ensure its proper use. Protective equipment
and clothing should comply with the standards set by the competent authority and take ergonomic
principles into account. Workers have the obligation to make proper use of and take good care of the
personal protective equipment and protective clothing provided for their use.

5. Technological change
Technological progress can play an important role in improving working conditions and job content,
but it can also introduce new hazards. Great care should therefore be taken in both the choice and the
international transfer of technology in order to avoid potential hazards and ensure that the technology
is adapted to local conditions. Management should consult with workers’ representatives whenever
new technology is introduced.
The hazards associated with technologies (equipment, substances and processes) used at the work
site must be identified and effective measures taken to eliminate or control them. This means that
safety factors should be built in, and that working conditions, organization and methods should be
adapted to the characteristics and capacities of workers.
The introduction of new technology should be accompanied by adequate information and training.
Furthermore, potentially dangerous machinery, equipment or substances should not be exported
without adequate safeguards being put in place, including information on safe use in the language of
the importing country. It is the duty of the governments of importing countries to review national
legislation to make sure that it includes provisions to stop the import of technology detrimental to
occupational safety and health or working conditions.
6. Protection of the general environment
The importance of protecting workers, the general public and the environment from materials
containing hazardous substances cannot be overemphasized.
The competent authority should ensure that criteria consistent with national or international
regulations regarding disposal of hazardous waste are established. Procedures to be followed in the
disposal and treatment of hazardous waste products should also be established, with a view to
ensuring the safety of workers, and the protection of the general public and the environment.
Employers must therefore dispose of waste containing hazardous materials, such as asbestos, in a
manner that does not pose a health risk to the workers concerned, including those handling the waste
material, or to the general population. it is up to the competent authority and employers to take
measures to prevent pollution of the general environment by dust or other pollutants released from
the work sites

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH SERVICES

History of occupational health services
The enactment of the Factories Act Cap 514 in 1951 saw the emergence of occupational safety and
health in Kenya. The crafting of this legislation was prompted by the enactment of the Workers’
Compensation Act Cap 236 in 1948.
However, it was not until 1974 that the then Minister for Labour requested the International
Labour Organization during the 62nd International Labour Conference for assistance to strengthen
factory inspection and in the establishment of specialized inspections.
This culminated in the ILO/FINNIDA Project that commenced in 1978 that established specialized
divisions, namely engineering, medical and hygiene in support of the general inspection and field
services. This led to the recruitment and training of three medical officers, four nurses, four
hygienists and the establishment of laboratory and work environment monitoring services. This was
the first time that coherent occupational health services (OHS) were offered in Kenya.

Organization of occupational health services

Occupational health services can be organized as a service for a single enterprise or as a service
common to a number of enterprises, depending on which type is more appropriate in terms of
national conditions and practice. Similarly, these services may be organized by:
 The enterprise or group of enterprises concerned.
 The public authorities or official services.
 Social security institutions.
 Any other bodies authorized by the competent authority.
 A combination of any of the above.

Aims and Functions of occupational health services

Occupational health services aim:
 To protect and promote the health of workers.
 Improve working conditions and the working environment.
 Maintain the health of the enterprise as a whole.
Lesson 12
THE OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT
The Occupational Safety and Health Act No.15 of 2007 repealed the Factories Act Cap 514. The
Factories Act was meant to make provisions for health, safety and welfare of persons employed in
factories and other places of work. This was for matters occupational health diseases and accidents.
the enactment of the Occupational Safety and Health Act marked a big step towards moving from a
reactive approach to safety and health at the work place to a more proactive attitude to workers
welfare.

The main aim of the Occupational Safety and Health Act

The Occupational Safety and Health Act 2007 aims at securing the safety, health and welfare of
workers and the protection of persons other than the work against risks to safety and health arising
out of, or in connection with, the activities of persons at work.

Powers of occupational health officer in OSH Act 2007

 Power to deal with cause of imminent danger.

 Power to take samples.
 Power of occupational safety and health officer to conduct proceedings.
 An occupational safety and health officer shall, for the purpose of the execution of this Act,
have power to do all or any of the following things.
to enter, inspect and examine, by day or by night, a workplace, and every part thereof, when
he has reasonable cause to believe that any person is employed therein, and to enter, inspect
and examine, by day, any place which he has reasonable cause to believe to be a workplace
and any part of any building of which a workplace forms part and in which he has reasonable
cause to believe that explosive, highly inflammable or any other
 power to issue Improvement notices
 power to issue prohibition notices.
 Power to issue notice of vacation.
LEGISLATION ON SAFETY AND HEALTH AT WORK
OSH legislation is essential as a first step for the implementation of improved measures for safety
and health as well as the prevention of accidents and diseases in the world of work. OSH law tackles
issues at the national level as well as at the enterprise level. At the national level, it can include
provisions on the labour inspection infrastructure, the call for a national representative committee on
OSH, in addition to the governance of training institutions on OSH and inclusion of OSH in scholar
curricula, to mention a few. At the level of the enterprise, legislation can involve issues from the
planning and design phase of the enterprise and supply of equipments and substances to matters of
maintenance passing through employer duties, worker rights and environmental considerations.
Occupational safety and health is a broad area with legislative grounds sometimes difficult to track at
the implementation level. According to the ILO Promotional Framework for Occupational Safety
and Health Recommendation, 2006 (No. 197), a national OSH profile should include, among others,
information on the following elements: laws and regulations, responsible authorities or bodies,
mechanisms for ensuring compliance with national laws and regulations, and services in accordance
with national law and practice.

ILO CONVENTIONS AND PROTOCOLS

1: Occupational safety and health convention 1981 No 155 and its Protocol 2002
This convention provides for the adoption of a coherent national occupational safety and health

policy as well action to be taken by governments and within enterprises to promote occupational

safety and health and to improve working conditions. At the national level, states have to take

necessary measures to provide guidance to workers and employer (training on usage of different

machinery and how to avoid hazards) and maintain an adequate and appropriate system of inspection

to make sure that different labor regulations, especially those related to workplace safety, are

complied with. A vibrant labour inspection system is a necessary condition for maintaining a safe

workplace

2: Occupational health services convention 1985 No 161

This convention provides for the establishment of enterprise-level occupational health services

which are entrusted with essentially preventive functions and which are responsible for advising the

employer ,the workers and their representatives in the enterprise on requirements for establishing and

maintaining a safe and healthy work environment and adaptation of work to the physical and mental

capabilities of workers.

3: Promotional framework for Occupational safety and health convention 2006 No 187

The convention aims at promoting a preventative safety and health culture and progressively

achieving a safe and healthy working environment .The national policy shall be developed in

accordance with the principle article 4 of the occupational safety and health convention1981 and the

national systems and programs shall be developed taking into account the principles set out in

relevant ILO instruments.

The Kenya’s Occupational Safety and Health Act-OSH, No. 15 of 2007 and revised in 2010,

provides for the safety, health and welfare of workers and all persons lawfully present at workplaces.

The Act stipulates clearly the responsibilities of the Employer and employee and promotes the

establishment of a national structure-National council for occupational safety and health which is

mandated with the rules of formulating laws and regulations on occupational health and safety.

The responsibilities of the Employer as stipulated in section 6 of the ACT include;

 1. Register their work place unless such workplace is exempted from registration under this Act.

2. Send a copy of each assessment report to the area occupational safety and health officer.

3. Take immediate steps to stop any operation or activity where there is an imminent and

serious danger to safety and health and to evacuate all persons employed as appropriate.

4. Make arrangements for ensuring safety and the absence of risks to health in connection with

the use, handling, storage and transport of articles and substances.

5. Provide and maintain the plant and systems and procedures of work that are safe and without

risks to health

6. Provide for information, instruction, training and supervision as is necessary to ensure

the safety and health at work of every person employed.

7. Maintain the workplace in a condition that is safe and without risks to health and provide and

maintain necessary means of access to and egress (outlet) from it that are safe and without

risks to health.

8. Provide and maintain a working environment for every person employed that is safe,

without risks to health, and adequate as regards facilities and arrangements for the

employees’ welfare at work.

9. Inform all employees of any risks from new technologies and imminent danger.

10. Ensure that every person employed participates in the application and review of safety

and health measures.

11. Carry out appropriate risk assessments in relation to the safety and health of employees and,

on the basis of these results, adopt preventive and protective measures to ensure that under all

conditions of their intended use, all chemicals, machinery, equipment, tools and process

under the control of the employer are safe and without risk to health and comply with the

requirements of safety and health provisions in this Act.

In section 13 the Act describes the responsibilities of the Employee which include;

 Ensure their own safety and health and that of other persons who may be affected by their acts or

omissions at the workplace.

 Co-operate with their employer or any other person in the discharge of any duty or requirement

imposed on the employer or that other person by this Act or any regulation made hereunder.

 At all times wear or use any protective equipment or clothing provided by the employer for the

purpose of preventing risks to their safety and health.

 Comply with the safety and health procedures, requirements and instructions given by a person

having authority over them for their own or any other person’s safety.

 Report to the supervisor any situation which they have reason to believe would present a hazard

and which they cannot correct.

 Report to their supervisor any accident or injury that arises in the course of or in connection with

his/her work.

 With regard to any duty or requirement imposed on their employer, to co-operate with

the employer or other relevant person to enable that duty or requirement to be performed.

Section 101 of the Occupational Safety and Health Act, requires that in workplaces

where employees are exposed to wet or to any injurious or offensive substances, the employers

must provide and maintain clothing 2rand appliances that are adequate, effective and

suitably protective, including, where necessary, suitable gloves, footwear, goggles and

head coverings

Section 99 of the Occupational Safety and Health Act, specifies that a worker shall not be employed

at any machine or in any process liable to cause ill health or bodily injury, unless he/she has been

fully instructed as to the dangers likely to arise in connection therewith and has received sufficient

training in work at the machine or in the process; or is under adequate supervision by a person who

has a thorough knowledge and experience of the machine or process.

This training has to be carried out on recruitment; transfer or change of job; the introduction or

change of new work equipment or materials; and the introduction of new technology. The training

shall be adapted to take into account new changed risks, and be repeated periodically. The cost of

training shall be incurred by the employer.

In conclusion the major areas of coverage of the OSH Act 2007 comply with the international labour

standards as stipulated in Article 4 and 5 of the occupational safety and health conventions 1981

under the fundamental principles of occupation health and safety.

Protective clothing and appliances for the workers

 Section 101 of the occupational safety and health Act requires that in workplaces where

employees are exposed to wet or to any injurious or offensive substances; the employers must

provide and maintain clothing and appliances that are adequate effective and suitably

protective, including where necessary suitable gloves, footwear and goggle and head

coverings. For enforcement the director is required to register safety consultant to assess the

suitability and effective of such clothes and appliances.

 In the same way section 102 provides that every employer supplies suitable goggles of

effective screens to protect the eyes of persons involved in.

 Welding or cutting of metals by means of an electrical oxyacetylene or similar process

 Turning of non-ferrous metals or of cast iron or of articles of such metals are such iron where

the work is done dry, other than precision turning where the use of goggles or a screen would

seriously interfere with the work or turning by means of hand tools.

 Dry grinding of metals or articles of metals applied by hand to revolving wheel or disc driven

by mechanical power

Workplace health surveillance

Surveillance

Disease surveillance is the systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of health data in order
to detect, control, and prevent health problems.

Epidemiologic surveillance is the macroscopic surveillance perspective, carried out primarily by

public health agencies on a statewide or nationwide basis. These efforts seek to identify and quantify
illness, injury or excessive exposure, and monitor trends in their occurrence across different industry
types, over time, and between geographic areas.

Medical surveillance focuses its surveillance components on the hazards and potential hazards of a
particular workplace, company or group of workers.

The concept of workplace health surveillance is new to occupational health and refers to the
removal of the causative factors.
 Health screening refers to the early detection and treatment of diseases associated with particular
occupations.

Occupational health surveillance is “the tracking of occupational injuries, illnesses, hazards, and
exposures.

Occupational health surveillance system is “a system which includes a functional capacity for data
collection, analysis and dissemination linked to occupational health programmes”. [

Three indicators of workplace health surveillance programme.

1. Availability of easily obtainable statewide data

2. Public health importance of the occupational health effect or exposure to be measured
3. Potential for intervention activities

These indicators are useful in:

 assessing the ongoing policies and preventive measures

Some limitations include:

 the major limitations are the underreporting of occupational health disorders (very common
in most of the undeveloped and developing countries),
 inability to diagnose the etiology by the occupational health care workers.
 availability of the data such as municipal death records.

The most important tool is biomonitoring, which indicates the total body burden of a hazardous
chemical in a worker by means of the laboratory investigations using biological specimens like urine
or blood. The best practice is to use non-invasive procedures as far as possible for this purpose.

Other tools for workplace health surveillance include physical examinations and epidemiological
cohort and case control studies.

The pulmonary function testing is the mainstay of early detection occupational lung diseases. This
test gives information about severity and staging of asthma and other restrictive lung diseases. The
FEV1 is an important screening test. Pulmonary function testing combined with plathysmography
reflects a very clear picture of status of lung functions of the subject.

Audiometry remains the mainstay of diagnosis of noise-induced hearing loss which is the most
common reported occupational disease in all parts of the world.

Hand arm assessment and dermatological assessments are other important tools for workplace health
surveillance.

WORKPLACE AUDITS

Workplace audits can be performed to:

 Check compliance with company rules and regulations

 Check compliance with OSHA rules

 Determine the health and safety condition of the workplace

 Determine the safe condition of equipment and machinery

  Evaluate supervisor’s safety and health performance

 Evaluate workers’ safety and health performance

 Evaluate progress in safety and health issues and problems

 Determine the effectiveness of new processes or procedural changes

 Identify the existence of hazards.

To continue from here.

First aid.
First aid is the first and immediate assistance given to any person suffering from either a minor or
serious illness or injury, with care provided to preserve life, prevent the condition from worsening, or
to promote recovery. It includes initial intervention in a serious condition prior to professional
medical help being available, such as performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) while waiting
for an ambulance, as well as the complete treatment of minor conditions, such as applying a plaster
to a cut. First aid is generally performed by someone with basic medical training.

Aims
The primary goal of first aid is to prevent death or serious injury from worsening. The key aims of
first aid can be summarized with the acronym of 'the three Ps'.

 Preserve life: The overriding aim of all medical care which includes first aid, is to save lives
and minimize the threat of death. First aid done correctly should help reduce the patient's level of
pain and calm them down during the evaluation and treatment process.
 Prevent further harm: Prevention of further harm includes addressing both external factors,
such as moving a patient away from any cause of harm, and applying first aid techniques to
prevent worsening of the condition, such as applying pressure to stop a bleed becoming
dangerous.
 Promote recovery: First aid also involves trying to start the recovery process from the illness
or injury, and in some cases might involve completing a treatment, such as in the case of
applying a plaster to a small wound.

SETTING PRIRIORITIES IN PERFORMING FIRST AID.

 Catastrophic bleeding (massive external bleeding)

 Airway (clearing airways)
 Breathing (ensuring respiration)
 Circulation (internal bleeding)
 Disability (neurological condition)
 Environment (overall examination, environment)

A major benefit of these protocols is that they require minimum resources, time and skills with a
great degree of success in saving lives under conditions unfavourable for applying first aid.
FIRST AID KIT
A first aid kit is a collection of supplies and equipment that is used to give medical treatment. There
is a wide variation in the contents of first aid kits based on the knowledge and experience of those
putting it together, the differing first aid requirements of the area where it may be used and variations
in legislation or regulation in a given area.

FIRES
It is a chemical reaction between oxygen and a combustible fuel.
Combustion is the process by which fire converts fuel and oxygen into energy usually in form of
heat.
Three elements are required to start and sustain fire.
• oxygen.
• Fuel
• Heat

Causes of fire
Civilian fires
In civilian fires with fatalities the leading causes of ignition are cigarettes. heating and cooking
equipment, matches, lighters and candles.
Industrial fires
Leading causes are smoke materials, electrical (wiring and motors, poor equipment
maintenance) ,lighting

CLASSES OF FIRE
CLASS A
Involve solids such as coal, wood, paper and refuse, plastic, textile and their products, housing
clothing. any rapid combustion is due to volatile materials liberated by heating.

CLASS B
Involve gases and liquid that must be vapourised for combustion to occur. they are flammable liquids
and gases. in many cases , liquids in this fire class will float on water and continue to burn as long as
they are in contact with air.

CLASS C
They are either class A or B fires but also involve electrical equipment or materials near electrically
powered equipmental refe. Electrical referring to live electricity situations, not including fires in
other materials started by electricity.

CLASS D
Fire involving magnesium, aluminium, titanium, or other easily oxidized metals are included here.
combustion temperatures and energy are high compared to those of hydrocarbon or wood fires.

SPECIAL CATEGORIES
This class includes fires involving extremely active oxidizers or fuel mixers such as flammables with
oxygen, nitric acid, or hydrogen peroxide or fires involving solid missile propellants.

ROLES OF WORKERS AND EMPLOYERS IN OSH

WORKERS/EMPLOYEES
Though they have no control as management over the workplace they are responsible for complying
with the company’s safety and health policies and procedure.
Some accepted worker responsibilities are to:
1. Comply with OSHA regulations and standards
2. Not remove, displace or interfere with the use of any safeguards
3. Comply with employers safety and health rules and policies
4. Report any hazardous condition to the supervisor or employes
5. Report any job related injuries and illnesses to the supervisor or employer
6. Cooperate with OSHA inspector during inspections when required to do so
 7. Report to work on time wearing suitable work clothes
8. Observe personal hygiene
9. Never sleep, gamble, horseplay, fight, steal, bring fireworks or arms on job or face ground for
immediate dismissal
10. Never use or be under the influence of alcohol, narcotics and other drugs or intoxicants while
on the job
11. Wear personal protective equipments as prescribed for each task.
12. Maintain order since housekeeping is everyone’s responsibility
13. Observe danger, warning caution and no smoking signs and notices
14. Use and handle equipment material and safety devices with care
15. Never leave discharged fire extinguishers in the work areas.
16. Never expose yourself to dangerous conditions or actions
17. Never operate any equipment for which training has not been provided
18. Participate in all safety and health trainings provided
19. Attend all safety and tool box meetings(mandatory)
20. Read the OSHA poster at the job site and be familiar with its contents
ROLES/RESPONSIBILITIES OF EMPLOYEES
1. To furnish each employee a place of employment that is free from recognized hazards that is
causing or likely to cause death or serious physical harm
2. Must comply with standards of injury avoidance; keep records of work related injuries,
illnesses and deaths; keep records of exposure of employees to toxic materials and harmful
physical agents.
3. Notify employees of the provisions of the law, their protections and obligations
4. Keep employees informed on matters of safety and health and on accidents and alleged safety
violations in the place of employment.
5. Refrain from discriminating against employees who file complaints regarding hazardous
working conditions.
6. Provide medical exams when required by OSHA standards
7. Provide training required by OSHA office within 48 hrs and fatal accident or one that results
in the hospitalization of more employees
8. Post OSHA poster at prominent locate on within the workplace informing the employees of
their rights and responsibilities
9. Give employees access to medical and exposure records
10. Abate cited violations within the prescribed period.

ROLES/FUNCTIONS OF SAFETY AND HEALTH PROFESSIONAL

1. Establishing programs for detecting, correcting or controlling hazardous conditions, toxic

environments and health hazard
2. Ensuring that proper safeguards and personal protective equipments are available ,properly
maintained and used.
3. Establishing safety procedures for employees, plant design and layout,vendors,outside
contractors and visitor.
4. Establishing safety procedures for purchasing and installing new equipment and for
purchasing and safe storing of hazardous materials.
5. Maintaining an accident recording system to measure the organization safety performance
6. Staying abreast of and advising management on the current federal,state and local laws,codes
and standards related to safety and health in the workplace
7. Carrying out the company’s safety obligation as required by the law
8. Conducting investigation of accidents near-misses and property damage and preparing reports
with recommended corrective action
9. Anticipate, identify and evaluate hazardous condition and practices
10. Maintaining liason with national state and local safety organization
Importance of social security and health insurance in occupational health and safety.

HEALTH INSURANCE-NHIF

Insurance has evolved as a process of safeguarding the interest of people from loss and uncertainty.
It may be described as a social device to reduce or eliminate risk of loss to life and property.

Insurance provide financial support and reduce uncertainties in business and human life. It provides
safety and security against particular event. There is always a fear of sudden loss. Insurance provides
a cover against any sudden loss. For example, in case of life insurance financial assistance is
provided to the family of the insured on his death. Incase of other insurance security is provided
against the loss due to fire, marine, accidents etc.

A medical insurance considered essential in managing risk in health. Anyone can be a victim of
critical illness unexpectedly. And rising medical expense is of great concern. Medical Insurance is
one of the insurance policies that cater for different type of health risks. The insured gets a medical
support in case of medical insurance policy.

SOCIAL SECURITY-NSSF

Social Security provides a guaranteed lifetime income. The best part about these benefits is they
never run out until surviving children become adults. These benefits include:

Pension Rights

Members are eligible for old age benefit (pension) when they reach the age of 55 years, or when they
ultimately retire from regular paid employment. The benefit is paid as a lump sum of the total
employee and employer contributions plus interest.

Dependents' / Survivors' Benefit

"The above laws provide for survivor benefit these include dependents including widow, widower,
children and even parents of the deceased worker. The benefit is paid as a lump sum of the total
employee and employer contributions plus interest

Invalidity Benefit

"The National Social Security Fund Act, 1965 provides for invalidity benefit in the case of non-
occupational accident/injury/disease resulting into permanent invalidity. The benefit is paid as a
lump sum of the total employee and employer contributions plus interest

Health insurance is insurance against the risk of incurring medical expenses among individuals. By
estimating the overall risk of health care and health system expenses, among a targeted group, an
insurer develop a routine finance structure, such as a monthly premium or payroll tax, to ensure that
money is available to pay for the health care benefits specified in the insurance agreement. The
benefit is administered by a central organization such as a government agency, private business, or
not-for-profit entity. Health insurance program caters for individuals from both the low-income and
needy people and the abled

IMPORTANCE OF HEALTH INSURANCE

 1. Better health outcomes, driven by a consistent source of health care. People who are
uninsured have worse health outcomes, and are four times as likely to delay needed health
care as insured persons.
2. Better access to preventive health care services, with health insurance companies alerting
members when and where to get diagnostic screenings such as mammograms and
colonoscopies. People without health insurance tend to postpone prevention, leading to later
diagnoses of illnesses, complications and higher costs in the long-run. Uninsured cancer
patients are diagnosed later and die earlier compared to those with insurance Kaiser

3. Access to prescription drugs, where uninsured people are five times as likely not to get
needed medications. Many prescriptions take care of many chronic conditions like high blood
pressure, cholesterol, diabetes and asthma. Unchecked and untreated, these conditions can
worsen and lead people to hospital emergency rooms which cost more.. Furthermore, people
without health insurance are 3 times more likely to not take their meds as prescribed.

4. A more productive work life, enhancing job security and satisfaction. There is evidence that
employees’ lower out-of-pocket costs raise productivity at the workplace. Furthermore,
employers are expanding wellness programs to help workers improve personal health status
and bolster productivity on-the-job — and, ultimately, corporate profits. without health
insurance are 3 times more likely to not take their meds as prescribed.

5. Better financial health, where insured people can usually access health care services at
cheaper rates. Access to insurance allows consumers to take advantage of discounts
negotiated by health plans with hospitals and doctors compared with paying for services on
your own. Uninsured consumers who show up in the emergency room and get admitted to
hospital are generally charged the full “rack rate” for care.

6. While cost barriers to health care have been growing in the past decade, even among insured
adults, uninsured people have been more severely impacted by growing costs. This has left
people without health insurance more at-risk for having high medical bills.

7. Health insurance boosts the link between health and wealth. The uninsured are three times
more likely than the insured to be unable to pay for basic necessities because of their medical
bills. Uninsured people are also more likely to use up their savings on medical care.

8. Good health insurance covers catastrophic costs when people get very sick – requiring long
and successive hospital admissions and expensive treatments. For people without health
insurance, medical debt can lead to lower credit scores: uninsured people are at greater risk of
filing for personal bankruptcy. Medical expenses are a leading cause of bankruptcy

Social Security is much more than a retirement program. Social Security provides benefits to young
workers and their families if they become disabled, and it provides benefits to the survivors of
deceased workers, including their children. E.g. NSSF

Social Security protects young people even before they've obtained protection based on their own
work.

In conclusion, the social security and health insurance basically covers those unpredictable