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BAYERO UNIVERSITY KANO

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL
SCIENCES

BIO 1203: PLANTS SCIENCE

LECTURE NOTES
(BOTANY)
Course title:
 Introduction to biology (Botany)
 Classification of plants
 Cell as basic unit of living things
 Simple and complex tissues, organs and systems
 Genetics
 Habitats
 General reproduction in plants and concepts of interrelationship
 Evolution

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BIO 1203: GENERAL BIOLOGY III

LECTURE ONE

INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY (BOTANY)

The term biology
The word biology is derived from the Greek words “bios” meaning “life”
and logos meaning “study”). It is a general term used to describe the study
of life or study of living things. The living' things include both plants and
animals. Biology is thus divided into two branches, namely Botany and
Zoology

Botany deals with the study of plants and their significance, while branch
that deals with study of animals is termed zoology

What is a plant?
Most familiar plants:
1. Are green, contain chlorophyll, and manufacture their own food
through the process of photosynthesis,
2. Are immobile and rooted to the ground.
3. Have a cell wall composed largely of cellulose.
4. Can continue to grow almost indefinitely by cell division.

SCOPE OF BOTANY
Botany has a very wide scope. It deals with the studies of plants in many
aspects and from different viewpoint. The two major points of view are:-
a) Pure botany and
b) Applied/Economic botany.
Pure botany deals with the study of plants as they form part of nature while
Applied/Economic botany deals with the application of botany to the
wellbeing of Mankind.
Botany as a subject may be divided into the following branches;
Morphology - This deals with the study of forms and features of plants
Anatomy - Deals with the internal structure of plants
Physiology - Deals with internal structure, functions and: metabolic
activities,
Ecology - Deals with inter- relationships between plants environment.

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Pathology - Deals with the study of plant diseases (diagnosis, cure).

Cytology - Is the study of cells and their structure.
Taxonomy - Deals with identification and classification .of plants.
Genetics - Deals with the inheritance of characters.
Palaeobotany - deals with ancient forms (fossils) of plants.

Botany in collaboration with other fields of sciences have many more

disciplines which are of vital importance to the world, population, these
include: -
Agricultural science, Horticulture, Agronomy, Pharmaceutical sciences
Medical sciences, Biochemistry, Microbiology, Applied genetic engineering
etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTS AS LIVING THINGS

Plants perform all the characteristics of living things to survive. As living

organisms have definite structure which may or may not be constant or
uniform, plants have structures which vary from single cell as in Chlorella
and Chlamydomonas to multicellular body, like the highest evolved, plants
(Angiosperms - flowering plants).

Whether unicellular or multicellular, plants show such life characteristics as:-

1. NUTRITION: This simply refers to feeding. Food is the source of energy,

which flows in the living world and makes an organism vital and active.
Plants are capable of converting solar energy into organic compounds; hence,
they show a superior tropic level among the living organisms. Plants with the
green pigments are called Autotrophs, while others, which lack it, are called
heterotrophs,

2. RESPIRATION: This is simply the process by which the energy stored

in foods is released so that it can be used by the body activities. The chemical
equation for the process is as follows:-

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6C02 + 6H2O +Energy

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Plants show aerobic and anaerobic respiration. Certain plants like anaerobic
bacteria live only in the absence of oxygen. They also release energy but not
as much as in aerobic respiration.

3. EXCRETION: This is simply the removal of waste products of

metabolism from the body. Plants carry out the process of excretion in
order to get rid of the metabolic wastes which otherwise may be toxic to the
plants.

4. GROWTH: Like all living organisms plants do grow. Growth is defined

as a permanent and irreversible increase in size and form. In plants growth
does not occur throughout the whole plant body but is localized in special
region’s case meristems

5. MOVEMENT: Movement in lower plants may be of the whole body as

in taxis. (Tactic movement) or a part as in tropism. In Higher plants
movement is mostly induced by external factors such as light, water,
temperature, chemical, touch etc.

6. REPRODUCTION: This is simply the process of producing young ones.

Like other living organisms plants reproduce in order to perpetuate their
species. This usually results in offspring which their parents genetically.
Reproduction may be sexual or asexual.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Most lower plants reproduce' by asexual

reproduction methods. In this method only one individual (parent) is
involved, Example as in budding (yeast) fragmentation (spirogyra) spore
Formation (algae/ferns). Vegetative methods are observed in higher plants,
which may be natural or artificial

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: In sexual reproduction two gametes are

produced by unisexual or bisexual organisms, .these gametes fuse together
(fertilization) to form a zygote.

7. IRRITABILITY: Like animals, plants show reactions towards the

external stimulus example: movement towards direction of light, opening
and closing of flowers during day and night, closing of leaves on touching
some plants etc.

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8. ADAPTATION: Adaptation is the way plants get used to their

environments in such a manner they would be comfortable. Adaptation
enables plants to survive most environmental conditions, even though the
environment may be harsh.

9. COMPETITION: All living things compete for necessities of life. Plants

as living things compete for light, space, water, carbon dioxide, minerals etc.
in order to survive and continue to exist.

10. DEATH/LIFE SPAN: Plants as living things must die because they have
a definite and limited period of existence. They pass through five stages of
life namely

Birth Growth Maturity Old age Death

Differences between Plants and Animals

- Most green plants carry out photosynthetic nutrition but non - green
plants do not.
- Growth in plants is indefinite and apical (at the apex).
- Plants are not active (movement) with no organ of movement.
- Plants have slow response to external-stimuli and do not have special
sense organs.
- They possess no special excretory systems. Food is stored as starch.
- They have no' fixed number of parts and branching is continuous.
- Gaseous exchange is through the entire body.
- Plant cell has rigid, non - living cellulose cell wall.
- Plant cells have large vacuoles containing cell sap.

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BIO 1203: GENERAL BIOLOGY III

LECTURE TWO

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

Classification is the grouping of organisms together on the basis of features

they have in common, and we separate them into different groups on the basis
of features they don't have.

Taxonomy

The scientific study of Classification is called Taxonomy derived from the

word taxon, which means the unit of a group or subset.

Taxonomy

Systematics Nomenclature

Systematics - Placing of, organisms into groups based on Similarities and

differences.
Nomenclature - Naming of organisms which is based on a Binomial system
developed by Carl Linnaeus (1707 - 78) usually written as Lin. or L. e.g.
Vigna unguiculata (L.)
- An organism has two Latin names, a generic name beginning with a
capital letter and specific/specie name beginning with a lower case letter.
For example:
1. Delonix regia - flamboyant tree
2. Azadirachta indica - Neem tree
3. Carica papaya - Pineapple
4. Citrus sinensis - Orange
5. Penicillium notatum - Penicillium

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BINOMIAL SYSTEM

The binomial name of any plant is in two parts; the first name is the
genus or generic name and second is the specie name. For example the
botanical name of pea is Pisium sativum and botanical name of wheat is
Triticum sativum, the botanical name should always be in italics when
printed or underline written by hand. According to the international code,
there can be only one group of plant with the name pisium, reserved for pea
group. In Each genus there can be only one valid specific epithet "sativum"
but the same specific epithet may be applied to plants that are not member of
the same genus as in above example the specific epithet "sativum" is applied
to both the plants.

UNITS OF CLASSIFICATION

SPECIES; A species is a group of individuals having very close

resemblances with one another, structurally and functionally.

GENUS; A genus is a collection of species which bear close resemblance to

one another as far as the morphological characteristics of the floral or
reproductive parts are concerned.

FAMILY; a family is a group of genera which have general structural

resemblances mainly in their floral organs.

JUSTIFICATION FOR CLASSIFICATION

About11⁄2 million different kinds of living organisms have been discovered

on the planet and it has been estimated that there may be 10 - 100' million
kinds. If one starts studying them singly, then ones: life is not enough to
study even a fraction of them but placing them into groups makes it possible
to study them all in a specified period. For example, studying 100 plants in
3-5 groups might be easier than studying each plant individually.

- Previous (ancient) classifications were odd, for example classifying

plant into poisonous and edible ones, but modern classifications often
emphasize ideas of evolutionary 'relationships between organisms.

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- As we learn more about living organisms, the classification systems are

modified, but it is important to know that there is no single perfect
system of classification, they are all designed according to convenience.

Taxonomical hierarchy

Linnaeus further extended the binomial system to include Kingdom, class,

order, family, genus, species, which are arranged in descending order of size.

Kingdom
*Phyla
*Class
*Order Increase in number
*Family
*Genus
*Species
*(With sub division if needed, e.g. sub-phylum, sub-class, sub-family. (Etc.).

Types of Classification

1). Artificial classification - This is more or less arbitrary as the plants are
classified on the basis of one or at most few early observed (Morphological)
characteristics, which however do not throw any light on the alertness or
relationship of -the plants with one another. It is designed for a practical
purpose with an emphasis on convenience and simplicity. E.g. based on
complexity higher plants are classified in to trees, shrubs and herbs.

2). Natural classification - Based on more evidence than artificial

classification including internal (Anatomical) as well as external features
(Morphological). Similarities of embryology, morphology, anatomy,
physiology, cytology, biochemistry, etc. it help us not only to ascertain the
name of a plant but also its relationship and affinities with other plants,
Based on the above Classification, the whole living organisms were grouped
into two kingdoms.

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1. Plant kingdom
2. Animal kingdom

Based on cytological (cell) characters, the presence or absence of cells wall

and other: features, plant kingdom was classified further based on natural
system into two:

Plant kingdom

1. Cryptogams 2. Phenarogams
(Non-flowering; seedless) (Flowering; seed plants)

1. Thallophyta 2. Bryophyta 3. Pteridophyta

Schizophyta Algae Fungi Lichens

(Bacteria)

1. Gymnosperma 2. Angiospermae
;
(Opened seeded) (Closed seeded)

Dicotyledonae Monocotyledonae
(Seed with one cotyledon) Seed with two cotyledons)

Monocotyledonae & Dicotvledonae were further grouped or divided into

groups based on floral features (flowers).

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The above type of classification was accepted and followed for a very period
but for the last twenty years new system of classification has been
proposed.

FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION (Margulis and Schwartz)

The recent system of classification grouped organisms into five (5)
kingdoms based on the cytological features. The classification was proposed
by Lynn Margulis and kaelena Schwartz in 1988.

1. Kingdom MONERA OR PROCARYTIC

- Unicellular prokaryotes,
- Autotrophs or heterotrophs,
- Motile or non - motile,
- The oldest fossil belongs to this kingdom, so it is thought that they were
the first kind of organisms to evolve.
- E.g. Bacteria or Cyanobacteria (Blue .green algae).

2. Kingdom PROTISTA OR PROTOCTISTA:

- Unicellular eukaryotic, they evolved later than bacteria.
- They resemble the ancestors of plants, animals and fungi, which; include
- Algae: and protozoa. They live in water because they do not have
protection against drying out.
- e.g. Ameoba is animal like and feed heterotrophically while Chiarella is
- Plant-like and feed by photosynthesis (autotrophic).

3. Kingdom FUNGI:
- Many are multicellular, others are predominantly unicellular
- Heterotrophs (saprophytes)
- Non - motile.
- e.g. Aspergillus, Mucor, Penicillium, Fusarium, Alternaria,

4. Kingdom ANIMALIA:
- Multicellular, without cell walls,
- Do not have chlorophyll
- Feed heterotropically.
- Most members motile e.g. Dog, Man, Cat

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5. Kingdom PLANTAE:
- Multicellular, with cellulose cell walls
- Possess chlorophyll for synthesis of food
- Most members non - motile e.g. liverwort, fern, Azadirachta indica, Parkia
biglobosa
Phylum: 1. Algae 2. Bryophyta 3. Pteridophyta 4. Spermatophyta

Class: Gymnosperms Angiosperms

Dicotyledonae Monocctyledonae

.
Virus: Are classified as non - cellular (non-living out of host) units and are
of very significant importance to mankind, they can fit in neatly into any
classification of living organism due to its structural characteristics.

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BIO 1203: GENERAL BIOLOGY III

LECTURE THREE

CELL AS BASIC UNIT OF LIVING THINGS

INTRODUCTION
All organisms are composed of basic units called cells. Cell is the, smallest
structural and functional unit of a biological system. It is also the smallest
unit that can carry out all activities associated with life. In addition, cells
control as well as direct the behavior and development of systems in all living
organisms.
Cells were first described in 1665 by Robert Hooke as a boxlike-
structure which was now known to be dead cells. Decades after Robert's
observation, Two German scientist, botanist Matthias Schleiden in 1838 and
zoologist Theodor Schwann in 1839 were the first to point out that all plants
and animals are composed of cells. The work of Schlelden and Schwarm
gave rise to the concept known as the cell theory.

The theory includes the following three principles:

1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.

2. Cells are the smallest living things, the basic unit of organization of all
organisms.
3. Cells arise only by division of a previously existing cells

CELL ORGANISATION
There are TWO (2) different types of cells are known, they are prokaryotic
cells and eukaryotic cells.

Prokaryotic cells the term prokaryotic means “before the nucleus”.

Members of this group are identified by the presence of true nucleus and
plastids, double membrane. Prokaryotes are very small, possess few
organelles, and are primitive nature. E.g. bacteria and blue green algae
(Cyanobacteria). There DNA is located in a limited region of the cell called
nuclear area or nucleoid.

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Eukaryotic cells are identified by the presence of a true nucleus, meaning

that the DNA is found inside a nucleus, a structure which is surrounded by
two membranes called the nuclear envelope. Eukaryotes are also
characterized to have many organelles, they are generally complex and are
much larger, e.g. Protozoa, fungi, bryophytes, pteridophytes gymnosperms
and angiosperms.

Classification of living organisms based on Number of cell

Living organisms are generally classified in to simplest life form unicellular)
and complex life form (Multicellular) on the basis of number of cells they
composed.
- In Unicellular forms (primitive life form) the simplest life form, the
system
is made up of only one cell, which is capable of all activities and reactions
of life e:g.Euglena,Chlorella,Chlamydomrnas, etc.
- In Multicellular (complex life form), the organisms are composed of
many different types of cells e.g. Volvox, Spirogyra, Flowering plants. In
such system, specialization as well as specification of activities occurs.

In multicellular plants, a group of numerous, similar cells arranged together

performing specific function is called Tissue e.g. parenchyma group of
tissues (parenchyma, xylem, phloem) working together form what is known

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as organ e.g. stem. Co-ordination of organs like leaves, blanches, stems,

roots, form systems e.g. absorption system.

Increase in complexity

Cellular Organelles

The functional or structural parts of a cell are called: organelles.

Organelles in a cell correspond to organs in an organism.
- The living parts of the cell are the organelles e.g. nucleolus
- The non-living parts of the cell are the inclusions or secretion e.g. cell
wall.

Microscopes allow visualization of cells and components.

Microscopes are used for resolutions and magnifications of the features to
enable us view them for study purpose because not all the cells are visible to
the naked eye. The two major division of microscope includes light and
electron microscopes.

The light microscopes. Those features of cell (organelles) that are more than
O.2mm are resolved (seen) using the Light microscope land are called
Light features.
The electron microscopes - Those features of celli that I are less than
O.2mm can only be resolved by Electron microscope and are known as fine
structure, or ultra-structure.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF PLANT CELL

Plant cells have 3 distinct features from the animal cell which include:
1) Cell wall made up of cellulose.
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2) Chloroplast in most photosynthetic plants.

3) Large central vacuole.

Ultrastructure of a generalized plant cell as seen under electron microscope

Cell wall
- This is described as a non-living physical barrier and an outer most
boundary of the plant cells.
- It consists of cellulose microfibrills (a very fine fibril or fiber-like
structure), which in the unmatured walls are long and are apically
arranged. In 'mature walls, the microfibrills are oriented more in line with
the direction of the cell growth.
- The nature of the cell wall makes it rigid wall. Its turgidity enables it to
provide mechanical protection and support to the cell wall imparting
strength, peculiar shape, rigidity, and elasticity for. The whole cell. The
protection awarded by the cell wall prevents osmotic bursting of the cell
as a result of built up hydrostatic pressure.
- Cell wall is an inclusion and a light feature,

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Plasmodesmata
- Fine cytoplasmic strands or threads linking the cytoplasm of two
neighboring cells through a pore in the cell wall.
- Allows for transportation of substances between cells.
- In plants, the cytoplasm is continuous between all cells in the system by
the help of plasmodesmata. This mechanism of cytoplasmic continuity is
called Symplast.

Middle lamella
- Middle lamella is a pinched off remain of Golgi apparatus.
- It is a thin layer of pectic substances (calcium and magnesium pectates)
- It is situated in between walls of neighboring cells and is viscous,
gelatinous and gummy, this enables it to bind close cells together or
simply it cements neighboring cells together.
- It is a light feature.

Membranes
- Cell membranes are described as unit membrane because they appear to
be same from organism to organism and from organelle to organelle.
- They are living membranes of physiological importance. Membranes
generally pass through the neighboring cells by the help of
plasmodesmata. All cell organelles are either bounded by cell membrane
or consist of it as part of their internal structure.
- Some organelles that do not need a lot of materials exchange are
surrounded by double membrane e.g. nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast
etc. However, organelles that allow a lot of exchange of materials are
covered by only a single unit membrane e.g. cytoplasmic membrane, the
plasmalemma, vacuole, tonoplast.
- The internal structure of the cell membrane reveals 3 layers: an inner lipid
layer that is light in appearance and two surrounding layers which are
proteineous and dark in appearance. The inner and outer surface of the
membranes consists of the electron transport chain which makes the
membranes a physiological barrier.
- Cell membrane has a selective control, over the entry and the exit (semi-
permeability) of materials into the cell.

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Protoplasm
- Consists of cytoplasm and nucleus with its ground substances
(nucleoplasm). The protoplasm carries out most of the cells physiological
activities.
- The proportion of cytoplasm in a cell depends on the age of the cell. In
immature cells there are many small vacuoles and the cytoplasm take a
very large proportion of the cell while in matured cells the vacuoles
connect together to form one large vacuole in the center leaving the
cytoplasm
only lining between the vacuole and the cell wall.
- It is a light feature

Nucleus
- Spherical or ovoid and bounded by an envelope of double layer unit
membrane. Nucleus is bold and well recognized-among the cell features.
The membrane which has small pores is found to be in continuous link
with E.R. and the plasmalemma.
- The exchange of information between the nucleus and the cytoplasm takes
place through the small pores situated on the double membrane.
- Consists of nucleolus and chromosomes (chromatid).

Plastids
These are inclusions found in the cytoplasm of plant cells. They are of two
types.
1. Leucoplasts: - these are colorless and contain starch.
2. Chloroplast:- this contains green pigment called chlorophyll
- Other colored plastids are, chloroplast which contains xanthophyll (in
flowers) and carotene (in fruits).

Ribosomes
- They are two round subunits and mostly associated with E.R (rough E.R).
- Some are found scattered freely throughout the cytoplasm. They are rich
in ribonucleic acid hence the name ribosomes. They are called polysomes
or polyribosomes when in groups.
- Ribosomes are formed in the nucleus and are the center for protein
Synthesis in cells.
- They are Ultra features that do not measure more than 20µm in diameter.

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Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

- It is a flattened sac or tube covered by double unit membrane and
composing mainly of protein and lipid.
- It spreads to a great or lesser extent throughout the cytoplasm. The space
between the membranes is filled with fluid.
- Some part of the E.R. is covered by ribosomes (ribosomal E.R.) this is
called rough E.R. The part without ribosomes is smooth E.R
- The E.R. is continuous with the nuclear envelope and as Such that
envelope may be considered as specialize part of the E.R.
- It keeps non-fluid parts in shape. It is very common in secretory cells and
can change or reform rapidly.
- S.E.R is for synthesis of lipid and steroids while R.E.R is for Protein
synthesis and transports of materials in transit from one part to another
or to outside. .

Golgi bodies
- Discovered by Camillo Golgi in 1898.
- Golgi body is formed by fusion of vesicles which are pinched of from
rough endoplasmic reticulum.
- It consists of stacks of flattened cavities consisting of vesicles
- It is a Light feature
- It is thought to be responsible for the production of a number, of
secretions such as cell plate and cell wall material and also make
Iysosomes.

Mitochondria
- These organelles are mainly composed of lipid and protein. They appear
to be large round and elongated (2.4µm in length and 0.5 - 1µm in
diameter).
- They are covered by a layer of double unit membrane. The inner
membrane deeply thickened in forming folds like projections that are
termed as cristae.
- The number of mitochondria in a cell varies with the age and level of
metabolism of the cell. The number ranges from 50 - 5000 with the
highest number found in younger and active cells.
- As they are associated with respiration, they provide the energy
requirements of the cell (produced in form of energy mobilization
compound A.T.P.).

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- Inside them there are ribosomes and DNA. They are also sites for
protein synthesis and extra-nucleus inheritance within themselves,

Vacuole
- It is an open space inside a cell filled with liquid called "cell sap".
- The vacuole contents are separated from the cytoplasm by a tonoplast.
The tonoplast is a thin membrane in plant cells.
- There are several small vacuoles, upon maturity they join forming a large
permanent central vacuole (making up 80 ... 900/0 of the cell volumes).
The E.R. and Golgi vesicles may coalesce (come together) with the
tonoplast, depositing their contents into the vacuole.
- The sap of the vacuole is a water reservoir containing .storage
minerals such as polysaccharides, mineral salts, tannins, anthocyanins,
Proteins etc. and waste products of cell.
- Enzymes present in the vacuole change harmful products to useful
materials.
- The pH of the vacuole differs from the pH of the cytoplasm (stable 1.0 -
10.0).
- It controls chemical recycling of stored substances, osmoregulation, and
hydrostatic pressures in cell.
- In unicellular plants, food vacuole (for digestion of food) and contractile
vacuole (for excretion and osmoregulation) are found.
- It is a Light feature

Microbodies
- They are more or less spherical (0.5 - I.5µm) in diameter and covered by
unit membrane.
- They are composed of enzymes (Catalase) that take part in very important
specialized process in the cell.
- They consist of glycoxymes (formed from E.R. vesicle and contain
enzymes that are responsible for the conversion of fat to sugar. The
peroxysomes formed from the glyoxysomes and contain enzymes that
prevent the formation of H202 (harmful product) during the process of
photosynthesis.
- The glyoxysomes are found more abundantly in fat containing seed, while
the peroxysomes are found more frequently in photosynthetic cells:
- These are ultra-features in cell

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Centrosome and Microtubules

- These are found as subcellular structures.
- Centrosomes are found in the cells of primitive plants and are concerned
with cell division, f1agellae and cilia present on the mobile generative
cells of more primitive plants.
- Microtubules are present in most cells, close to the cell wall inner surface
and are associated with chromosomes movement during cell division, cell
wall synthesis and transport of materials;

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BIO 1203: GENERAL BIOLOGY III

LECTURE FOUR

SIMPLE AND COMPLEX TISSUES, ORGANS AND SYSTEMS

Tissues are group of cells which are similar in origin and structure, and are
designed to carry out similar or specific functions.
- Tissues are classified into two (2)

I. Simple and
II. Complex tissue

SIMPLE TISSUE
This is a tissue made up of only one type of cell. Examples of simple tissue
are parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma etc.

COMPLEX TISSUE
This is a, tissue made up of two or more types of cells, Example of complex
tissue are xylem, phloem, epidermis etc.

THE SIMPLE TISSUES

1. PARENCHYMA

- This is a tissue made up of parenchyma cells. It is the most common plant

tissue. The cells are simple, primitive and roughly spherical in shape, A
parenchyma cell has a thin but flexible cell wall with large vacuole i.e.
(which allows the cells to store and regulate water and waste products)
and distinct intercellular spaces.

Functions:
- The most important function of ' the parenchyma tissue is the storage of
food e.g. .starch) and water.
- The intercellular spaces permit gaseous exchange.
- In leaves, they form the mesophyll, and are responsible for
photosynthesis.
- Another function is wound repair.

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Example of Parenchyma cells

2. COLLENCHYMA.

- This is made up of collenchyma cells. The collenchyma tissues are

usually found below the epidermis in stems and leaves. They are important
supporting tissues in young and herbaceous plants. They have thick cell
walls which thickened at the corners to provide support and mechanical
strength. Intercellular spaces are absent or very small. Sometimes they
contain chloroplast.

Functions:
- Collenchyma provides structural support particularly in growing, shoots
and leaves.
- In collenchyma with chloroplast, photosynthesis takes place

Example of Collenchyma cells

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3. SCLERENCHYMA.
- This is made up of sclerenchyma cells; they are the principal supporting
tissues in plants. The word sclerenchyma was derived from the Latin word
skleros meaning 'hard'. It's the hard thick walls that make sclerenchyma
cells important supporting elements in plants.
This tissue is made up of two types of sclerenchyma cells:
1. Fibers,
II. Sclerieds

1. Fibers
The cells are needle-shaped with pointed tips. The cell walls are thick.
Simple pits (canals) are also present. Fibers are abundant in the vascular
tissues of flowering plants: They are of great economic importance since
plant containing them is used for making ropes, cloths, and mats.

II. Sclereids
The cells are irregular in shape; the cell walls are thick, hard and lignified.
Simple pits are also found in the cell walls. They are commonly found in
fruits and seeds.

Functions:
- Sclerenchyma is an important supporting tissue in plants.
- Fibers play a role in the transport of water in plants.
- Scleids are responsible for the hardness of Date seed and the shell of
Walnuts
- Starch granules are stored in the young living fibers.

Examples of Fibers

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Examples of sclereids

COMPLEX TISSUES

1. XYLEM (WOOD):
- This is a conducting tissue in plants: because it conducts water and
dissolved mineral ions from the roots to other parts of the plant. It also
has a strengthen function.
- It is made up of about four types of cells which are, Tracheids, vessel
element; xylem fibers and xylem parenchyma
-
1) Tracheids are elongated cells with taping end walls. They are arranged in
strands just like· sclerenchyma fibers. Tracheids are more primitive;
occurring in the earliest vascular plants. They are the only xylem tissue in
less advanced vascular plants.

2) Vessel elements are arranged end to end along the axis of an organ,
forming cross walls that are perforated. This gives free passage for water.
Vessel elements are shorter and much wider tracheids. They occur only in
angiosperms, the most recently evolved large group of plants.

3) Xylem fibres are similar to sclerenchyma fibers but may be slightly

bordered pits.

4) Xylem parenchyma is often a little more elongated than typical

parenchyma of ground tissue.
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Example of Tracheids

Examples of Vessel elements

3. PHLOEM:-
- This is a tissue that is responsible for the transportation of dissolved
organic substances throughout plants body (a process called
Translocation). In trees, the phloem is the innermost layer of the bark;
hence the name derived from the Greek word phloos meaning 'Bark'.
- A phloem consists of four types of cells namely; sieve tubes elements,
companion cells, phloem fibers and phloem parenchyma.

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1) Sieve tubes elements are rows of elongated cells arranged end to end
along the axis of the organ. Tube cells function in rapid transport of
organic substances especially sucrose and amino acids. Each tube element
has a companion cell.
2) The companion cell is small containing nucleus and a dense cytoplasm,
Companion cells control the activities of sieve tubes elements.
3) and 4). The phloem parenchyma and fibers are similar m form and
function to those of the ground tissues (exchange of materials between
cells).

Phloem tissue

ORGANS
For efficient metabolism, specialized groups of cells i.e. tissues coordinate
to form an organ. The main organs in a plant include roots, stems/ leaves,
branches, flowers and fruits, which in turn are made up of tissues.
Stem as an organ consists of epidermis, xylem, phloem etc. (complex
tissues) and Parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, cambium etc.
(simple tissues). These tissues co-ordinate and make the stem a functional
living .organ. Leaves have epidermis, xylem, phloem, mesophyll tissues
(complex tissues), palisade, spongy cuticle (simple tissues) etc, which co-
ordinate to make a leaf a functional organ.
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Organs of plants can be divided into vegetative and reproductive.

Vegetative plant organs are root, stem and leaf. The reproductive organs
are variable. In angiosperms, they are represented with the flower, seed
and fruit. In conifers, the organ that bears the reproductive structures is
called a cone. In other divisions of plants, the reproductive organs are
called strobili (in Lycopodiophyta) or simply gametophores (in mosses),

SYSTEM
System is the most complex level of organization in plant. A system is made
up of living entity by the co-ordination and functions of different organs. A
plant has two organ systems:
1) The shoot system, and
2) The root system.

1) The shoot system:

The shoot system is above ground and includes the organs such as; leaves,
buds, stems, flowers (if the plant has any), and fruits (if the plant has
any). Prepared food in leaves is conducted downward through stems .to roots
for utilization to complete the system. Flower is a reproductive system. It
has many organs that co-ordinate and function together to make it a
functional system. Petals, sepals, stamens, carpels are all organs of the
flower.

2) The root system:

The root system includes those parts of the plant below ground, such as the
roots, tubers, and rhizomes. The root organ absorbs water and mineral
salts from the surrounding soil particles through the use of conducting
tissues. This links to the stem and to leaves, and other parts of the plant using
conducting tissues of each of the organs. An absorption system in plants
consists of roots, stem and leaves.
In summary, every living plant is a sum total of activities and reactions of
cells, tissues, organs and systems. The system forms the whole plant
body.

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BIO 1203: GENERAL BIOLOGY III

LECTURE FIVE

GENETICS

The term Genetics was derived from a Greek word "Genetikos" meaning
genesis or origin. It is a discipline of Biology which deals with the study of
Heredity and Variation.
Heredity is the mechanism of the transmission of traits, characters or genes
from parents to offspring.
Variation refers to the differences shown by individuals of the same species
and in the offspring

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Gene: -This is a unit of chromosomal material which determines a particular
character. Genes are located in the chromosomes.
Allele: - This is the alternative form of a gene .i.e. one member of a pair that
is located at a specific position on a specific chromosome e.g. the gene for
seed shape in Pea plant exists in two forms. One from an allele for round seed
shape R, and the other for wrinkled seed shape,
Locus: This refers to the position of an allele within a DNA Molecule.
Homozygous: - This is a diploid condition in which the alleles at a given
locus are identical, example RR, and rr.
Heterozygous: - This is a diploid condition in which the alleles at a given
locus are not identical, example Rr, and rR.
Dominant: - this is the allele which influences the appearance of the
phenotype even in the presence of an alternative allele. -i.e. it masks the other
allele of the pair. E.g. in pea plant, the allele for round seed shape R, is always
dominant over the allele for wrinkled seed shape r.
Recessive: - this is the allele which influences the appearance of the
phenotype only in the presence of an identical allele. I.e. in homozygous
condition. E.g. in pea plants wrinkled seed shape is only expressed when the
both alleles are rr
Genotype: -The total genetic constitution of a cell which may or may-not be
expressed physically.

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Phenotype: - This refers to the observable physical characteristics of an

organism. It is determined by the interaction of the genotype of an individual
and the environment in which development occurs.
Pollination: - The transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of a flower.
Mitosis: - This is a process of cell division in which the daughter cell receives
the same number and the same type of chromosomes as the parent cell.
Meiosis: - Cell division in which the daughter cells receive half the number
of chromosomes of the parent cell. It occurs during sexual reproduction in
both alleles are rr gametes formation.

MENDEL EXPERIMENTS
The first scientific studies in genetics were carried out in 1856 by JOHN
GREGOR MENDEL, an Australian Monk from a monastery in Australia
(Present Czech Republic). He carried out a series of experiments in the
common edible pea plant (Pisium sativum) and studied how hereditary
characters are transmitted from parents to the offspring. He selected the pea
plant for his studies because he found in them a number of contrasting
characters, plant tall or dwarf, flowers red or white, seeds smooth or
wrinkled. He found that normally these plants are self-pollinated and he was
able to artificially pollinate them. In the pea plant, Mendel studied
inheritance of just one pair of contrasting character which is now known as
Monohybrid Inheritance.

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Some of the character of pea plants studied by Mendel

In one of his experiments, Mendel selected and crossed a pure breeding
green pea plant known to produce only pure breeding green pea and a pure
breeding yellow pea plant.
All the progeny of F1 generation were green. He called them "hybrid
offspring" because they were produced from unlike parents of the two
contrasting characters. The green color which appeared in the F1 generation
was called by him as Dominant Character and the other yellow color that
retained temporarily suppressed in the F1 hybrid is called Recessive
Character.

Mendel then crossed the progeny of the F1 generation and they gave rise to
F2 generation; a mixture of green and yellow plants in the ratio 3: 1
respectively i.e. % green and % yellow. This can be restated as follows,
among the four possible genotypes of the F2 offspring, one was
homozygous green, two were heterozygous green and one was homozygous
yellow.
Monohybrid Cross
This is a crossing involving only one pair of contrasting character. Mendel
started his work using a pair of contrasted character in the garden pea. He
first of all considered green plant and yellow plant as parents. Assuming that
the allele for green color is Y and that for yellow color is y, then the
crossing can be illustrated as follows.

Parental phenotypes: Homozygous green plant x Homozygous yellow plant

Parental genotypes (2n) GG x gg

Meiosis
Gametes (n) GG x gg
Random fertilization
F1, genotype (2n) all Gg

This shows that, the genotype of F1 is heterozygous rather than homozygous

green plants. But phenotypically, they are all green pea plants

How the F1 offsprings were derived can be illustrated using a table popularly
known as the Punnet square as follows.

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Gametes g G

G Gg Gg

G Gg Gg

Then F1 i.e. Gg was selfed

Parental genotype (2n) Gg x Gg
Meiosis
Gametes (n) Gg and Gg

Gametes G g

G GG Gg

.g gG Gg

So from the above GG, Gg, gG are all green i.e. 3 green
gg are yellow i.e. 1 yellow
So the ratio is 3 : 1
green yellow

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This and other similar findings prompted Mendel to deduce the following
observations.
1) Since the original parents were pure breeding (homozygous) then each
must have possessed two factors for a character.
2) The F1 generation picked one factor from each parent and these factors
were carried by the gametes.
3) These factors do not blend in the F1 but rather retain the individuality.
4) The green seed .color is dominant while the yellow seed color is
recessive.

He then summarized these observations into a law known as the “MendeI's

first law or the law of segregation”.

Law of Segregation
This law states that, the characteristics of an organism are determined by
internal factors which occur in pairs. Only one of a pair of such factors can
be represented in a single gamete.

Explanation of Mendel's First Law

The explanation of Mendel's first law is provided by meiosis. Though himself
knew nothing of meiosis, but we know that in meiosis homologous
chromosomes segregate from each other. As a result, the gametes receive
only one of each type of chromosome instead of the normal two. Genes also
which occur in. pairs one on each homologous chromosome are taken along
with the chromosome after segregation. This means that after meiosis each
gamete has only one gene for a given character instead of two.

Dihybrid Cross
Mendel's success in predicting the outcome of breeding crosses involving a
single pair of contrasting characters inspired him to extend his work to the
inheritance of two pairs of contrasting characters. In one of his experiments,
he used pea seed shape and pea seed color. He crossed a homozygous pea
plant having round and green seed with a homozygous pea plant having
wrinkled and yellow seed. This type of crossing that involves two
allelomorphic characters i.e. two pairs of contrasting characters is termed the
Dihybrid cross. Assuming that the allele for round seed is “R” and that for
wrinkled seed is “r” while the allele for yellow is “Y” and that for green is
“g”, the cross can be illustrated as follows: -

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Parental phenotypes Round and green seed x wrinkled and yellow seed

Parental genotypes (2n) YYRR x rryy

Meiosis
Gametes (n) Y, R r, y
Random fertilization
F1 genotype (2n) Rryy
F1 phenotype Round and Yellow seed

After this generation, Mendel assumed that:-

1) If factor for pod color is the same as factor for seed structure, then
inheritance will follow as in the monohybrid experiment 3 : 1
2) If separate factors are responsible for each pair of contrasted
characters, then the F2 will give not only the F1 types but also classes
which will combine characters from both parents.
Now F1 is selfed.

F1genotype (2n) RrYy x RrYy

Factors R,r,Y,y x R,r,Y,y
Meiosis
Gametes (n) RY, rY, Ry, ry

Gametes RY rY Ry ry

RY RRYY* RrYY* RRYy* RrYy*

rY RrYY * rrYYd Rryy* rrYyd

Ry RRYy * RrYy* RRyy0 Rryy0

ry RrYy * rrYyd Rryy0 rryyz

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* = Yellow pod round seed =9

d = Yellow pod wrinkle seed =3

0 = Green pod round seed =3

z = Green pod wrinkle seed =1

TOTAL = 16

Pecrorial presentation of Dihybrid ccrossing

Hence, Mendel arrived at his second law called the law of independent
assortment of characters.

Law of Independent Assortment of Characters

It states that, each allele of a particular trait has an equal chance of being in
a gamete with each of the alleles of the other traits.

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Worked Example
Work out a dihybrid cross between a pea plants with round purple seed
(GGYY) dominant and wrinkle white seed (ggyy). The round purple seed
dominant over the wrinkle white seed.

Solution
Let the dominant and the recessive alleles be represented by G, Y and g, y
respectively.
The parents are:
Round/purple seed X wrinkled/white seed
Parents = GGYY X ggyy
Gametes = G, Y X g, y
F1 = GgYy=. Round/Purple seed

Now F1 is selfed that is GgYy X GgYy·

Factors are G, g, Y, y X G, g, Y, y
Gametes: GY, Gy, gY, gy

Now the crossing (F2)

Gametes GY Gy gY gy

GY GGYY* GGYy* GgYY* GgYy*

Gy GGyyd GgYy* Ggyyd
GGYy*

gY :
GgYY* GgYy* ggYY0 ggYy0

gy GgYy* Ggyyd ggYy0 Ggyyz

F2 =
* = Round/purple seed =9
d = round/white seed =3
0 = wrinkle/purple seed =3
z = wrinkle/white seed =1
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Pectorial representation of the above exercise

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BIO 1203: GENERAL BIOLOGY III

LECTURE SIX

HABITAT
The word habitat is obtained from Latin word and literally means “it
inhabits” or “it dwell”. Habitat describes the typical environment of a
particular organism, population, community or ecosystem in which an
organism lives.

Plants community forms the vegetation of an area. The type of vegetation

which develops in an area depends on the following factors
 Climatic factors: these include solar radiation, rain fall, wind, altitude
and temperature.
 Edaphic factors: these are the factors of the soil environment through
which plants obtain water and minerals. It includes soil organism and soil
texture, the physical and chemical properties of soil, nutrient availability
etc.
 Biotic factors: these are the influence exerted by living organisms that
bring about changes on the habitat e.g. overgrazing of vegetation by
domestic animals
 Anthropogenic factors: these are the effect that man exert on the habitat
which effect vegetation e.g. deforestation, bush burning, expansion of
farmland and built-ups areas etc.

TYPES OF VEGETATION

The main types of vegetation include:

Forest vegetation.
A forest, also referred to as a wood or the woods, is an area with a high
density of trees; it is characterize with high rainfall fairly evenly distributed
through the year so that there are no prolong dry periods.

Types of forest vegetation

There are 2 types of f rest vegetation

 Mangrove swamp forest

 The area is hot and wet throughout the year (annual rainfall is, heavy).

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 Salt water from the sea and fresh water from river floods in the region.

 It is made up small evergreen broad-leaved trees with prop roots and

breathing roots (pneumatophores).
 Soil is constant water-logged and contacts little oxygen.
 Trees possess salts glands on their leaves through which excess salts
are remove from the plants in solution.
 Plants show viviparous (germination of seeds while still attached to
parent Tree)
 Examples Rhizophora racemosa (Red mangrove), Raphia vanifera
(Raphia palm).
 Mangrove swamp forest is sub-divided into Salt water swamp forest
and Fresh water swamp forest.

Example of Mangrove Forest

Example of Mangrove pneumatrophores

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Example of Mangrove prop roots

 Tropical rainforest
 This occurs as belt after the swamp forest, the climate is mostly wet
and hot through most part of year and the ground is not mostly water-
logged.
 It is made up of dense vegetation of broad leaved, woody and mostly
evergreen trees, shrubs, climbers and herbs.
 Most distinctive feature of the zone is the stratification of the forest into

5 Different layer, strata or stories based on the heights of the plants.

1 A Storey
 This consists of trees 40-60 meters tall.
 They are called emergent.
 They are scattered in the forest and do not form a continuous canopy.
 Example Mahogany, Iroko, Obeche e.t.c

2 B Storey
 This consists of trees 30-40 meters tall.
 They are called the canopy layer hence form continuous canopy.
 The trees prevent light from reaching the forest floor.
 Example (oil bean tree) pentaclethra macrophyla
3 C Storey
 This is formed by trees that are about 15-30 meters tall.
 The canopies of neighboring trees overlap to form a continuous cover
over the forest floor.
 Example [Cashew) Anacardium occidentale.
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3 D storey
 This is called the under storey.
 It consists of shrubs and small trees of about 1m tall.
 Examples Garden croton and Basil plant.

5 D Storey
 This is the ground floor at the base of the forest.
 It consists of herbs, ferns and fungi.
 It is found mostly where a gap exists in the canopy layer thereby
allowing sunlight to reach the forest floor.

Tropical rainforest

Savanna Vegetation
A savanna is a grassland ecosystem characterized by trees which are
sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open
canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support the growth of
grasses. Savannas are also known as tropical grasslands. They are found
between a tropical rain forest and desert biome.
In Africa, it occurs naturally where average annual rainfall is low; about,
1000mm.The dry sea on is prolonged. Savanna trees are adapted by having
thick, fire resistant barks.

Savanna is broadly classified according to the types of plants present.

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 Savanna woodland-Trees are up to 15meters high, e.g. Adansonia

digitata (Baoba), Butyrospermum paradoxum (Shea-butter). Suttered
shrubs can also be found.
 Tree - savanna Trees up about 10 meters high but are scattered e.g.
Acacia spp
 Shrub - savanna a-Trees are absent, shrubs are present but tall grasses
are the predominant flora e.g. Commelina africana (wandering Jew)

 Grass savanna The vegetation is entirely dominated by tall grasses e.g.

Andrbpogon Hypharrenia

Example of Savanna vegetation

Montane vegetation
 These are vegetation that is found in mountainous areas.
 The term “montane” in ecological terms (biome) refers to “high
altitude”. It describes region that are above treeline
 Montane climate is quite variable, depending on latitude and altitude.
 Climates are always cooler with increase elevation and usually wetter
than lowland environment of the same region.
 The vegetation habitat includes vegetation of high elevation
grasslands, shrubslands and those vegetation in the alphines and
montane areas.
 There are montane forest and montane grassland.

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(a) Montane forest:

 The trees are evergreen and are stratified.
 The ground flora is sparse.
 The predominant floras in this habitat are epiphytes.

(b) Montane grassland or savanna:

 Montane grassland is dominated by tall grasses and herbs.

Marine vegetation
 These are vegetation’s that inhibit the seas and oceans. They include
algae, grasses, shrubs, and bacteria.
 The most common form of marine vegetation found in the seas are
algae.
 Marine vegetation includes representatives of all the division which
occur in marine and freshwater environments e.g. phytoplanktons and
macrophytes.

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 The performant phytoplanktons in this habitat are diatoms, green

algae and dinoflagellates.

Examples of marine vagetations

Desert vegetation
 Desert term applied to regions of the earth that are characterized by
less than 254 mm of annual rainfall. Deserts can be classified as "Hot
deserts" and "Cold deserts". Hot desert has high daytime temperature
for the whole year while Cold desert has hot summers but extremely
cold winters.
 Desert plants have evolved ways of conserving find efficiently using
the water available to them.
 The plants may possess long root systems that reach deep water
sources or have spreading shallow roots that are able to take up
surface moisture quickly from heavy dews and occasional rains.
 Desert plants usually have small leaves, thorns and thick cuticle to
prevent transpiration.
 Examples: Peyote cactus, Welwitschia mirabilis, rate Palm.

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BIO 1203: GENERAL BIOLOGY III

LECTURE SEVEN
GENERAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND CONCEPT OF
INTERRELATIONSHIP
Reproduction in plant is the process by which plants generate new
individuals,
or offspring. Reproduction could either be;
 Sexual reproduction
 Asexual reproduction and
 Vegetative reproduction

Sexual reproduction: Sexual reproduction is the formation of offspring by

the fusion of two sexual reproductive units, called gametes, which, like
spores, are also unicellular and microscopic. To produce sexually, two
similar or dissimilar gametes fuse together to rise to a zygote. Sexual
reproduction results in offspring genetically different from the parents.
Sexual reproduction is categorized into;

 Conjugation: in lower algae and fungi, the pairing gametes are

essentially similar, i.e. not differentiated into male and female. The
union of such similar gametes (isogametes) is known as conjugation.
The zygote formed is called zygospore. This grows into a new plant.

Example of conjugation in spirogyra

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 Fertilization: in all higher plants, the pairing gametes are dissimilar,

i.e. differentiated into male and female. The union of dissimilar
gametes (heterogametes) is known as “fertilization”. The zygote
formed is called oospore, which grow into a new plant. In bryophyte,
pteridophyta and many algae and fungi, the male gametes are ciliate,
motile very minute and active, and are called antherozoids or
spermatozoids. The female gametes are much larger, non-ciliate,
stationary and passive, and are called egg-cell, ovum or oosphere. In
flowering plants the corresponding reproductive units are the two
gametes of the pollen-tube and the egg-cell or- ovum of the embryo-
sac within the ovule.

Example of fertilization in flowering plants

Asexual reproduction: is the formation of offspring without the fusion of

gametes. Asexual offspring are genetically identical except for mutation. The
ability to produce new individuals asexually is common in plants. Asexual
reproduction, thus, takes place by two methods;

 By fission: this occurs in many unicellular algae, fungi and bacteria,

the mother cell splits into two new cells. The new cells thus formed
contain all the materials of the mother cell and grow to the size of the
latter.

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 Spore formation: spores are asexual reproductive units which can grow
independently i.e. without fusion with another unit, and are
always unicellular and microscopic in size. They may be motile or non-
motile.
o Ciliate motile spores are called zoospores, produced by many
fungi and algae; swim about in water for sometimes with tile help
of their cilia. Zoospores are commonly formed in large number.

o Non-ciliate, non-motile spores of various kinds are most common

among terrestrial fungi. Such spores are light, dry and provided
with a tough coat as well as adapted by wind. They are resistant
to unfavorable atmospheric conditions.

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o True spores are always borne by sporophyte Thus; the

sporophyte of moss reproduces asexually by spores. Similarly,
ferns, lycopodium and Equisetum bear spores and reproduce
asexually. It should be noted that plan s can be homosporous
(bearing the same types of spores) or heterosporous (bearing
different types of spores).

Example of spore formation

Vegetative reproduction (vegetative cloning): Is a form of asexual

reproduction in plants. It is a process by which new individuals arise
without production of seeds or spores. It can occur naturally or be induced
by horticulturist. It is divided into two methods; natural and artificial method.

Natural methods: A portion gets detached from the body of the mother
plant and embarks on a new life under suitable condition -. These include the
following methods;
.
Budding: in the case of yeast, one or more tin, outgrowths appeal' on
one or more side of the vegetative cell. The outgrowths later get
detached from the mother cell and form new individual. Budding often
proceed continuously so that finally one or more chains, sometime sub-
chains of the cell are formed.

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Gammae: in some mosses and liverworts e.g. Marchantia special bodies

known as gammae develop on the leaf, branch or thallus for the purpose of
vegetative reproduction.
Leaf-tip: in some certain ferns commonly walking ferns, as the leaf bows
down to the .ground, the tip strikes root and forms a bud. This bud grows into
a new, independent fern plant.
Underground stems: Virtually all types of shoots and root are capable of
vegetative propagation, including stems, basal shoots, tubers, rhizomes,
stolons, corms, bulbs, and buds. In a few species (such as Kalanchoe), leaves
are involved in vegetative reproduction.
 The rhizome; is a modified underground stem serving as an organ of
vegetative reproduction, e. g. Polypodium (polypody), Iris, Couch
Grass and Nettles.

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 Prostrate aerial stems; called runners or stolon are important

vegetative reproduction organs in some species, such as the
strawberry, numerous grasses, and some ferns.

Example of aerial stem (runners/stolon)

 Adventitious buds; form on roots near the ground surface, on damaged
stems (as on the stumps of cut trees), or on old roots.
These develop into above-ground stems and leaves.
 A form of budding called suckering; is the reproduction or
regeneration of a plant by shoots that are se from an existing root
system. Species that characteristically produce suckers include Elm
(Ulmus), Dandelion (Taraxacum), and members of the Rose Family
(Rosa).
 Bulbs; another type of a vegetative reproduction is the
production of bulbs. Plants like onion (Allium cepa), hyacinth
(Hyacinth), narcissus (Narcissus) and tulips (Tulipa) reproduce by
forming bulbs.

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Tubers; other plants like potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) and dahlia

(Dahlia) reproduce by a method similar to bulbs; they produce tubers.

 Corm: gladioli and crocuses (Crocus) reproduce by forming a bulb-

like structure called a corm
 Some orchids reproduce by the growth of keikis from the stem or cane
of the parent plant.

Sub-aerial stem: here the runners, the stolon, the offset and the suckers are
used by plants for vegetative propagation. E.g. in water lettuce.
 Artificial methods: here a portion can be separated out by special
method from the body of the mother cell and grow independently.
There are several such methods;
Cutting: Cutting is the most common artificial vegetative
propagation methods, where pieces of the "parent" plant are removed
and placed in a suitable, environment so that they can grow into a whole
new plant, the "clone", which is genetically identical to the parent.
Cutting could either be stem or root- cutting.

Stem-cutting: many plants such as rose, sugarcane, tapioca, and

drumstick may easily be grown from stem-cuttings.
Root-cutting: sometimes, as in lemon, ipecac, tamarind etc. root-
cutting put into moist soil sprout, forming root and shoots.

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Vegetative reproduction from a stem cutting less than a week old.

Grafting: this consist of inserting the small branch of a plant into a rooted
plant of the same or allied species so as to bring about fusion of tissues
between the two and, finally make them grow as one. The branch that is
inserted is known as the scion or graft, and the plant that is rooted to the
soil is called the stock.

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Layering: in this case a lower branch is bent down, a ring of bark

2.5-5cm long is removed and this portion is pushed into the soft
ground, keeping the upper part freely. The bend is covered with
soil and a stone placed on it. When it strikes roots, usually within
2-4 months, the branch is cut out from the mother plant and grown
separately. Lemon, Ixora, rose etc. respond to this method.

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A number of commonly cultivated plants are usually propagated by

vegetative means rather than by seeds. This is a listing of such plants:

African violets – leaf cuttings

Apple - grafting
Avocado - grafting
Banana - sucker removal
Blackberries (Rubus occidentalis) - stem cuttings
Canna - division
Cannabis - stem cuttings
Citrus (lemon, orange, grapefruit, Tangerine, dayap) - grafting
Date - sucker removal
Fig - stem cuttings
Garden strawberry - runners (stolons)
Grapes - stem cuttings, grafting
Hops - stem cuttings
Manioc (cassava) - stem cuttings
Maple - stem cuttings, grafting
Nut crops (walnut, pecan) - grafting

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BIO 1203: GENERAL BIOLOGY III

LECTURE EIGHT

EVOLUTION

The word Evolution means change over a period of time. Evolution implies
an overall gradual development which is both order and sequential. Evolution
is the study origin of life and the subsequent changes that occur in organisms.
In terms of living organisms it may be defined as the development of
differentiated organisms from pre-existing one, less differentiated organisms
over the course of time.

Theory of the origin of life

Theories concerned with the origin of life are diverse. However, the main
theories accounting for the origin of life on earth are:
1. Special creation: life was created by a supernatural being at a particular
time in the past. This theory is supported by most of the world’s major
religions and civilizations.
2. Spontaneous generation: numerous process by which life arose from non-
living matter.
3. steady-state: this theory assert that earth had no origin, it has always been
able to support life and that species has no origin.
4. Cosmozoan: this theory does not account for the origin of life, it favors the
idea that life arrived on this planet from elsewhere.
5. Biochemical evolution: life arose according to chemical and physical laws.

The theory of evolution

The theory of evolution were developed to explain the concept of continuity
or gradual development of more complex species from pre-existing simpler
forms. The evolutionary hypothesis were put forward in the early 19 th
century. The two most prominent theories are as summarized below.
 Lamarchian evolution: this was developed in 1908 by French biologist
Lamarck, to account for the mechanism of evolution based on two

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conditions: use and disuse of parts and inheritance of acquired

characteristics.
 Darwin and Wallace: this theory was developed to explain the origin of
species by natural selection. Darwin and Wallace (1839-1859) proposed
that natural selection is the mechanism by which new species arise from
pre-existing species. The theory was after an extensive series of
observation by the respective naturalist, viz: more offspring are produced,
population remain approximately constant and variation exist within all
population.
The nature and evolution of organisms
Evidence have suggested that heterotrophs were the first organisms to inhibit
the earth. Increasing number of heterotrophs was believed to pave the way
for the emergence of autotrophs as completion for limited resources became
intense. From non-oxygen producing photosynthetic organisms, similar to
existing blue-green bacteria.
The evolution of plants involved adaptations to terrestrial habitats. The
evolution of plants has resulted in increasing levels of complexity, from the
earliest algal mats through bryophyte, lycopods, ferns to the complex
gymnosperms and angiosperms of today. While many of the groups which
appeared earlier continue to thrive, especially in the environment in which
they evolved, for a minute each new grade of organization became more
“successful” than its predecessors.

From prokaryotic to eukaryotic

Eukaryotic cells arose from symbioses and genetic exchange between
prokaryotes. Chemical traces of eukaryotes may date back to 2.7 billion years
ago. Fossil that are generally accepted as eukaryotic date from 2.1 billion
years ago.
The cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells allows them to change shape and engulf
other cells. The first eukaryotic cells may have been predators of other cells.
The cytoskeleton is also necessary for the movement of chromosomes in
mitosis and meiosis.

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The first eukaryotic cells may also have engulf an aerobic heterotrophic
prokaryote and packaged it inside a vacuole. The prokaryote becomes an
endosymbiont, living within the host cell. Eventually the relationship became
mutualistic and finally endosymbiont evolved into mitochondrion. Plastids,
including chloroplast may have evolved through a similar endosymbiotic
process. In this serial endosymbiosis, mitochondria probably arose first
because they or their genetic remnants are present in all eukaryotes.
The evolutionary trends of organisms was believed to follow certain
sequential pattern within most divisions, we can discern what appear to be
one or more evolutionary trend as follows:
 From unicellular o multicellular structure.
 From isogamy to anisogamy to oogamy.
 From haplontic to haplodiplontic, sometimes to diplontic life cycle.
 In multicellular, from unspecialized cells to increasing specialization
of cells.

Bryophytes
Bryophytes were probably the first plants to colonize the land; they have
three adaptations that evolved in early land plants. First, a cuticle prevent
water loss .from above ground parts, second a protective jacket of sterile cells
around their sperm-producing and egg producing parts. Third, the embryo
Sporophytes starts developing inside the female gametophyte, which
supplies it with nutrients and water. They are attached to the substrate by
rhizoids; the rhizoids have been shown to absorb water and also dissolved
mineral ions from the substrate. Although higher plants can absorb water
over almost all of their exposed surfaces, which is advancement over rhizoids
function.

The delicate parts apices, and male and female reproductive organs are
sometimes protected by mucilage secretions. Lignin is absent in bryophytes.

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Pteridophytes

Evolution within the Pteridophytes went in two directions as one line of

evolution led into the microphyllous subdivision i.e. Iycopsida and
Sphenopsida, microphylls are outgrowth on the surface of the stem, and
another line led to the Pteropsida which are megaphyllous. Megaphylls are
branches of limited growth, specialized in photosynthesis. A megaphyll has
greater vascular supply than microphyll, probably because of evolutionary
origin as a specialized branch. All pteridophytes have true vascular tissues in
the sporophyte generation. Xylem is composed of tracheids and parenchyma.
Tracheids have lignified secondary cell wall with some pattern of thickening
as in flowering plants.

Gymnosperms

Hetrospory is fully evolved in gymnosperms, the next stage in the

development of seed habit was the retention of megaspore and the female
gametophyte within the megasporangium until after the development of the
embryo of the next sporophyte generation.
- There is the evolution of one or more integuments forming the ovule
for the protection of megasporangium.
- In preparation to seed habit male gametophyte is reduced in size and
development of mechanisms by which sperm can be passed to
archegonia through the overlapping tissue of megasporangium, the
sperm to swim to archegonia.
- They have well developed conducting tissues.

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Angiosperms
The evolutionary origin of flowering plants is controversial but probably they
were evolved from gymnosperms. The primitive flower bearing its floral
parts in spiral sequence with sepals and petals similar to each other serve as
a pivot in evolutionary trends in flowering plants.

These primitive structures had been reduced with reduction in the female
gametophyte and the formation of ovum. The ovum s serving as a reduced
archegonium,
Sperms are delivered by a pollen tube all the way into the embryo sac through
the reduced neck of the archegonium. Double fertilization and the formation
of triploid endosperm are features found only in angiosperms.

The male gametophyte (pollen grain) shows further reduction on the

gymnosperm pattern. Evolution within the angiosperms indicates that
probably monocotyledonous plants were evolved from dicotyledonous plants
by suppression of one of the two cotyledons.

The following trends emerged during the evolution of certain lineages of land
plants.

1. The evolution of vascular tissues and other structural adaptation to dry

conditions.
2. A shift from haploid to diploid dominance. Complex sporophytes evolved
that could hold onto, nourish, and protect spore and gametophytes.
3. A shift from one to two kinds of spores, among gymnosperms and
angiosperms, this led to the evolution of pollen grains and seeds.

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Comparison of the Trends among Plant.

Green Algae Bryophytes Ferns Gyrmno - Angoisperms Sperms

Nonvascular Vascular
Haploid Dominance Diploid dominance
Spores of one type spores of two types
Motile Gametes Non motile gametes*
Motile Seedless Non-Motile Seeds
*Require pollination by wind, insects, etc.

Contemporary views on evolution

The theory of evolution as proposed by Darwin and Wallace has been
modified in the light of modern evidence from genetics, molecular biology,
paleontology, ecology and ethology (the study of behavior) and is known as
neo-Darwinism (neo, new). This may be defined as the theory of organic
evolution by the natural selection and inherited characters.

Evidence for the theory of evolution

Several evidence were provided supporting the theory of evolution, the main
ones are:
 Palaeontology,
 Geographical distribution,
 Classification,
 Plant and animal breeding,
 Comparative anatomy,
 Adaptive radiation,
 Comparative embryology, and
 Comparative biochemistry.

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