Sampling and sampling

techniques

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 What is research?
• “Scientific research is a systematic, controlled, empirical,
and critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by
theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations
among such phenomena.”
– Kerlinger, 1986

• Research is an organized and systematic way of finding

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What is sampling?
 A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of
units from a population used to determine truths about that
population” (Field, 2005).
 Why sample?
 Resources (time, money) and workload
 Gives results with known accuracy that can be calculated mathematically
 The sampling frame is the list from which the potential
respondents are drawn
 College of Medical Sciences staff
 Class rosters
 Must assess sampling frame errors
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What is sampling?
 A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger
population.
 Sampling means selecting the group that you will
actually collect data from in your research.
 For example, if you are researching Baze University students’
opinions, you could survey a sample of 200 students.
 In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis
about the characteristics of a population.
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Population definition
 A population can be defined as including all people or
items with the characteristic one wishes to understand.
 Because there is very rarely enough time or money to
gather information from everyone or everything in a
population, the goal becomes finding a representative
sample (or subset) of that population.

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Population definition…….
 Note also that the population from which the sample is drawn
may not be the same as the population about which we
actually want information. Often, there is considerable but not
complete overlap between these two groups due to frame
issues, etc.
 Sometimes they may be entirely separate - for instance, we
might study rats in order to get a better understanding of
human health, or we might study records from people born in
2008 in order to make predictions about people born in 2009.
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 SAMPLING FRAME
 In statistics, a sampling frame is the source material or
device from which a sample is drawn.
 Examples include voter registers, telephone directories, and lists
of patients in a hospital; simply put, it's the source material used to
select your sample.
 Voter register: Used for selecting individuals to participate in
opinion polls or surveys about political preferences.
 Telephone directories: Used for conducting telephone surveys or
collecting data from specific geographic areas.
 Patient files in a hospital: Used for research on medical conditions
or treatment outcomes. 7
SAMPLING FRAME
 School class lists: Used for surveys or studies related to
student demographics or educational outcomes.
 Employment records: Used for research on employee
demographics or job satisfaction.
 List of farms or villages: Used for agricultural studies or
surveys in specific areas.
 The sampling frame must be representative of the
population
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SAMPLING……
 What is your population of interest?
 To whom do you want to generalise your results?
 Alldoctors
 School children
 Nigerians
 Women aged 15-45 years

 Can you sample the entire population?

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SAMPLING……
 3 factors that influence sample representativeness
 Sampling procedure
 Sample size
 Participation (response)

 When might you sample the entire population?

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION

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 The sampling process
 The sampling process comprises several stages:
 Defining the population of concern
 Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events that are
possible to measure
 Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from
the frame
 Determining the sample size
 Implementing the sampling plan
 Sampling and data collecting
 Reviewing the sampling process
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What is Probability Sampling?
 Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing
you to make strong statistical inferences about the whole
group.
 In this method, all the eligible individuals have a chance of
selecting the sample from the whole sample space.
 This method is more time-consuming and expensive than
the non-probability sampling method.
 The benefit of using probability sampling is that it guarantees
that the sample will be representative of the population.
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PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 A probability sampling scheme is one in which every
unit in the population has a chance (greater than zero) of
being selected in the sample, and this probability can be
accurately determined.
 Commonly used in quantitative research where
numbers and statistics are used to draw inferences for the
larger population.

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PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 Probability sampling includes:
 Simple Random Sampling,
 Systematic Sampling,
 Stratified Random Sampling,
 Cluster Sampling
 Multistage Sampling.
 Multiphase sampling

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Simple Random Sampling
 Every item in the population has an equal and likely chance of
being selected in the sample. Since the item selection entirely
depends on chance, this method is known as “Method of
chance Selection”.
 Example:
 Suppose we want to select a simple random sample of 200 students
from a school. We can assign a number to every student in the school
database from 1 to 500 and use a random number generator to select
a sample of 200 numbers.

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SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
 Applicable when population is small, homogeneous &
readily available
 It provides for the greatest number of possible samples.
This is done by assigning a number to each unit in the
sampling frame.
 A table of random numbers or a lottery system is used to
determine which units are to be selected.

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SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
 Simple random sampling is always an 'equal probability
of selection' (EPS) design, but not all EPS designs are
simple random sampling.
 Disadvantages
 Ifthe sampling frame is large, this method is impractical.
 Minority subgroups of interest in the population may not be
present in the sample in sufficient numbers for the study

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 REPLACEMENT OF SELECTED UNITS
 Sampling schemes may be without replacement ('WOR' - no
element can be selected more than once in the same sample)
or with replacement ('WR' - an element may appear multiple
times in the same sample).
 For example, if we catch fish, measure them, and immediately
return them to the water before continuing with the sample, this is
a WR design, because we might end up catching and measuring the
same fish more than once. However, this becomes a WOR design if
we do not return the fish to the water (e.g. if we eat the fish).
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Systematic Sampling
 In the systematic sampling method, the items are selected
from the target population by selecting a random sampling
point and selecting the other items after a fixed sample
interval. It is calculated by dividing the total population size by
the desired population size.
 Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target population
according to some ordering scheme and then selecting
elements through that ordered list at regular intervals.

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 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
 Systematic sampling involves a random start and then
proceeds with the selection of every kth element from then
onwards. In this case, k=(population size/sample size).
 It is important that the starting point is not automatically the
first in the list, but is instead randomly chosen from within
the first to the kth element in the list.
 A simple example would be to select every 10th name from
the telephone directory (an 'every 10th' sample, also
referred to as 'sampling with a skip of 10').
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As described above, systematic sampling is an EPS method because all
elements have the same probability of selection (in the example given,
one in ten). It is not 'simple random sampling' because different
subsets of the same size have different selection probabilities - e.g.
the set {4,14,24,...,994} has a one-in-ten probability of selection.

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 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING……
 ADVANTAGES:
 Sample and easy to select
 A suitable sampling frame can be identified easily
 Sample evenly spread over the entire reference population

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 DISADVANTAGES:
 Risk of Bias:
 The sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in the population
coincides with that of selection. if you are sampling a list of people
and every other person is a specific gender, your sample might not
be representative of the population if you choose every second
person.
 Overlooked Subgroups:
 Systematic sampling might miss smaller or less frequent subgroups
within the population, especially if the sampling interval is too large
or if the population exhibits a pattern that the interval doesn't
capture. 25
 Example:
 Suppose the names of 300 school students are sorted in
reverse alphabetical order. To select a sample in a
systematic sampling method, we have to choose 15
students by randomly selecting a starting number, say 5.
 From number 5 onwards, we will select every 15th person
from the sorted list. Finally, we can end up with a sample of
some students.

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 Stratified Sampling
 In a stratified sampling method, the total population is divided
into smaller groups to complete the sampling process. The
small group is formed based on a few characteristics in the
population. After separating the population into a smaller
group (strata), the statisticians randomly select the sample.
 Forexample, there are three bags (A, B and C) with different balls.
Bag A has 50 balls, Bag B has 100 balls, and Bag C has 200 balls.
 We have to choose a sample of balls from each bag proportionally.
Suppose 5 balls from bag A, 10 balls from bag B and 20 balls from
bag C.
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 STRATIFIED SAMPLING
 Each stratum is then sampled as an independent sub-
population, from which individual elements can be randomly
selected.
 Every unit in a stratum has the same chance of being selected.
 Using the same sampling fraction for all strata ensures
proportionate representation in the sample.
 Adequate representation of minority subgroups of interest can
be ensured by stratification and varying the sampling fraction
between strata as required.
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 Finally, since each stratum is treated as an independent
population, different sampling approaches can be applied to
different strata.
 Drawbacks to using stratified sampling.
 First, the sampling frame of the entire population has to be
prepared separately for each stratum
 Potential for Overlapping Strata:
 If individuals belong to multiple strata, it can complicate the
sampling process and lead to misrepresentation, especially when
examining multiple criteria. Stratifying variables may be related to
some, but not others, further complicating the design and
potentially reducing the utility of the strata.
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STRATIFIED SAMPLING…….
Draw a sample from each stratum

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 Clustered Sampling
 In the clustered sampling method, the cluster or group of
people are formed from the population set. The group has
similar significant characteristics. Also, they have an equal
chance of being a part of the sample. This method uses simple
random sampling for the cluster of the population.
 Example:
 An educational institution has ten branches nationwide with almost
the same number of students. If we want to collect data regarding
facilities and other things, we can’t travel to every unit to collect the
required data. Hence, we can use random sampling to select three or
four branches as clusters.
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 CLUSTER SAMPLING
 Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling' .
 In the first stage, a sample of areas is chosen;
 In the second stage, a sample of respondents within those
areas is selected.
 Population divided into clusters of homogeneous units,
usually based on geographical contiguity.
 Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.
 A sample of such clusters is then selected.
 All units from the selected clusters are studied.
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 Clustered Sampling
 More appropriate in a homogeneous population, while a
stratified random sampling method is better with a
heterogeneous population.
 In sampling, homogeneous sampling involves selecting a sample
where all individuals share similar characteristics or belong to
the same group.
 Heterogeneous sampling, on the other hand, aims to include a
wide range of participants or characteristics within the sample,
often to capture diverse perspectives.

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Difference Between Strata and Clusters
 Stratified sampling divides the population into
homogeneous subgroups (strata) and then samples
from each stratum.
 Cluster sampling divides the population into
heterogeneous clusters and then selects entire clusters
as the sample.

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 Stratified Sampling:
 Goal:
 To ensure that the sample is representative of the population by including
all subgroups in the sample.
 Method:
 The population is divided into strata (subgroups) based on specific
characteristics (e.g., age, gender, income). A sample is then drawn
from each stratum, either proportionally or with some other method.
 Example:
A researcher wants to study the attitudes of students in a university. They
might divide the student population into strata based on their major (e.g.,
humanities and medical sciences) and randomly select students from
each major to ensure representation across all disciplines.
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 Cluster Sampling:
 Goal:
 To reduce sampling costs and effort by focusing on groups rather than
individual units.
 Method:
 The population is divided into clusters (naturally occurring groups, like
neighbourhoods, schools, or hospitals). Randomly select some clusters to
include in the sample, and then either sample from within each selected
cluster or include all units within the selected clusters.
 Example:
A researcher wants to study the prevalence of a certain disease in a large
city. They might divide the city into neighborhoods (clusters) and then
randomly select a few neighborhoods to study, collecting data from every
household within those selected neighborhoods.
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 MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING
 Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more
levels of units are embedded one in the other.
 In the first stage, a random number of districts are chosen
from all states.
 The second stage is choosing a random number of villages.
 Then, the third stage units will be houses.
 All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at last step
are surveyed.
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MULTI-PHASE SAMPLING
 Multi-phase sampling is a statistical method where data is
collected in multiple stages, using a larger initial sample
and then a smaller subsample for more detailed
information.
 Two-Phase Sampling:
 The most common form is two-phase sampling, where a large
initial sample is used to collect preliminary data, and then a
smaller subsample is selected for more intensive or detailed
measurements.
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NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING

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NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 Non-probability sampling is a research approach where
participants are selected for a study based on non-
random criteria, meaning not every member of the
population has an equal chance of being chosen.

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 Example: We visit every household in a given street and
interview the first person to answer the door.
 In any household with more than one occupant, this is a
nonprobability sample because some people are more likely
to answer the door (e.g. an unemployed person who spends
most of their time at home is more likely to answer than an
employed housemate who might be at work when the
interviewer calls). It’s not practical to calculate these
probabilities.

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 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 Any sampling method where some elements of the population
have no chance of selection (these are sometimes referred to
as 'out of coverage'/'undercovered'), or where the probability
of selection can't be accurately determined.
 It involves the selection of elements based on assumptions
regarding the population of interest, which forms the criteria
for selection. Hence, because the selection of elements is
nonrandom, nonprobability sampling does not allow the
estimation of sampling errors.
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 NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING…….
 It is more commonly used in qualitative research
 Nonprobability Sampling includes: Convenience sampling,
Voluntary response sampling, Snowball sampling, Quota
Sampling and Purposive Sampling.
 In addition, nonresponse effects may turn any probability
design into a nonprobability design if the characteristics of
nonresponse are not well understood, since nonresponse
effectively modifies each element's probability of being
sampled.
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Types of Non-Probability Sampling:
 There are several types of non-probability sampling, each with
its advantages and disadvantages:
 Convenience sampling: Selecting participants who are easily
accessible or available to the researcher.
 Quota sampling: Selecting participants based on predetermined
characteristics or quotas.
 Snowball sampling: Selecting participants through referrals from
existing participants.
 Purposive sampling: Selecting participants based on specific criteria
or characteristics relevant to the research question.
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Advantages of Non-Probability Sampling:
 Flexibility and creativity: Researchers can adapt their
sampling methods to fit the specific needs of their
research.
 Cost-effective and efficient: Non-probability sampling
can be a faster and cheaper way to collect data than
probability sampling

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Disadvantages of Non-Probability Sampling:
 Potential for bias: The researcher's subjective judgment
can introduce bias into the sample selection.
 Reduced accuracy: The lack of random selection can lead
to less accurate results.
 Limited generalizability: Findings from non-probability
samples may not be generalizable to the larger population.

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 Convenience sampling
 A convenience sample includes the individuals who are most
accessible to the researcher.
 This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data. Still,
there is no way to tell if the sample is representative of the
population, so it can’t produce generalizable results. Convenience
samples are at risk for both sampling bias and selection bias.
 Example: Convenience sampling
 You are researching opinions about student support services in your
university, so after each class, you ask your fellow students to complete a
survey on the topic. This is a convenient way to gather data, but as you
only surveyed students taking the same classes as you at the same level,
the sample does not represent all the students at your university.
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 Voluntary response sampling
 The voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of
access. People volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a
public online survey).
 Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat
biased, as some people will inherently be more likely to
volunteer than others, leading to self-selection bias.
 Example: Voluntary response sampling
A common example is a TV show asking viewers to vote via a call-
in poll, or an online survey where anyone can respond. In essence,
the sample consists of people who have self-selected into the
sample 48
Quota sampling
 Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling method that
relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined
number or proportion of units. This is called a quota.

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 Purposive sampling refers to a group of non-probability
sampling techniques in which units are selected because they
have characteristics that you need in your sample. In other
words, units are selected “on purpose” in purposive
sampling.
 Also called judgmental sampling, this sampling method
relies on the researcher’s judgment when identifying and
selecting the individuals, cases, or events that can provide the
best information to achieve the study’s objectives.
 Purposive sampling is common in qualitative research and
mixed methods research.
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 What is nonresponse bias?
 A nonresponse error occurs when individuals selected for a
survey or study don't provide data, potentially leading to
biased results.
 You receive less than half of the survey responses you
expected.
 The participants simply forgot to take your survey, and you’re
left with a sample that no longer represents the population for
your study.
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Qualitative Data:
 Focus: Understanding the "why" and "how" behind behaviors,
attitudes, and experiences.
 Data Type: Non-numerical, descriptive data like words, images, and
observations.
 Methods: Interviews, focus groups, observations, and open-ended
surveys.
 Purpose: To explore in-depth, generate hypotheses, and gain rich
insights.
 Examples: Customer feedback, interview transcripts, observations
of social interactions, detailed descriptions of a phenomenon. 52
Quantitative Data:
 Focus: Measuring and quantifying variables, testing
hypotheses, and making generalizations.
 Data Type: Numerical data that can be counted or measured.
 Methods: Surveys with closed-ended questions, experiments,
and statistical analysis.
 Purpose: To identify patterns, correlations, and causal
relationships and test hypotheses.
 Examples: Average test scores, sales figures, age
demographics, survey responses.
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