SAMPLING

METHODS

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 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Learn the reasons for sampling

• Develop an understanding about different

sampling methods

• Distinguish between probability & non

probability sampling

• Discuss the relative advantages &

disadvantages of each sampling methods
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 SAMPLING

• A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully

representative) collection of units from a
population used to determine truths about that
population” (Field, 2005)
• Why sample?
– Resources (time, money) and workload
– Gives results with known accuracy that can be
calculated mathematically
• The sampling frame is the list from which the
potential respondents are drawn
– Registrar’s office
– Class rosters
– Must assess sampling frame errors
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 SAMPLING……
• What is your population of interest?
• To whom do you want to generalize your
results?
– All doctors
– School children
– Women aged 15-45 years
– Other
• Can you sample the entire population?

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 SAMPLING…….

• 3 factors that influence sample representative-

ness
• Sampling procedure
• Sample size
• Participation (response)

• When might you sample the entire population?

• When your population is very small
• When you have extensive resources
• When you don’t expect a very high response

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 6
SAMPLING BREAKDOWN
SAMPLING…….

STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION

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 SAMPLING…….
• Two general approaches to sampling are used in social science research.
probability sampling and non-probability sampling
• With probability sampling, all elements (e.g., persons, households) in the
population have some opportunity of being included in the sample, and the
mathematical probability that any one of them will be selected can be calculated.
• With nonprobability sampling, in contrast, population elements are selected on
the basis of their availability (e.g., because they volunteered) or because of the
researcher's personal judgment that they are representative.
• The consequence is that an unknown portion of the population is excluded (e.g.,
those who did not volunteer).
• Because some members of the population have no chance of being sampled, the
extent to which a convenience sample – regardless of its size – actually represents
the entire population cannot be known

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 Types of Samples
• Probability (Random) Samples
• Simple random sample
– Systematic random sample
– Stratified random sample
– Multistage sample
– Multiphase sample
– Cluster sample
• Non-Probability Samples
– Convenience sample
– Purposive sample
– Quota
– Snow Ball
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 Process
• The sampling process comprises several stages:
– Defining the population of concern
– Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or
events possible to measure
– Specifying a sampling method for selecting
items or events from the frame
– Determining the sample size
– Implementing the sampling plan
– Sampling and data collecting
– Reviewing the sampling process

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 Population definition
• A population can be defined as including all
people or items with the characteristic one
wishes to understand.
• Because there is very rarely enough time or
money to gather information from everyone
or everything in a population, the goal
becomes finding a representative sample (or
subset) of that population.

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 Population definition…….
• Note also that the population from which the
sample is drawn may not be the same as the
population about which we actually want
information. Often there is large but not
complete overlap between these two groups
due to frame issues etc.
• Sometimes they may be entirely separate -
for instance, we might study rats in order to
get a better understanding of human health,
or we might study records from people born
in 2008 in order to make predictions about
people born in 2009.
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 SAMPLING FRAME
• In the most straightforward case, such as the
sentencing of a batch of material from production
(acceptance sampling by lots), it is possible to
identify and measure every single item in the
population and to include any one of them in our
sample. However, in the more general case this is not
possible. There is no way to identify all rats in the
set of all rats. Where voting is not compulsory,
there is no way to identify which people will actually
vote at a forthcoming election (in advance of the
election)
• As a remedy, we seek a sampling frame which has
the property that we can identify every single
element and include any in our sample .
• The sampling frame must be representative of the
population
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 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

• A probability sampling scheme is one in which every

unit in the population has a chance (greater than
zero) of being selected in the sample, and this
probability can be accurately determined.

• . When every element in the population does have the

same probability of selection, this is known as an
'equal probability of selection' (EPS) design. Such
designs are also referred to as 'self-weighting'
because all sampled units are given the same weight.

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 PROBABILITY SAMPLING…….

• Probability sampling includes:

• Simple Random Sampling,
• Systematic Sampling,
• Stratified Random Sampling,
• Cluster Sampling
• Multistage Sampling.
• Multiphase sampling

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 NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING
• Any sampling method where some elements of population
have no chance of selection (these are sometimes
referred to as 'out of coverage'/'undercovered'), or
where the probability of selection can't be accurately
determined. It involves the selection of elements based
on assumptions regarding the population of interest,
which forms the criteria for selection. Hence, because
the selection of elements is nonrandom, nonprobability
sampling not allows the estimation of sampling errors..

• Example: We visit every household in a given street, and

interview the first person to answer the door. In any
household with more than one occupant, this is a
nonprobability sample, because some people are more
likely to answer the door (e.g. an unemployed person who
spends most of their time at home is more likely to
answer than an employed housemate who might be at
work when the interviewer calls) and it's not practical to
calculate these probabilities.

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 NONPROBABILITY
SAMPLING…….
• Nonprobability Sampling includes:
Convenience Sampling, Quota Sampling and
Purposive Sampling.
• In addition, nonresponse effects may turn
any probability design into a nonprobability
design if the characteristics of
nonresponse are not well understood, since
nonresponse effectively modifies each
element's probability of being sampled.

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 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
• Applicable when population is small,
homogeneous & readily available
• All subsets of the frame are given an equal
probability. Each element of the frame
thus has an equal probability of selection.
• It provides for greatest number of
possible samples. This is done by assigning
a number to each unit in the sampling
frame.
• A table of random number or lottery
system is used to determine which units
are to be selected. 18
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING……..
• Estimates are easy to calculate.
• Simple random sampling is always an EPS design, but not all
EPS designs are simple random sampling.

• Disadvantages
• If sampling frame large, this method impracticable.
• Minority subgroups of interest in population may not be
present in sample in sufficient numbers for study.

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 REPLACEMENT OF SELECTED UNITS

• Sampling schemes may be without

replacement ('WOR' - no element can be
selected more than once in the same sample)
or with replacement ('WR' - an element may
appear multiple times in the one sample).
• For example, if we catch fish, measure them,
and immediately return them to the water
before continuing with the sample, this is a
WR design, because we might end up catching
and measuring the same fish more than once.
However, if we do not return the fish to the
water (e.g. if we eat the fish), this becomes a
WOR design.
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 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
• Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target
population according to some ordering scheme and then
selecting elements at regular intervals through that
ordered list.
• Systematic sampling involves a random start and then
proceeds with the selection of every kth element from
then onwards. In this case, k=(population size/sample
size).
• It is important that the starting point is not
automatically the first in the list, but is instead
randomly chosen from within the first to the kth
element in the list.
• A simple example would be to select every 10th name
from the telephone directory (an 'every 10th' sample,
also referred to as 'sampling with a skip of 10').
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SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING……
As described above, systematic sampling is an EPS method, because all
elements have the same probability of selection (in the example
given, one in ten). It is not 'simple random sampling' because
different subsets of the same size have different selection
probabilities - e.g. the set {4,14,24,...,994} has a one-in-ten
probability of selection, but the set {4,13,24,34,...} has zero
probability of selection.

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 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING……

• ADVANTAGES:
• Sample easy to select
• Suitable sampling frame can be identified easily
• Sample evenly spread over entire reference population
• DISADVANTAGES:
• Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in population
coincides with that of selection.
• Difficult to assess precision of estimate from one survey.

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 STRATIFIED SAMPLING
Where population embraces a number of distinct
categories, the frame can be organized into
separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled as
an independent sub-population, out of which
individual elements can be randomly selected.
• Every unit in a stratum has same chance of being
selected.
• Using same sampling fraction for all strata
ensures proportionate representation in the
sample.
• Adequate representation of minority subgroups of
interest can be ensured by stratification & varying
sampling fraction between strata as required.

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 STRATIFIED SAMPLING……
• Finally, since each stratum is treated as an
independent population, different sampling
approaches can be applied to different strata.

• Drawbacks to using stratified sampling.

• First, sampling frame of entire population has
to be prepared separately for each stratum
• Second, when examining multiple criteria,
stratifying variables may be related to some,
but not to others, further complicating the
design, and potentially reducing the utility of
the strata.
• Finally, in some cases (such as designs with a
large number of strata, or those with a
specified minimum sample size per group),
stratified sampling can potentially require a
larger sample than would other methods
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STRATIFIED SAMPLING…….

Draw a sample from each stratum

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 CLUSTER SAMPLING
• Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage
sampling' .
• First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
• Second stage a sample of respondents within
those areas is selected.
• Population divided into clusters of homogeneous
units, usually based on geographical contiguity.
• Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.
• A sample of such clusters is then selected.
• All units from the selected clusters are studied.

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 CLUSTER SAMPLING…….

• Advantages :
• Cuts down on the cost of preparing a
sampling frame.
• This can reduce travel and other
administrative costs.
• Disadvantages: sampling error is higher
for a simple random sample of same
size.
• Often used to evaluate vaccination
coverage in EPI
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 CLUSTER SAMPLING…….
Two types of cluster sampling methods.
One-stage sampling. All of the elements
within selected clusters are included in
the sample.
Two-stage sampling. A subset of
elements within selected clusters are
randomly selected for inclusion in the
sample.

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Difference Between Strata and Clusters

• Although strata and clusters are both non-overlapping

subsets of the population, they differ in several ways.
• All strata are represented in the sample; but only a subset
of clusters are in the sample.
• With stratified sampling, the best survey results occur
when elements within strata are internally homogeneous.
However, with cluster sampling, the best results occur
when elements within clusters are internally
heterogeneous

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 MULTISTAGE SAMPLING

• Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of

units are embedded one in the other.

• First stage, random number of districts chosen in all

states.

• Followed by random number of talukas, villages.

• Then third stage units will be houses.

• All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at last step

are surveyed.

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 MULTISTAGE SAMPLING……..
• This technique, is essentially the process of taking
random samples of preceding random samples.
• Not as effective as true random sampling, but
probably solves more of the problems inherent to
random sampling.
• An effective strategy because it banks on multiple
randomizations. As such, extremely useful.
• Multistage sampling used frequently when a complete
list of all members of the population not exists and is
inappropriate.
• Moreover, by avoiding the use of all sample units in all
selected clusters, multistage sampling avoids the
large, and perhaps unnecessary, costs associated with
traditional cluster sampling.
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 MULTI PHASE SAMPLING
• Part of the information collected from whole sample & part from
subsample.

• A sampling procedure in which some information is collected

from the whole sample and additional information is collected, at
the same time or later, from sub samples of the entire sample
(i.e. some units provide more information than others).
• A multi-phase sample collects basic information from a large
sample of units and then, for a sub sample of these units, collects
more detailed information. The most common form of multi-
phase sampling is two-phase sampling (or double sampling), but
three or more phases are also possible.

• Survey by such procedure is less costly, less laborious & more

purposeful

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 QUOTA SAMPLING
• The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-
groups, just as in stratified sampling.
• Then judgment used to select subjects or units from each
segment based on a specified proportion.
• For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200
females and 300 males between the age of 45 and 60.
• It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-
probability sampling.
• In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random.
• For example interviewers might be tempted to interview those
who look most helpful. The problem is that these samples may
be biased because not everyone gets a chance of selection.
This random element is its greatest weakness and quota
versus probability has been a matter of controversy for many
years
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 CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
• Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or accidental
or haphazard sampling.
• A type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being
drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand.
That is, readily available and convenient.
• The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make
generalizations about the total population from this sample
because it would not be representative enough.
• For example, if the interviewer was to conduct a survey at a
shopping center early in the morning on a given day, the people
that he/she could interview would be limited to those given there
at that given time, which would not represent the views of other
members of society in such an area, if the survey was to be
conducted at different times of day and several times per week.
• This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
• In social science research, snowball sampling is a similar technique,
where existing study subjects are used to recruit more subjects
into the sample. 35
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING…….

– Use results that are easy to get

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Judgmental sampling or Purposive
sampling
• The researcher chooses the sample
based on who they think would be
appropriate for the study. This is used
primarily when there is a limited number
of people that have expertise in the
area being researched

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 PANEL SAMPLING

• Method of first selecting a group of participants through a

random sampling method and then asking that group for the same
information again several times over a period of time.
• Therefore, each participant is given same survey or interview at
two or more time points; each period of data collection called a
"wave".
• This sampling methodology often chosen for large scale or
nation-wide studies in order to gauge changes in the population
with regard to any number of variables from chronic illness to job
stress to weekly food expenditures.
• Panel sampling can also be used to inform researchers about
within-person health changes due to age or help explain changes
in continuous dependent variables such as spousal interaction.
• There have been several proposed methods of analyzing panel
sample data, including growth curves.

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 Sample Size
• There are no hard and fast rules for sample
size in qualitative research. (7- 10
samples???)
• The size of the sample depends on WHAT you
try to find out, and from what different
informants or perspectives you try to find
that out.
 Sample Size cont…
• Quantitative Research:

– belief among researchers that the bigger

the sample, the better the study becomes –
not necessarily true.
– efforts to get a representative sample
rather than to get a very large sample.
 Sample Size cont…
• Sample size calculation (minimum numbers);
– Formula by Krejcie & Morgan
– Formula by Cochran
– N0= (t)2 x (pq) = (1.96)2 x (0.5)(0.5)
(d)2 (.05)2
t = alpha level
p = estimated proportion of an attribute that is present in
the population, and
q = 1-p.
d = acceptable margin of error
 Sample Size cont…

N
n=
1+N(e2)

N= Population, e= Margin of Error

Let, N = 2000
= 2000/1+2000(.05)2
= 333.33 or 333
 TABLE FOR DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE FROM A GIVEN POPULATION
N S N S N S N S N S
10 10 100 80 280 162 800 260 2800 338
15 14 110 86 290 165 850 265 3000 341
20 19 120 92 300 169 900 269 3500 246
25 24 130 97 320 175 950 274 4000 351
30 28 140 103 340 181 1000 278 4500 351
35 32 150 108 360 186 1100 285 5000 357
40 36 160 113 380 181 1200 291 6000 361
45 40 180 118 400 196 1300 297 7000 364
50 44 190 123 420 201 1400 302 8000 367
55 48 200 127 440 205 1500 306 9000 368
60 52 210 132 460 210 1600 310 10000 373
65 56 220 136 480 214 1700 313 15000 375
70 59 230 140 500 217 1800 317 20000 377
75 63 240 144 550 225 1900 320 30000 379
80 66 250 148 600 234 2000 322 40000 380
85 70 260 152 650 242 2200 327 50000 381
90 73 270 155 700 248 2400 331 75000 382
95 76 270 159 750 256 2600 335 100000 384
“N” is population size
“S” is sample size.
Krejcie, Robert V., Morgan, Daryle W., “Determining Sample Size for Research Activities”, Educational and Psychological
Measurement, 1970.
Size of sample for factor analysis
The size of the sample for factor analysis
will be determined while keeping in mind
the suggestions of different researchers.
Arrindell and Van de Ende (1985)
proposed that from the factor analysis,
stable factors will be obtained and the
size of the sample will be 20 times
greater than the expected factors
 For Unknown Population
• Comrey and Lee (1992) gave sample in a
series for inferential statistics. Sample having
less than 50 participants will observed to be a
weaker sample; sample of 100 size will be
weak; 200 will be adequate; sample of 300
will be considered as good; 500 very good
whereas 1000 will be excellent.
 Unknown Population cont…
• According to Hair et al. (2006) the size of the
sample should depends on the number of
items developed for some specific
characteristic.
• It was suggested that each item should be
represented using 5 samples.
 For Regression Analysis
• It was suggested by Field (2005) that in regression
analysis, a sample of 15 units representing every
independent variable will be appropriate.
• (Number of independent variables x 15).

• Grenn (1991) presented a formula of 50 + 8k where k

represents the number of independent variables
being used.
How to Choose a Statistical Tool

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Questions???

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