Properties of Matter - Mass, Length, Volume and Temperature

Mass vs. Weight

One of the many interesting things about travel in outer space is the idea of weightlessness. If
something is not fastened down, it will float in mid-air. Early astronauts learned that weightlessness
had bad effects on bone structure. If there was no pressure on the legs, those bones would begin to
lose mass. Weight provided by gravity is needed to maintain healthy bones. Specially designed
equipment is now a part of every space mission so the astronauts can maintain good body fitness.

Mass is a measure of the amount of matter that an object contains. The mass of an object is made
in comparison to the standard mass of 1 kilogram. The kilogram was originally defined as the mass
of 1L1L of liquid water at 4oC4oC (volume of a liquid changes slightly with temperature). Currently,
the kilogram is defined as the equivalent mass of the energy of a photon given its frequency, via the
Planck constant. In the laboratory, mass is measured with a balance (see below), which must be
calibrated with a standard mass so that its measurements are accurate.

Figure 2.4.12.4.1: An analytical balance makes very sensitive mass

measurements in a laboratory, usually in grams.

Other common units of mass are the gram and the milligram. A gram is 1/1000th of a kilogram,
meaning that there are 1000g1000g in 1kg1kg. A milligram is 1/1000th of a gram, so there
are 1000mg1000mg in 1g1g.

The Difference Between Mass and Weight

The mass of a body is a measure of its inertial property or how much matter it contains. The weight
of a body is a measure of the force exerted on it by gravity or the force needed to support it. Gravity
on earth gives a body a downward acceleration of about 9.8 m/s2. In common parlance, weight is
often used as a synonym for mass in weights and measures. For instance, the verb “to weigh” means
“to determine the mass of” or “to have a mass of.” The incorrect use of weight in place of mass
should be phased out, and the term mass used when mass is meant. The SI unit of mass is the
kilogram (kg). In science and technology, the weight of a body in a particular reference frame is
defined as the force that gives the body an acceleration equal to the local acceleration of free fall in
that reference frame. Thus, the SI unit of the quantity weight defined in this way (force) is the
newton (N).

Length
Length is the measurement of the extent of something along its greatest dimension. The SI basic
unit of length, or linear measure, is the meter (m)(m). All measurements of length may be made in
meters, though the prefixes listed in various tables will often be more convenient. The width of a
room may be expressed as about 5 meters (m)(m), whereas a large distance, such as the distance
between New York City and Chicago, is better expressed as 1150 kilometers (km)(km). Very small
distances can be expressed in units such as the millimeter or the micrometer. The width of a typical
human hair is about 10 micrometers (μm)(μm).

Figure 2.4.22.4.2: The relative lengths of 1 m, 1 yd, 1 cm, and 1 in. are shown (not actual size), as
well as comparisons of 2.54 cm and 1 in., and of 1 m and 1.094 yd. (CC BY 4.0; OpenStax)

Volume
In addition to the fundamental units, SI also allows for derived units based on a fundamental unit or
units. There are many derived units used in science. For example, the derived unit for area comes
from the idea that area is defined as width times height. Because both width and height are lengths,
they both have the fundamental unit of meter, so the unit of area is meter × meter, or meter2 (m2).
This is sometimes spoken as "square meters." A unit with a prefix can also be used to derive a unit
for area, so we can also have cm2, mm2, or km2 as acceptable units for area.

Volume is the amount of space occupied by a sample of matter. The volume of a regular object can
be calculated by multiplying its length by its width and its height. Since each of those is a linear
measurement, we say that units of volume are derived from units of length. One unit of volume is
the cubic meter (m3)(m3), which is the volume occupied by a cube that measures 1m1m on each
side. This very large volume is not very convenient for typical use in a chemistry laboratory. A
liter (L)(L) is the volume of a cube that measures 10cm10cm (1dm)(1dm) on each side. A liter is
thus equal to both 1000cm31000cm3 (10cm×10cm×10cm)(10cm×10cm×10cm) and
to 1dm31dm3. A smaller unit of volume that is commonly used is the milliliter (mLmL - note the
capital LL which is a standard practice). A milliliter is the volume of a cube that
measures 1cm1cm on each side. Therefore, a milliliter is equal to a cubic centimeter (cm3)(cm3).
There are 1000mL1000mL in 1L1L, which is the same as saying that there
are 1000cm31000cm3 in 1dm31dm3.

pproximate Equivalents to Some SI Units

• 1 m ≈ 39.36 in. ≈ 3.28 ft ≈ 1.09 yd

• 1 in. ≈ 2.54 cm
• 1 km ≈ 0.62 mi
• 1 kg ≈ 2.20 lb
• 1 lb ≈ 454 g
• 1 L ≈ 1.06 qt
• 1 qt ≈ 0.946 L

Another definition of a liter is one-tenth of a meter cubed. Because one-tenth of a meter is 10 cm,
then a liter is equal to 1,000 cm3 (Figure 2.4.32.4.3). Because 1 L equals 1,000 mL, we conclude
that 1 mL equals 1 cm3; thus, these units are interchangeable.

Figure 2.4.32.4.3: Units of Volume. (a) The relative volumes are shown for cubes of 1 m3, 1 dm3 (1
L), and 1 cm3 (1 mL) (not to scale). A liter (L) is defined as a cube 1 dm (1/10th of a meter) on a
side. A milliliter (mL), 1/1,000th of a liter, is equal to 1 cubic centimeter. (b) The diameter of a dime
is compared relative to the edge length of a 1-cm3 (1-mL) cube. (CC BY 4.0; OpenStax)

Units not only are multiplied together but also can be divided. For example, if you are traveling at
one meter for every second of time elapsed, your velocity is 1 meter per second, or 1 m/s. The
word per implies division, so velocity is determined by dividing a distance quantity by a time quantity.
Other units for velocity include kilometers per hour (km/h) or even micrometers per nanosecond
(μm/ns). Later, we will see other derived units that can be expressed as fractions.

Temperature
One of the fundamental quantities in science is temperature, which is a measure of the average
amount of energy of motion, or kinetic energy, a system contains. Temperatures are expressed using
scales that use units called degrees. There are three scales used for reporting temperatures.
Figure 2.4.12.4.1 compares the three temperature scales.

Figure 2.4.12.4.1: Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin Temperatures. A comparison of the three
temperature scales. These thermometers have a red-colored liquid which contains alcohol and food
coloring. Silver looking thermometers contain mercury, which is a neurotoxin.

In the United States, the commonly used temperature scale is the Fahrenheit scale (symbolized by °F
and spoken as “degrees Fahrenheit”). On this scale, the freezing point of liquid water (the
temperature at which liquid water turns to solid ice) is 32 °F, and the boiling point of water (the
temperature at which liquid water turns to steam) is 212 °F.
Science also uses other scales to express temperature. For example, the Celsius scale (symbolized by
°C and spoken as “degrees Celsius”) defines 0°C as the freezing point of water and 100 °C as the
boiling point of water. This scale is divided into 100 divisions between these two landmarks and
extended higher and lower as well. By comparing the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales, a conversion
between the two scales can be determined:

∘F=(∘C×95)+32(2.4.1)(2.4.1)∘F=(∘C×95)+32

Note that science uses the Celsius and Kelvin scales almost exclusively; virtually no practicing chemist
expresses laboratory-measured temperatures with the Fahrenheit scale. (In fact, the United States is
one of the few countries in the world that still uses the Fahrenheit scale on a daily basis. People
driving near the borders of Canada or Mexico may pick up local radio stations on the other side of the
border that express the daily weather in degrees Celsius, so do not get confused by their weather
reports.)

The fundamental unit of temperature in SI is the Kelvin (K). The Kelvin temperature scale (note that
the name of the scale capitalizes the word Kelvin, but the unit itself is lowercase) uses degrees that
are the same size as the Celsius degree, but the numerical scale is shifted up by 273.15 units. That
is, the conversion between the Kelvin and Celsius scales is as follows:

K=∘C+273.15(2.4.2)(2.4.2)K=∘C+273.15

For most purposes, it is acceptable to use 273 instead of 273.15 in Equation 2.4.22.4.2.

Note that the Kelvin scale does not use the word degrees; a temperature of 295 K is spoken of as
“two hundred ninety-five kelvin” and not “two hundred ninety-five degrees Kelvin.”

The reason that the Kelvin scale is defined this way is that there exists a minimum possible
temperature called absolute zero (zero Kelvin). The Kelvin temperature scale is set so that 0 K is
absolute zero, and the temperature is counted upward from there.
Changes in Matter - Physical and Chemical Changes

Change is happening all around us all of the time. Just as chemists have classified elements and
compounds, they have also classified types of changes. Changes are classified as either physical or
chemical changes. Chemists learn a lot about the nature of matter by studying the changes that
matter can undergo. Chemists make a distinction between two different types of changes that they
study—physical changes and chemical changes.

Physical Change
Physical changes are changes in which no bonds are broken or formed. This means that the same
types of compounds or elements that were there at the beginning of the change are there at the end
of the change. Because the ending materials are the same as the beginning materials, the properties
(such as color, boiling point, etc.) will also be the same. Physical changes involve moving molecules
around, but not changing them. Some types of physical changes include:

• Changes of state (changes from a solid to a liquid or a gas and vice versa).
• Separation of a mixture.
• Physical deformation (cutting, denting, stretching).
• Making solutions (special kinds of mixtures).

As an ice cube melts, its shape changes as it acquires the ability to flow. However, its composition
does not change. Melting is an example of a physical change. A physical change is a change to a
sample of matter in which some properties of the material change, but the identity of the matter
does not. When liquid water is heated, it changes to water vapor. However, even though the physical
properties have changed, the molecules are exactly the same as before. We still have each water
molecule containing two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom covalently bonded. When you have a
jar containing a mixture of pennies and nickels and you sort the mixture so that you have one pile of
pennies and another pile of nickels, you have not altered the identity of the pennies or the nickels—
you've merely separated them into two groups. This would be an example of a physical change.
Similarly, if you have a piece of paper, you don't change it into something other than a piece of paper
by ripping it up. What was paper before you started tearing is still paper when you are done. Again,
this is an example of a physical change.
 Figure 5.1.15.1.1: Ice melting is a physical change.
When liquid water (H2OH2O) freezes into a solid state (ice), it appears changed; however, this
change is only physical, as the composition of the constituent molecules is the same: 11.19%
hydrogen and 88.81% oxygen by mass. (Public Domain; Moussa).

Physical changes can further be classified as reversible or irreversible. The melted ice cube may be
refrozen, so melting is a reversible physical change. Physical changes that involve a change of state
are all reversible. Other changes of state include vaporization (liquid to gas), freezing (liquid to
solid), and condensation (gas to liquid). Dissolving is also a reversible physical change. When salt is
dissolved into water, the salt is said to have entered the aqueous state. The salt may be regained by
boiling off the water, leaving the salt behind.

Chemical Change
Chemical changes occur when bonds are broken and/or formed between molecules or atoms. This
means that one substance with a certain set of properties (such as melting point, color, taste, etc) is
turned into a different substance with different properties. Chemical changes are frequently harder to
reverse than physical changes.

One good example of a chemical change is burning a candle. The act of burning paper actually
results in the formation of new chemicals (carbon dioxide and water) from the burning of the wax.
Another example of a chemical change is what occurs when natural gas is burned in your furnace.
This time, on the left there is a molecule of methane, CH4CH4, and two molecules of oxygen, O2O2;
on the right are two molecules of water, H2OH2O, and one molecule of carbon dioxide, CO2CO2. In
this case, not only has the appearance changed, but the structure of the molecules has also changed.
The new substances do not have the same chemical properties as the original ones. Therefore, this is
a chemical change.

Figure 5.1.25.1.2: Burning of wax to

generate water and carbon dioxide is a chemical reaction. (CC-SA-BY-3.0; Andrikkos )

We can't actually see molecules breaking and forming bonds, although that's what defines chemical
changes. We have to make other observations to indicate that a chemical change has happened.
Some of the evidence for chemical change will involve the energy changes that occur in chemical
changes, but some evidence involves the fact that new substances with different properties are
formed in a chemical change.

Observations that help to indicate chemical change include:

• Temperature changes (either the temperature increases or decreases).

• Light given off.
• Unexpected color changes (a substance with a different color is made, rather than just mixing
the original colors together).
• Bubbles are formed (but the substance is not boiling—you made a substance that is a gas at
the temperature of the beginning materials, instead of a liquid).
• Different smell or taste (do not taste your chemistry experiments, though!).
• A solid forms if two clear liquids are mixed (look for floaties—technically called a precipitate).