Module III

MEASUREMENT

Introduction
Chemistry often involves measurements that provide much of the information which
informs the hypotheses, theories, and laws describing the behavior of matter and energy in
both the macroscopic and microscopic domains.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. identify the different systems of units;

2. convert units of physical quantities from one system to another
3. apply the principles of scientific notation in measurements and calculations

I. The Concept of Measurement

All measurements are essentially comparisons. In principle, the measurement of any

quantity consists of comparing the quantity with the appropriate standard. The result of the
measurement is known as the magnitude of the quantity. Thus any measurable quantity may be
expressed in the general form:

Q = nU

where: Q = the magnitude of the quantity

n = the numeric part
U = the unit of the quantity Q

II. System of Units

A system of units is a collection of units in which certain units are chosen as fundamental
and all others are derived from them. This system is also called an absolute system of units. In
most systems, the mass, length and time are considered to be fundamental quantities, and their
units are called fundamental units. The following are some systems of units which are in common
use.
1. The mks system – based on the fundamental units meter (for length), kilogram (for mass)
and second (for interval of time)
2. The cgs system – based on the centimeter as a unit of length, gram as a unit of mass and
second as a unit of interval of time
3. The fps system – the corresponding units are foot (for length), pound (for force) and
second (for interval of time)
International System of Units

The use of different systems of units oftentimes creates some confusion. To minimize
this problem and further improve communication, the General Conference of Weights and
Measures recommended in 1960 the adoption of a revised metric system called International
System of Units (SI, from the French Système Internationale d’ Unites). It is consist of seven
base units and all other units of measurement can be derived from these base units. Like metric
units, SI units are modified in decimal fashion by a series of prefixes.

SI Base or Fundamental Quantities and their Units

There are seven SI base units, which are listed in table below. Chemistry primarily uses
five of the base units: the mole for amount, the kilogram for mass, the meter for length, the
second for time, and the kelvin for temperature.

The SI base units are based on physical standards. The definitions of the SI base units
have been and continue to be modified and new base units added as advancements in science are
made. Each SI base unit except the kilogram is described by stable properties of the universe.

Base Quantity Name of Unit Symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric Current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of Substance mole mol
Luminous Intensity candela cd

Some Derived Quantities and their Units

Derived units are combinations of SI base units. Units can be multiplied and divided, just
as numbers can be multiplied and divided. For example, the area of a square having a side of 2
cm is 2 cm × 2 cm, or 4 cm2 (read as “four centimeters squared” or “four square centimeters”).
Notice that we have squared a length unit, the centimeter, to get a derived unit for area, the
square centimeter.

Derived Quantity Unit Symbol

2
Area m
Weight or Force kg.m2/s2 or Newton
Volume m3
Density kg/m3
Pressure N/m2
Speed m/s
Acceleration m/s2
Prefixes Used with SI Units

Common prefixes and their multiplicative factors are listed below. Some prefixes create
a multiple of the original unit: 1 kilogram equals 1,000 grams (or 1 kg = 1,000 g), and 1 megameter
equals 1,000,000 meters (or 1 Mm = 1,000,000 m). Other prefixes create a fraction of the
original unit. Thus, 1 centimeter equals 1/100 of a meter, 1 millimeter equals 1/1,000 of a meter,
1 microgram equals 1/1,000,000 of a gram, and so forth.

Prefix Symbol Meaning

tera T 1012
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
hecto h 102
deca or deka da 10
deci d 10-1
centi c 10-2
milli m 10-3
micro µ 10-6
nano n 10-9
pico p 10-12
femto f 10-15
atto a 10-18

III. Conversion of Units

Conversion of units from one system to another or within the system itself is sometimes
required in certain calculations. Measurements that are utilized frequently in the study of
chemistry include time, mass, volume, density and temperature.
The procedure we use to convert between units in solving problems is called dimensional
analysis (also called the factor-label method). A simple technique requiring little memorization,
dimensional analysis is based on the relationship between different units that express the same
physical quantity. To apply dimensional analysis we use the relationship
given quantity x conversion factor = desired quantity

and the units cancel as follows:

𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
given unit x = desired unit
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

Let us consider the conversion of 57.8 meters to centimeters. This problem can be
expressed as
? cm = 57.8 m

Because we are converting “m” to “cm”, we choose the conversion factor that has meter in
the denominator,

100 𝑐𝑚
1𝑚
And write the conversion as

100 𝑐𝑚
? cm = 57.8 m X
1𝑚
= 5780 cm

In dimensional analysis the units are carried through the entire sequence of calculations.
Therefore, if the equation is set up correctly, then all the units will cancel except the desired
one. If this is not the case, then an error must have been made somewhere, and it can usually be
spotted by reviewing the solution.

A. Mass

The basic unit of mass in the International System of Units is the kilogram. A
kilogram is equal to 1000 grams. A gram is a relatively small amount of mass and so larger
masses are often expressed in kilograms. When very tiny amounts of matter are measured,
we often use milligrams which are equal to 0.001 gram. There are numerous larger, smaller,
and intermediate mass units that may also be appropriate. At the end of the 18th century, a
kilogram was the mass of a liter of water. In 1889, a new international prototype of the
kilogram was made of a platinum-iridium alloy. The kilogram is equal to the mass of this
international prototype, which is held in Paris, France.

Some common conversion factors for the units of mass are:

1 kg = 1000 g 1 lb = 454 g
1 g = 1000 mg
1 kg = 2.54 lbs

Sample Problems:
1. How many pounds does 2.00 kg of cheese weigh?

Solution:
Conversion factor: 1 kg = 2.2 lbs

2.2 𝑙𝑏𝑠
2.00 kg x = 4.4 lbs
1 𝑘𝑔

2. 30 grams serving of a certain breakfast cereal has 0.5 g of salt. How much salt would
that be in milligrams?

Solution:
Conversion factor: 1 g = 1 000 mg

1 000 𝑚𝑔
0.5 g x
1𝑔
= 500 mg
B. Length

The SI unit of length is the meter. In 1889, the definition of the meter was a bar of
platinum-iridium alloy stored under conditions specified by the International Bureau of
Standards. In 1960, this definition of the standard meter was replaced by a definition based
on a wavelength of krypton-86 radiation. In 1983, that definition was replaced by the
following: the meter is the length of the path traveled by light in a vacuum during a time
interval of a second.
Some common conversion factors are:
1 m = 100 cm 1 ft = 12 in
1 m = 1000 mm 1 m = 3.281 ft
1 km = 1000 m 1 in = 2.54 cm
1 mi = 1.6 km 1 yard = 3 ft
Sample Problems:
1. Charlie drove from Antique to Iloilo, which is a distance of 620 km. How far is this in
miles?

Solution:
Conversion factor: 1 mi = 1.6 km

1 𝑚𝑖
620 km x = 387.5 mi
1.6 𝑘𝑚

2. Cheryl is moving to a new house. Her old house is 3 km from her new house. How far, in
meters, is the old house from the new house?

Solution:
Conversion factor: 1 km = 1 000 m

1 000 𝑚
3 km x = 3 000 m
1 𝑘𝑚

C. Volume

Volume is an important quantity that uses a derived unit. Volume is the amount of
space that a given substance occupies and is defined geometrically as length × width ×
height. Each distance can be expressed using the meter unit, so volume has the derived unit
m × m × m, or m3 (read as “meters cubed” or “cubic meters”). A cubic meter is a rather large
volume, so scientists typically express volumes in terms of 1/1,000 of a cubic meter. This
unit has its own name—the liter (L). A liter is a little larger than 1 US quart in volume. A liter
is also 1,000 cm3. By definition, there are 1,000 mL in 1 L, so 1 milliliter and 1 cubic
centimeter represent the same volume.

Common conversion factors that are used to convert units of volume are:

1 L = 1000 mL
1 L = 1000 cm3
1 L = 1 dm3
1 mL = 1 cm3
1 m3 = 1 000 L
Sample Problems:

1. How many liters are in 7.2 m3?

Solution:
Conversion factor: 1 m3 = 1 000 L

1 000 𝐿
7.2 m3 x = 7 200 L
1 𝑚3

2. The average volume of blood in an adult male is 4.7 L. What is this volume in
milliliters?

Solution:
Conversion factor: 1 L = 1 000 mL

1 000 𝑚𝐿
4.7 L x = 4 700 mL
1𝐿

D. Density
Density is defined as the mass of an object divided by its volume; it describes the
amount of matter contained in a given amount of space.

The equation for density is

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑚
or d = 𝑉

where d, m and V denote density, mass and volume, respectively. Because density is an
intensive property and does not depend on the quantity of mass present, for a given material
the ratio of mass to volume always remains the same; in other words, V increases as m does.

The SI-derived unit for density is the kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m 3). This unit
is large for most chemical applications. Therefore, grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm 3) and
its equivalent, grams per milliliter (g/mL), are more commonly used for solid and liquid
densities. Because gas densities are often very low, we express them in units of grams per
liter (g/L).

Sample Problems:

1. Gold is a precious metal that is chemically unreactive. It is used mainly in jewelry,

dentistry and electronic devices. A piece of gold ingot with a mass of 301 grams has a
volume of 15.6 cm3. Calculate the density of gold.

Given:
mass of gold = 301 g
volume of gold = 15.6 cm3
 Required: density of gold

Solution:
𝑚
d=
𝑣

301 𝑔
=
15.6 cm3

= 19.3 g/cm3

2. The density of mercury, the only metal that is liquid at room temperature, is 13.6 g/mL.
Calculate the mass of 5.50 mL of the liquid.

Given:
density of mercury = 13.6 g/mL
mass of mercury = 5.50 mL

Required: mass of mercury

Solution:
m = d x v

𝑔
= 13.6 x 5.50 mL
𝑚𝐿

= 74.8 g

E. Temperature

Three temperature scales are currently in use. Their units are OF (degrees
Fahrenheit), OC (degrees Celsius) and K (Kelvin). The Fahrenheit scale defines the normal
freezing and boiling points of water to be exactly 32 OF and 212 OF, respectively. The
Celsius scale divides the range between the freezing point (0 OC) and boiling point (100 OC)
of water into 100 degrees. The Kelvin is the SI base unit of temperature; it is the absolute
temperature scale. By absolute we mean that the zero on the Kelvin scale, denoted by 0 K, is
the lowest temperature that can be attained theoretically. On the other hand, 0 OF and
0 OC are based on the behavior of an arbitrarily chosen substance, water.

The following equations are used to convert scales of temperature.

O 𝑂𝐹 − 32
(1) C =
1.8

O
(2) F = 1.8 OC + 32

O
(3) K = C + 273
 Sample Problems:

1. Solder as an alloy made of tin and lead that is used in electronic circuits. A certain
solder has a melting point of 224 OC. What is its melting point in degrees Fahrenheit?

Solution:

O
F = 1.8 OC + 32

= 1.8 (224 OC) + 32

O
= 435 F

2. Helium has the lowest boiling point of all elements at -452 OF. Convert this
temperature to degrees Celsius.

Solution:

O 𝑂𝐹 − 32
C =
1.8

−452 𝑂𝐹 − 32
=
1.8

−484
=
1.8

= -269 OC

3. Mercury, the only metal that exists as a liquid at room temperature, melts at -38.9 OC.
Convert its melting point to Kelvin.

Solution:

O
K = C + 273

= -38.9 OC + 273

= 234.3 K

IV. Scientific Notation

Chemists often deal with numbers that are either extremely large or extremely small.
For example, in 1 g of the element hydrogen there are roughly
602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000 hydrogen atoms.
This number is cumbersome to handle, and it is easy to make mistakes when using them in
arithmetic computations. It would be easy for us to miss one zero or add one more zero after
the decimal point. Consequently, when working with very large and very small numbers, we use a
system called scientific notation. All numbers can be expressed in the form
N = M x 10n
where N = the number in the ordinary notation
M x 10n = its equivalent in the scientific notation
M = a number between 1 and 10 (also called the mantissa)
n = positive or negative integer

If we are given a certain number and asked to express it in scientific notation, basically
it calls for us to find n. We count the number of places that the decimal point must be moved to
give the number N (which is between 1 and 10). If the decimal point has to be moved to the left,
then n is a positive integer; if it has to be moved to the right, n is a negative integer.

Examples:
1. Express 568.762 in scientific notation.

568.762 = 5.68762 x 102

Note that the decimal point is moved to the left by two places and n = 2.

2. Express 0.00000772 in scientific notation.

0.00000772 = 7.772 x 10-6

The decimal point is moved to the right by six places and n = -6.

Note: Omit the superscript if n = 1. The scientific notation for 74.6 is 7.46 x 10 and not
7.46 x 101.