GAD The Development of the Periodic Table of Elements The historical development of the Perio Elements + Antoine Lavoisier was the first chemist who attempted to classify elements. He classified elements into four groups. ‘The four groups consisted of gases, metals, acid making elements and earthly elements. + His classification was not accurate as light and heat, which are not elements, were also included. + Furthermore, elements in some groups did not have the same chemical properties. ‘Antoine Lavoisier 1743-1794 * Johann Dobereiner was a German scientist who developed i john Dobe Ped groups of elements, which * Each group consisted of three elements with the same chemical properties, TABLE 4.1 Dobereiner's triads 4 Element t [|___Ghlorine, bromine, iodine | Calcium, strontium, barium Sulphur, selenium, tellurium Lithium, sodium, potassium + Dobereiner discovered the relationshi mane nship between the relative atomic masses of the + He found that the RAM of the element i “n ; ; ann W. Dobereiner eau io the average of the total RAM of tect ooo ONIN ee * However, the relationship did not apply to all of the elementJohn Newlands arranged elements in the order of increasing relative atomic mass in horizontal rows. Each row consisted of seven elements. He found that the chemical properties of every eighth element are similar, This is known as the Law of Octaves, The classification of elements by Newlands was not successful because - the law of octaves was only accurate for the first 20 elements, from H to Ca. = there were no positions allocated for elements yet to be discovered. Nevertheless, Newlands was the first scientist who discovered the existence of periodicity in the elements. No. No. No. No. No. No. ig ber a | ct 15 | Coan 22 | Br 20) Pa 36 | Ptalr John Newlands uo 2 | Na 9] kK 16] cu 23] Rb 90] Ag 87 | Os 1837-1898 @ 3 | Mg 10] ca 7 {zn 26) a1} cad 38 | Hg Bo 4° TA ot] co 1 Y (25 | Costa 3} u 40 | 7 Ge OR Agi see] on ates cin 28 zr, 32] Sn 39 | Pb N 6 |P 13] Mn 20] As 27 | Di&Mo 34] So 41 | Bi o 7/8 14] Fe 2 | Se 2 ]Roaru 35] Te 43 | Th FIGURE 4.1 Newland's Law of Octaves elms Newiand's Law of Octaves is similar to the octaves of music. Every eighth note is comparable to the first note. + Lothar Meyer plotted a graph of volume of atoms of elements against t respective relative atomic mass. + From the graph, Meyer showed that elements occupying the corresponding ns of the curve exhibit similar chemical properties. For example, = Li, Na, K and Rb, which are located at the peaks of the curves, show similar chemical properties. - Be, Mg, Ca and Sr, which are located at positions after the peak, also show similar chemical properties. + Like Newlands, Meyer showed that the chemical properties of the elements recur periodically. Lothar Meyer 1830-1895 ‘tonde welt FIGURE 4.2 Meyer's graphdy di * Dmiti Mendeleev arranged the elements that were aeady discovered the order of increasing atomic mass, with elemé called Group) and ties grouped into the same column (which is now crete) ete tloments in the horizontal rows (which is now called Period) Her elements of the seme columns and rows showed ima pater. However, he found that the periodic pattern did not apply to meri "He decided to leave spaces for elements that were not discovered yot so that the periodicity of the elements with he same chemical properties is maintain + Mendeleev let geps between aluminium and indium and betwee! «Later the elements gallum and germanium were discovered, which fil the gaps. + Mendeleev was more successful for several reasons. = He left gaps for elements yet to be discovered. re ~ He even used his table to predict the existence and properties 0 On et iscovered elements. Magee correctly predicted the properties of the elements gallium, * it is h later. andium and germanium, which were only discovered muct : Atheugh the elements were arangd in the order of increasing atomic mass he changed the order of the elements if their chemical properties are not similar. TABLE 4.2 The Periodic Table by Mendeleev 1 W uM Vv v vl vil vu 4H i "Be 1B " oN #0 oF ®Na_ | Mg ZAI "gj =p es “C1 BK $f soa R09) “Ti ay scr | =vn | #Pe,a00 "Ni “Cu Zn () () AS "Se "Br Rb Sc cay "Zr “Nb | Mo ©) | Ru, Rh, Pa Wore: (represents unknown elements yet to be discovered] Moseley X-rayed different elements and measured the frequency (f) of the ray emitted by each element. * He plotted the. ‘Square roots of the frequencies numbers of the elements and obtained a strai + Then, he bombarded the unknown elements with high energy electrons and obtained the ‘Square roots of the rays emitted and obtained the proton numbers of the elements. * After obtaining the Proton numt elements in the Periodic Table + Just like Mendeleev did, Mosel discovered. Moseley ‘successfully predicted the existence of four elements. These elements were later Promethium, hafnium and rhenium. (VF) against the proton ight line. bers of these elements, he arranged the in the order of increasing proton number. ley left gaps for elements yet to be Ir undiscovered determined to be technetium, Henry Moseley 1887-1915The Arrangement in the Periodic Table of Elements 1 In the modem Periodic Table, the elements are arranged from left to right in order of increasing proton number. FIGURE 4.3 Arrangement of the first 20 elements in the Periodic Table ma ee oe ak Bocioaee 2.88.1—{ Electron FIGURE 4.4 Information that can be found on an element in the Periodic Table 2 The vertical columns are called Groups. There are 18 Groups in the Periodic Table of Elements. tends A + all are metals (except + onthe right-hand side of | + on the extreme right of the boron) the Periodic Table Periodic Table + onthe left-hand side of | + have 4to 7 valence * consists of the unreactive the Periodic Table electrons inert gases * have 1,2 or 3 valence + allarenon-metals except | + have 2 or 8 valence electrons: silicon and germanium: electrons * transition elements are also ‘semi metals metals — tin, lead and bismuth: * can conduct electricity metals 3. Some Groups have special names: * Group 1 elements ~ alkali metals * Group 2 elements — alkali earth metals * Group 17 elements — halogens * Group 18 elements — inert or noble gases * Groups 3 to 12— transition elements4 The horizontal rows are called Periods. There are seven Periods in the Periodic table or Elements, have only two elements; hydrogen and helium have eight elements each called the short periods have 18 elements each called the long periods have 32 elements ; rot all the elements can be listed on the same horizontal row + The elements with proton numbers 57 to 71 are separated and grouped below the Periodic Table. These elements are called the Lanthanide Series. have 31 elements : not all the elements can be listed on the same horizontal row The elements with proton numbers 89 to 103 are separated and grouped below the Periodic Table, These elements are called the Actinide Series. Cain In 2016, four new elements are added in Period 7 of the modern Periodic table of Elements. The elements are ninonium, Nh (atomic number: 113}. mosoovium, Mc (atomic number: 116). tennessine, Ts (atomic number: 117). ‘eganesson, Og (atomic number: 118). Electron arrangement of elements in the Periodic Table 1 All the elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons. 2 The number of valence electrons in Group 1 and Group 2 elements are the same as the Group number ex for helium, which has two valence electrons but is in Group 18. TABLE 4.3 Electron arrangements of the first three elements of Group 1 I tithium, ui Sodium, Na Potassium, K 3 1" 19 24 2.8.4 ee TABLE 4.4 Electron arrangements of the first three elements of Group 2 valence electors Beryllium, Be Magnesium, Mg Calcium, Ca 4 12 20 22 2.8.2 2.8.80/ 3. For other elements with more than two valence electrons Group number = 10 + (number of valence electrons). For example, the electron arrangement of chlorine is 2.8.7. * Chlorine has seven valence electrons, * Chlorine is in Group 10+ 7 = Group 17 4 The period number is indicated by the numberof filled electron shells. For instance, + Elements in Period 1 each has one electron shell filled with electrons, + Elements in Period 2 each has two electron shells filled with electrons, + Elements in Period 3 each has three electron shells filled with electrons, + Elements in Period 4 cach has four electron shells filled with electrons, (Group 13 to Group 18 elements),of the following statements are true warwerne element X? — | Xcan conduct electric : I X belongs to Group 2 of the Periodic table ‘eriod 3 of the Periodic Table Which of the following statemer masonite pede | | ch beeen rs element Y with the proton number 7 in the Periodic Table . A land ll Il Elements T and X belong to tt B ilandiV Il Elements R and Z are non-metals C |, lland tl IV Element T is monoatomic D |,lllandIv A land ill C tan tit : B landIV D iandiv Tips: 7 + Electron arrangement of X is 2.8.3, Comment: : + Xs in Group 13. It is a metal 7 metals have moa ol ritrlx |: nce electrons. Thus, it can conduct C seas (lis true) agen ent| 2:1 |2:85| 28 |2.8.1|2809 + X belongs to Group 13 of the Periodic Table a a ag haa 4 because it has 3 valence electrons. (I! is false) peeue. 2 + Xhave three electron shells filled with electrons. Period 2 3 2 3 4 Thus, itis in Period 3 of the Periodic Table. * Qand X belong to Group 1 because they have hg| (Ill is true) same number of valence electrons. (lis tru + Electron arrangement of element Y is 2.5. This * Tisin Period 2 because it has two filled ele element is in Group 15. Whereas element X shells, Whereas X is in Period 3 because it is in Group 13. Thus, elements X and Y have three filled electron shells, (lis fase different chemical properties. (Vis false) © Riis in Group 15 and is a non-metal. Z's) Group 2 and is a metal. (ue Pouition A. + Thave 8 valence electrons and have ad the octet electron arrangement. Thus, itis in and monoatomic. (Wis Answer: B ‘a oa Elements in Group 18 1 Group 18 elements are called inert gases or noble gases. 2. The word inert means chemically unreactive and therefore, form compounds. 3. These elements exist as single non-combined atoms or monoatomic, inert elements do not react with other elements!¢ TABLE 4.5 Physical properties of inert gases n arte i le ang fHe | Helium 2 0.17 Ne | Neon 2.8 0.84 “2a, | Argon 2.88 1.66 84 | Krypton 2.8.18.8 3.54 18%— | Xenon 2.8.18.18.8 5.45 2p, | Radon 2.8.18.92.18.8 9.97 Helium has 2 valence mit while the Density increases Meltin, ts other inert gases have 8 valence electrons down the Group Increase down the GrupPU Scare Pao Reg Bean Peer] Cae Cite ery elements Lacan HOTTIPS Pee Contry Pertti ‘The densities of Group 18 elements are measured in g dinr® unlike other elements which are measured in g om. Comment: | The bigger the atom, the stronger the van der Waals force of attraction. The atomic size increases from helium, neon to argon. The bigger the atom, the stronger the van der Waals force of attraction, More heat energy is needed to overcome the forces of attraction. | * Thus, melting point and boiling point increase down the Group. van der Wels force | Answer: (F,>F,>F,) Uses of Group 18 elements * Liquid helium is used to cool * Helium is the second lightest + Helium is added to oxygen tanks Metal coils in MRI machines to {gas after hydrogen. Unlike Used for diving to reduce the enable the superconductor coils hydrogen, helium is inert and amount of nitrogen gas in the to produce very strong magnetic does not explode when lighted. tanks. fields that these scanners need. + Thus, helium is used to float + This is because as a diver * Doctors use MRI machines to advertising balloons, party, dives deeper, water pressure see complete pictures of organs _balloons and airships. increases. inside the human body and to : This will result in nitrogen gas dissolving in the bloodstream, Which is fatal, locate cancer calls. ‘Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI machine,Light bulbs are filed with argon. d28 because agen vacuumed and free the rate of sublimation is roms decrease, high vole eeningater ‘atoms, resulting in a longer lifespan of the bulbs. + When a discharge tube is with a little inert gas, it glows when applied. 2 Aaa «Argon does not react with with neon gas gives 2 = = oan bright red glow, which f \ J 9 is used as advertising lights. Bulbs filled with xenon gas ee ee produce bright white light. a : + These bulbs are used in car headlamps and lighthouses. EXAMPLE) From the list below choose two elements that are | Solutior inert. * Element P is inert because it has achieved the sp fa GR ts stable duplet electron arrangement. + Element S is inert because it has achieved the stable octet electron arrangement. Tips: Explain your answer. sp | fo| tr] Bs 2 | 22 [282/288 Tts3s lll State one use of elements A, B and C in the Periodic Table shown. Comment: + Students must know the position of each in the Periodic Table. tana + Alls helium gas, B is neon and C is argon. Answer: Ais used fo float advertising balloons or party balloons. aL us ‘ : . Bs used to fil bulbs used in advertising as the gas produces a bright As the question asked to state °° ted light when electricity flows through it. 152, donot let trata than one ust you list four uses, and one of whien ® ‘wrong, your mark will be deducteo- Cis used to fill electric bulbs to prolong its lifespan. 4 Explain why inert gases exist as monoatom ic and dos aln why | f 185 Not form ot ‘compounds with other elements@®A Elements in Group 1 1 The elements in Group | are lithium di, (K), rubidium (Rb), 2 Group 1 metals are + called alkali metals. + soft metals. * gray because they are very reactive and have been oxidised by oxygen in the air. When cut with a knife, it will expose the silvery metal surface inside. sodium (Na), potassium caesium (Cs) and francium (Fr). Physical properties of Group 1 elements 1 All Group 1 elements are metals; hence they can conduct heat and electricity. 2 As we go down the Group form lithium to francium, * density increases, * electropositivity increases. + atomic radius increases. + melting point and boiling point decrease. FIGURE 4.5 Examples of uses of elements in Group 1 TABLE 4.6 Physical properties of Group 1 elements au Silvery 24 0.15 0.53 Conductor 186 1342 Na Silvery 2.8.1 0.16 0.97 Conductor 98 880 . 60 $k | Silvery 2.8.8.1 0.23 | 0.86 | Conductor | 64 7 ks down the Silvery 2.8,18.8.1 0.25 1.53 Conductor 39 688 Group "Bo | sivery| 28.18.1881 | 0.26 | 1.87 | Conductor | 29 | 671 "Orr Silvery | 2.8.18.32.18.8.1 0.29 - Conductor 27 677 3. The densities of Li, Na and K are lower than the density of water: a gem”). Hence, these metals float on: water, 2property X i [| element u Na K Rb Cs. fr ‘The graph shows a change in physical property X of Group 1 elements. What is property X? G Electropositivity 5 Matty paint D Atomic radius Comment: + The graph shows a decrease in property X. ae + As we go down the Group, the number of electron shells increases. Thus, atomic radius should increas, (Dis incorec), As the atomic radius increases, the volume of the atom increases considerably. However, there is a large increase in nucleon number/atomic mass. | atomic mass it lame cf alone i i mpared to a small increase in| As density of atom =~ Si me of atom the large increase in atomic mass compared in| the volume of the atom, will result in an increase in density going down the Group. (Ais incorrect Going down the Group, the atomic radius increases. The valence electron is further from the nucleus. The | electrostatic forces of attraction between the Protons in the nucleus and the valence electrons become weaker further. Thus, elements towards the bottom of the Group have higher tendencies to release thei | valence electrons to form unipositive ions, Electropositivity increases down the Group. | (Cis incorrect | There is a force of attraction between the electrons in the atom with the nucleus of another atom next toit. | This force of attraction results in metallic bond. As the atomic radius increases, the distance between the | electrons and the nucleus of the neighbouring atom becomes further, resulting in a weaker metallic bond. | an heat energy is needed to overcome the metallic bond. Thus, melting point decreases going down the | Group. 4 . (Bis conec) nswer: Chemical properties of Group 1 elements 1 Group 1 elements have one valence electron. 2. All Group 1 elements have the sat 3. During a chemical reaction, a Group 1 element atom will donat fe OF release a to univalent positive ion and attain the stable duplet or octet electron srrangencatae a Lis lite 21 a (Duplet electron arrangement) Na > Nat+ e& 281 2.8 (Octet electron arrangement) K > Kte 288.1 28.8 (Octet electron arrangement) K, Rb, Cs, Fr] are kept in paraffin 0GUE | studying the reaction between alkali metals and water Problem statement: How do lithium, sodium, potassium differ in terms of reactivity with water? Hypothe: Alkali metals show similar chemical properties in their reactions with water, but the reactivity increases when going down the Group. Variables (@ manipulated: Different alkali metals (lithium, sodium, potassium) (0) responding: Reactivity of the metals when reacted with water (0) fixed: Size of the alkali metals, temperature of water Materials and apparatus: Lithium, sodium, potassium metals cut to the same size, water, large basin, red litmus paper, filter paper, knife, forceps Results: iF trohalac at bles Procedure: 1A piece of lithium is picked up with a pair of forceps and placed on a dry tile. 2 A small piece of the lithium metal is cut using a knife and put on a filter paper to absorb paraffin oll. The rest of the lithium is returned to its container. 3 A large basin is filled with water until about three quarters full. 4 The piece of lithium metal is then carefully dropped into the basin of water using forceps. 5 The reactivity of the reaction is observed and recorded. 6 After the reaction has completed, the solution in the basin is tested with a red litmus paper. 7 The solution in the basin is poured away and the basin is washed before being filled with water. 8 The experiment is repeated using sodium and potassium metals. Reactive + Acolourless solution is produced. + The solution turns red litmus paper to blue. + The sodium metal moves at a fast speed on the surface of the water with a hissing sound. Sodium —_| + It ignites and burns with a bright yellow flame. + Acolourless solution is produced. + The solution turns red litmus paper to blue. + The potassium metal moves at a very fast speed on the surface of the water with a popping sound. Potassium |+ It ignites and burns with a very bright purple flame. + Acolourless solution is produced. + The solution turns red litmus paper to blue. Lithium More reactive Very reactive Discussion: 1 Alkali metals are very reactive and react with water to ny produce hydrogen gas and aqueous solutions of metal GASSUMCa ma 2Li(s) + 2H,0() > 2LiOH{aq) + H,(9) a Lithium Lithium hydroxide ‘Sodium reacts: ‘Sodium reacts with with water to water to produce 2Na(s) + 2H,O() — 2NaOH(aq) + H,(9) Produce sodium —_sodium hydroxide | Sodium Sodium hydroxide ‘oxide (Na,O) and (NaOH) and i 01) > 2KOHIea) + Hy) meogen ae_4 Toon oe 2K(s) + 2H,0() > faq) + Hy i ae Particle that The particle that Potassium Potassium hydroxide causes the solution causes the solution. i Ikaline and change red litmus 0 beakaline is to be alkaline is the 2 The metal hydroxides are alkaline 9 the foun eee paper to blue. ; 3. The reactivity increases when going down the Group from Li, Na, K. molecule, OH. ol2 Ww i ,X, Yand Z ar The figure shows the positions of elements in the Periodic Table. The elements V, W, re Po ty actual symbol the elements. : 0) Pick an element that reacts with oe ee en 7 i ical equation for . “ ; w Bee ame vdie wen te solution from the reaction is tested with ared litmus paper. i Write the formula of the particle responsible for the observation in (iii). Solution: v % 2V@) + 2H,0() > 2VOH(aq) + H,(g) or 2Li(s) + 2H,0() > 2LiOH(aq) + H,(G) (ii) The red litmus paper changes to blue () OFF OT TIPS Ifyou identify the element V incorrectly, your answer will not be accepted, 2Nals) + 2H,0() > 2NaOH(eq) + H,(q) Not accepted 2K(s) + 2H,0() + 2KOH(aq) + H,(G) Not accepted ee Studying the reactions of alkali metals with ‘oxygen gas Problem statement: How do lithium, sodium and potassium diffe in terms of reactivi Hypothesis: Alkali metals show similar chemical properties in their reactions with oxygen, but the reactivity increases whe? going down the Group, Variables )_ manipulated: Different alkali metals (lithium, sodium, potassium) (©) responding: Reactivity of the metals when burned in oxygen/Brightness of fl (©) fixed: Size of the alkali metals eae = Materials and apparatus: Lithium, sodium and potassium metals cut to the same siz litmus paper, fiter paper, knife, forceps, gas jar with cover, o ity with oxygen? ©, Oxygen gas, phenolphthalein indicator or red ombustion spoon, Bunsen burner Procedure: 1 Apiece of lithium is tak en with a pair of for 2 Asmall piece of the iit rceps and placed on a dry tile, hium metal is cut u: a ising a knife and placed on 7 : ; a filter the paraft ig lithium metal is returned to its container. FEES Osher, i 3 A gas jaris filled with oxygen gas. 4 The piece of Iithium metal is picked up with forceps and Placed in a combustion spoon,‘oxygen gas. alkali metal FIGURE 4.6 5 The lithium is heated until it started to burn. 6 The burning lithium is transferred into the gas jar containing oxygen. 7 The reaction is observed and recorded. 8 After the reaction has stopped, about 20 cm? of water is added into the gas jar and shaken so that the products of the reaction dissolve in water. 9 The solution is tested with a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator. The observation is recorded. (Or alternatively, test the solution with a piece of red litmus paper.) 10 The experiment is repeated using sodium and potassium metals. Results: The lithium metal burns a red flame, forming a white metal : oxide. or + The metal oxide dissolves in water, producing a solution that tums | Reactive phenolphthalein indicator red or red litmus paper blue. + The sodium metal burns with a bright orange flame, forming a white So metal oxide. More dum, + The metal oxide dissolves in water, producing a solution that turns | _ reactive phenolphthalein indicator red or red litmus paper blue, + The potassium metal burns with a very bright purplish or lilac . flame, forming a white metal oxide, ‘ Potassium |. The metal oxide dissolves in water, producing a solution that turns | Very reactive phenolphthalein indicator red or red litmus paper blue. Discussion: 1 The alkali metals burn in oxygen to form white metal oxides. fr 4Lis) + Og) > 2Li,0(8) Lithium oxide. Reactivity increases 7 4Na(e) + 0,6) —> 2Na,0(6) Sodium oxide | Soun the Group Sadia es AiO 4K(s) + 0,@) > 2K,0(6) Potassium oxide Naima soe 2 The motal oxides dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions, which ol to prevent them from reacting turn phenolphthalein Indicator red or a red litmus paper blue. bereits and Li,O(s) + HO) > 2LiOH(aq) Lithium: hydroxide ing if Na,O(8) + H,0() > 2NaOH(aq) Sodium hydroxide K,6) + H,0() > 2KOH(aq) Potassium hydroxide (Most metal oxides are insoluble in water, but oxides of alkali metals are soluble) 3 The reactivity increases when going down the Group from Li, Na, K.LexamPLe Ris an element in the Periodic Table and its ition is shown in the figure. : @ Write an equation when F is burned in air. (0) What is the colour of the product? (©). The product is dissolved in water. Write an a equation forthe reaction. = uf (@) Ifa few drops of phenolphthalein is added the solution obtained in (C), ()_ state the observation. : ® write the formula of the ion that causes this observation. Solution: oF.) of) > 6) or s : a : of 3 2K,06) [Note: Element A is potassium] (©) White [Note: All Group 1 oxides are white} (© 0%) + H,0() > 2ROH(aq) or KO) + H,0() - 2KOH(aq) (@) (The solution turns red (i), OH aS Studying the reactions of alkali metals with chlorine gas Problem statement: How do lithium, sodium and potassium differ in terms of reactivity with chlorine gas? Hypothesis: Alkali metals show similar chemical properties in their reactions with chlorine, but the reactivity increases when going down the Group from lithium, sodium, potassium. Variables (@) manipulated: Different alkali metals (ithium, sodium, potassium) (©) responding: Reactivity of the metals when reacted with chlorine (©) fixed: Size of the alkali metals Materials and apparatus: Lithium, sodium and potassium metals cut to the same size, chlorine i fe with cover, combustion spoon, Bunsen burner STEN PSPS ite, fron. oss Pt Procedure: 1 Apiece of lithium is picked up with a pair of forceps and placed ona dry tile. oe 2 Asmall piece of lithium metal is cut usin, a filter paper to absorb the paraffin oll a is returned to its container. 3 A gas jar is filled with chlorine gas, 4 The piece of lithium Is placed in a combustion spoon usin; forceps, 2 5 The lithium is heated unti it starts to burn, 8 jar. — 6 The burning lithium is transferred into the gas jar containi chlorine gas. f cats 7 Observations are recorded. 8 The experiment is repeated using sodium and po metals. Potassium ‘combustion 19 a knife and placed on ind the rest of the metal —L chiorine ges | __alkali metal FIGURE 4.7Results: a ie vatic Lithium burns with a small red flame. The pale green colour of Solid is obtained. Lithium | + chlorine gas disappears and a white Reactive Sodium burns with a bright yellow flame, The pale green colour of chi Solid is obtained. Sodium |+ lorine gas disappears and a white} More reactive Potassium burns with a very bright purple flame, The pale green colour of chlorine gas disappears and a white| Very reactive solid is obtained, Potassium | + Discussion: 1 All alkali metals react with chlorine gas, resulting in the pale green colour of chlorine gas to disappear and a white metal chloride salt is produced. 2Li(s) + Clg) — 2LICKs) Lithium chloride | Reactivity increases when RNAS) + Cli) — 2NaCis) Socium chloride | Remeluiy erences 2k(s)_ + Cl{g) — 2KCl(s) Potassium chloride If the experiment is repeated using bromine gas, the brown colour of bromine gas will disappear and a white metal bromide salt will form. 2Li(s) + Brg) — 2LiBr(s) Lithium bromide 2Na(s) + Br(g) > 2NaBr(s) Sodium bromide 2K(s) + Br{g) > 2KBr(s) Potassium bromide y SPM SPOT By Fubidium (Rb) is below potassium in Group 1 of the Periodic Table. % eee te romuy ont padthigea ‘of rubidium and potassium, In resins eaospherical provertes as ini, sodium and potassium, eee reacts with oxygen to produce white rubidium oxide, sem a + (0) > 240 bidum oie + Rubidium oxide dissolves in water to produce an alkaline solution. a fb.018 “4 H,0(), > 2RbOH(aq). Rubidium hydroxide Se eee ae Oe i + Rubidium reacts with chlorine gas to produice’a white rubidium chloride salt. fen! exoporties of efersann 2 Cue eae iei 1 Reactivity of elements when going down Group aoe Note: @ Valence electron FIGURE 4.8 The difference in the atomic radi of Li, Na and K 1 All Group 1 elements have one valence electron. ; 2 During a chemical reaction, each of the element will donate or release one valence electron to achieve th, stable duplet or octet electron arrangement, similar to the electron arrangement of inert gases. The reactivity of Group 1 elements depends on how easily it can donate or release its valence electron, ‘As we go down the Group from Li to K, the atomic radius increases. The electrostatic force of attraction between the protons in the nuclei and the valence electrons of the elements becomes weaker. Metals located toward the bottom the Group donate ot release its valence electron more easily. Therefor reactivity increases when going down the Group. nae Elements in Group 17 1 The elements in Group 17 are called halogens. 2. The elements in the group are fluorine (F), chlorine (C)), bromine (Br), iodi i 3. Halogens exist as diatomic molecules: F,, Cl,, Bry, and At, Pee ea Sesiee (AD. oo (oe: FIGURE 4.9 A chlorine molecule 4 Halogens are very reactive elements and naturally as halide salts. ‘ost of them exist 5 Most halide salts, such as sodium chloride, potassium iodi potassium bromide, are found in the sea, 7 iodide and HOTTIPS ‘When writing chemical equations fo" reactions involving halogens, we st write the forme ato males formula of halogens 2sCer Bromine Non-stick pans are Sodium fluoride is added coated with Tefion or to toothpaste to prevent poly-tetrafiuoro-ethene tooth decay. Fluoride salt Sliver bromide is used Some bromine compounds polymer.4C,F 2, Is also added into our to make X-ray films. are used as pesticides. drinking water. ra) PAC say Pera er Pesticides or herbicides Chlorine is used to kill are compounds of germs in swimming pools chlorine. Examples and drinking water. are DDT (pesticide), - TREES TT C,H,Cl,and lodine solution is used _ todine solution is an Paraquat (herbicide), to treat sore throat. antiseptic. It is used to C,,H,ClN,- } © sanitise cuts. Sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl, is a bleach used to sanitise toilet bowls and to whiten paper. FIGURE 4.10 Uses of halogens in daily life Physical properties of elements in Group 17 1 As we go down Group 17 from fluorine to iodine, + density increases, + melting point and boiling point increase. * colour becomes darker. + electronegativity decreases. + physical state changes from gas to liquid to solid. 2. Halogens are non-metals, hence they cannot conduct heat and electricity.TABLE 4.7 Physical properties ofthe first four halogens Chlorine | 0.0032 287 0.099 | -101 | -35 Gas 3.00 Bromine | 3.1190 | 28.187 | 0114 | -7 58 Liquid 2.80 lodine | 4.950 | 28.18.187 | 0.133 | 114 | 183 Solid 2.50 eS ST as Explain why the melting point and boiling point of halogens increase down the Group from chlorine, bromine to iodine. Answer: | + The size of the molecules increases from chlorine, bromine to iodine. * The bigger the molecules, the stronger the intermolecular forces of QUEM EEA D, attraction between the molecules, + More heat energy is needed to overcome the intermolecular forces, fence, halogens towards the bottom of the Group need to be Bremings Bromine is heated longer before the heat energy is sufficient to overcome the gasatroom liquid at room intermolecular forces of attraction. ‘temperature. ‘temperature. || Hence, the melting point and boilin 19 Point increase when going ‘down the Group from chlorine to iodine. & Electronegativity of elements in Group 17 1 Electronegativity is a measurement of how strong an element attracts electrons, oO FIGURE 4.11 The difference in the atomic radii of Cl, Br and | 2. Halogens have seven valence electrons, 3. During a chemical reaction they accept an electron to achieve the stable 4 Thus, all halogens are electronegative as the 5 However, electronegatvity decreases down 6 As we go down the Group, + atomic radius increases. + Hence, the electrostatic force ofatraction between the proton in the nucleus and th electrons is wed * Therefore, halogens towards the bottom of the Group have a lower tendency to ace tec eat to halogens at the top of the Group. tet electron arrangement. 'Y accept electrons during reactions. the Group.Chemical properties of elements of Group 17 ACTIVITY Stud r tudying the reactions of chlorine, bromine and iodine with water Problem statement: How do chlorine, bromine and iodine react with water? Hypothesis: Reactivity of the reactions between halogens and water decreases when going down the Group. Variables (@) manipulated: Types of halogens (chlorine, bromine, i a , bromine, iodi (0) responding: Reactivity of the reaction ss Bae (©) fixed: Temperature of water Materials and apparatus: Chlorine gas, liquid bromine, solid iodi it ee ine, water, blue litmus paper, test tube, rubber stopper, test tube holder, Cl, gas»: FIGURE 4.12 Procedure: (A) Reaction of chlorine with water 1 Chlorine gas is prepared in the laboratory by reacting concentrated hydrochloric acid, with manganese(IV) oxide. MnO,{(s) + 4HCl(aq) > MnCl,faq) + Clg) + 2H,O() ‘The chlorine gas is bubbled into a test tube containing water. The colour of the solution produced is observed. The solution produced is tested with a blue litmus paper. aon (8) Reaction of bromine with water 'A few drops of bromine water are added into some water In a test tube. ‘The test tube is tightly closed with a rubber stopper and shaken vigorously. The colour of the solution produced is observed. The solution produced is tested with a blue litmus paper. aONs (C) Reaction of iodine with water 1 Some iodine crystals are added to some water in a test tube, 2 The test tube is tightly closed with a rubber stopper and shaken vigorously. 3 The colour of the solution is observed. 4 The solution produced is tested with a blue litmus paper. Safety precautions: b Chlorine gas and bromine vapour are poisonous and the experiment should be conducted in a fume chamber. mine vapour itate the eyes. So, goggles should be worn when performing the * Chlorine gas and bror experiment. a2Results: Chlorine | Dissolves quickly in water to form a pale-| The. See vue hig Paper req, low solution. ii Bromine sie sehuonalasatves slowly in water to Te sabaiontuns ima te " ra fies amare te oy ere at es Conclusion: i decreases when going down the Group. _ ; : 2 Ghotne’ boning ad iodine dissolve in walr to produce acidic solutions, which tum a bive litmus yer red. ae 3 CCivorine water and bromine water have bleaching properties. They decolourise litmus Paper, However, iodine solution does not decolourise litmus paper. Discussion: : 1 Chlorine, bromine and iodine dissolve in water to form acidic solutions that turn a blue litmus Paper red. The solubility of halogens decreases from chlorine to iodine. : 2 Chlorine dissolves in water to Produce hydrochloric acid and hypochlorous(I) acid, Clg) + H,0() + HClaq) + HOCKaq) hydrochioric. hypochiorous(!) acid acid * Hydrochloric acid and hypochlor * Hypochlorous(!) acid is a st litmus paper. 3 Bromine dissolves slowly in water to produce hydrobromic acid and hypobromous(\) aci rous(|) acid turn blue litmus paper to red. rong bleaching agent. It quickly decolourises the red colour from the Br) + HOM > HBr(aq) + HoBr(aq) hydrobromic hypobromous(!) acid acid 7 Hydrobromic acid and hypobromous() acid tum blue litmus Paper red. * Hypobromous() acid is a weak bleaching agent. it took longer to decolourise the red colour fom the litmus paper. 4 Iodine is only sightly soluble in water to produce hydroiodic acid and hypoiodous(|) acid, US) + 1.00 — Hila) + HoVeg) hydrolodic “hypoiodous() acid acid { Hydroiodic acid and hypoiodous() acid turn blue a litmus paper red. Hypoiodous(|) acid does not decolourise litmus a Paper, Real World Chemistry I there is @ chine gas leak, we can reduce the sndths raaicns area Sl ave hte Sie at aly comrg and thus, reducing the amount of gas inhaod nic lungs. nae Cu) + 100 > Holeq This method can also be used to decrease the {98508 are soluble in water or react with water sergeaie hydroxi Problem statement: How do chlorine, bromine and iodine react with sodium hydroxide solution? Hypothesis: Reactivity of the reactions between halogens and sodium hydroxide decreases when going down the Group. Variables (2) manipulated: Types of halogens (chlorine, bromine, iodine) (b) responding: Reactivity of the reaction (©) fixed: Concentration of sodium hydroxide solution Materials and apparatus: Giteine oss liquid bromine, solid iodine, 2 mol dr? sodium hydroxide solution, test tube, rubber stopper, Procedure: (A) Reaction of chlorine with aqueous sodium hydroxide solution 1 Chlorine gas is bubbled into aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. 2 The test tube is covered with a rubber stopper and shaken vigorously. 3 The solubility of the chlorine gas and the colour of the product formed are recorded. (8) Reaction of bromine with aqueous sodium hydroxide solution 1 Adrop of liquid bromine is added to aqueous sodium hydroxide solution using a teat pipette. 2 The test tube is tightly closed with a rubber stopper and the mixture is shaken vigorously. 3 The solubility of the liquid bromine and the colour of the product are recorded. (C) Reaction of iodine with aqueous sodium hydroxide solution 14 Apiece of iodine crystal is added into aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. 2 The test tube is tightly closed with a rubber stopper and the mixture is shaken vigorously. 3. The solubility of the iodine crystals and the colour of the product is recorded. Results: Chlorine | The greenish-yellow chlorine gas dissolves rapidly In aqueous sodium hydro: solution. A colourless solution is obtained. Bromine | The brownish liquid bromine dissolves steadily in aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. A colourless solution is obtained. Todine | The darkiodine crystal dissolves slowly in aqueous sodium hydroxide solution to produce a colourless solution. Raat oT See between halogens and sodium hydroxide solution decreases when going down the Group. tone ith sodium hydroxide solution to produce sodium chloride salt, sodium 1 Chlorine reacts vigorously wit chlorate(!) salt and water. Ci(q) + 2NaOH(aq). > NaClaa) + NaOClaq) + H,0() L sodium chloride sodium chiorate()) 2 Bromine reacts less vigorously with sodium hydroxide solution to produce sodium bromide salt, sodium 0 bromate(!) satt and water. ; NaB + NaOBraq) + H,0() Br) + 2NaOHed) > NetriGrmige secum orate)" 8 lodine reacts slowly with sodium hycraxklé So1UtI to produce sodium iodide salt, sodium iodate(!) salt lodine reacts slo and water. = Nalfag) + NaOllaq) + H,0() 1s) + 2NAOH(6) > orm iodide sodium date) io| fang and ring a rue . im chk gadrake oemgergs Sim atta al veamant 0 lear ben ads is used to ee gum nypoctionte Todt a tooth. ee ipped into the canal ecm tipot mi solution Npactaria. The canal Pypabromto ad ec saree To en ty is process is done a few ti ere the canalis closed UP. Sanaa econo cirna bonineandiode wition >) ‘| Problem statement: ; How do chlorine, bromine and iodine react with iron? Hypothesis: x it Reactivity of the reactions between halogens and iron decreases when going down the Group. Variables (@)_ manipulated: Halogens (chlorine, bromine, iodine) (0) responding: Reactivity of the reaction (©) fixed: Iron wool Materials and apparatus: Chlorine gas, liquid bromine, solid iodine, concentrated hydrochloric acid, potassium manganate(V), so lime, iron wool, combustion tubes, Bunsen burner, retort stand with clamps, thistle funnel Procedure: (A) Reaction of chlorine gas with iron wool A small rol of iron wool is placed in the middle of a combustion tube. The combustion tube is connected to a conical flask as sl in Fig The iron woo! is heated unti its hot. SCREUR A au 319 Concentrated hydrochloric acid is drained into @ conical flask Containing potassium manganat The chlorine dase pared ec th Poessum Manganate to produce chlorine 2°. by soda lime.) on Wool. (Note: Excess chlorine gas will be abs aeons a relist : ‘ow vigorous the reaction is and the colour ofthe Product formed are observed and recorded thistle funnel hydrochiore UL Soda lime acid Potassium manganate(vin@) Reaction of bromine gas with iron wool anon (C) Reaction of iodine vapour with iron wool 1 2 3 4 5 Renal roll of iron woo! is placed in the middle of a combustion tube. }ome liquid bromine is poured into a boiling tube. The combustion tube is connected to the bolling tube. The iron wool is heated unti it is hot, 1en the liquid bromine is heated to vay i i i m pourise it and the vapour is passed the hot i I. (Note: Excess bromine vapour will be absorbed by soda ime) ri cae oe How vigorous the reaction is and the colour of the product formed are observed and recorded. {ron wool soda lime tf liquid bromine FIGURE 4.14 Assmall roll of iron wool is placed in the middle of a combustion tube. ‘Some solid iodine crystals are placed into a boiling tube. The combustion tube is connected to the boiling tube. The iron wool is heated until it is hot. Then the solid iodine is heated to vapourise it and the vapour is passed over the hot iron wool. (Note: Excess iodine gas will be absorbed by soda lime.) How vigorous the reaction is and the colour of the product formed are observed and recorded. iron woolResults: rine gas is passed through it. Chlorine | + Hot iron wool ore eee when chlo! + Abrown solid is formed. A “ cad trOuE it Hot iron wool glows moderately bright when bromine ga 'S pas: Bromine | + Hot iror + Abrown solid is formed. - aR lodine | + Hot iron wool glows dimly when iodine vapour is passed tl igt + Abrown solid is formed. Conclusion: i Group. Reactivity of reactions between halogens and iron decreases when going down the Group. rae reacts with hot iron wool to produce iron(III) halides, which are brown. 2Fels) + SCL) > 2FeCl(s) iron(t) chloride oF 3Br,() > 2FeBrs) i at iron(tl) bromide 2Fe(s) + 31g) > 2Fel,(s) iron({tl) iodide 2 Soda lime is a mixture of sodium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide. These compounds react with excess halogen gas to produce salts and water and thus, the poisonous halogen gas is not released into the laboratory. Examples: Cig) + 2NaOH(aq) -> NaClfaq) + NaOCi(aq) + H,0() 2C\,(q) + 2Ca(OH),(aq) > CaCl,(aq) + Ca(OC}),(aq) + H,O()) Brg) + 2NaOH(aq) —> NaBr(aq) + NaOBr(aq) + 2H,O(1) 2Br,(g) + 2Ca(OH),(aq) > CaBr,(aq) + Ca(OBr),(aq) + 2H,0() Potassium manganate(Vil) and concentrated hydrochloric acid reacts to produce chlorine gas. 2KMnO js) + 1HCl(aq) — 2KCi(aq) + 2MnCl{aq) + 3C1,(g) + BH,O() o Reactivity of elements in Group 17 1 The reactivity of Group 17 elements depei 2 Aswe go down Group 17, * the atomic radius increases, * Thus, the electrostatic force of attractio weaker. As a result, hal ens towards the bottom of eee eee re a # the Group has a lower tendency to attract electrons compatté Hence, reactivity decreases when going down the Group. nds on how fast the atoms of the elements accept an electron. n between protons in the nucleus and electrons becom ED; Which of the following statemer chlorine and bromine? 1 Chlorine gas dissolves in solution obtained reacts with hydrogen gas. Il Bromine reacts with sodium hy to form sodium bromide salt nts is true about water and the zine to produce Ydroxide solution and water oniy. IM" Chlorine reacts with hot iron wool to produce # brown compound. Bromine is more elect ine. Vand tit tronegative than chiori Vv A B landiv © ttand i D> tlandiyTips: * Chlorine dissolves in water to produce hydrochloric and hypochlorous acids. Clg) + HO) > HCllaq) + HOCl(aq) The hydrogen ions (H*) from these acids react with zinc metal to release hydrogen gas. lonic equation: Zn(s) + 2H*(aq) > Hg) + Zn*aq) [lis true] Bromine reacts with sodium hydroxide to produce two types of salt and water. Br) + 2NaOH(aq) > NaBrag) + NaOBraq) + H,0() sodium bromide sodium bromate(!) [Il is false] Chlorine reacts with hot iron wool to produce iron({Il) chloride, which is brown. 2Fe(s) + Clg) > 2FeCi(s) {il is true) iron@l) chloride Note: Iron(\!) chloride is green as Fe** ion is green, whereas iron(II) chloride is brown as Fe* ion is brown. The reaction between iron and halogens produces ironi({ll) halide salts, which are brown, and does not produce green iron(ll) chloride salt. Electronegativity is a measurement of the tendency of an element to attract electrons. The atomic radius of bromine is bigger than the atomic radius of chlorine. Hence, the electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and electrons is weaker in bromine atoms. Bromine has a lower tendency to attract electrons compared to chlorine. Bromine is less electronegative. [Vis false] Solution: A SPM SPOT 4 Which of the following statements are true “concerning the elements of Group 17?) |: 1 lodine is more reactive than bromine Bromine has a higher melting: point than, chlorine Le : "Bromine has a higher density than iodine Fluorine is more electronegative than chlorine Vand Ill atom is slightly bigger than a br Mand Iv fe ne _ However, the relative atomic mass SMandivo much higher (RAM | = 127) than t Ml an Br = 80), Hence, the den: than the density of bromit 3a ymic radius of bromine is smaller thar romine has a higher tendency to a juring_a reaction, Bromine is€@Q Elements in Period 3 whi Period 3 are sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), aluminium (AD, silicon (Si), phosphorus ® eri , 1 The elements in (An). sulphur (S), chlorine (Cl) and argon AL] St dasPy fo tS | el Ar Na | Mg Ses | zea | 285 | 286 | 287 | 285) 2.8.1 2.8.2 FIGURE 4.16 Elements in Period 3 of the Periodic Table Physical properties of elements in Period 3 Atomic radius 1 All eclements in Period 3 have three filled electron shells but the proton number increases by one unit from one element to the next. 2. The greater the number of protons in the nucleus, the stronger is the electrostatic force of attraction between the protons and the electrons in the shells. 3. The electrons are pulled closer to the nucleus, causing the atomic radius to become smaller. Electronegativity 1 Electronegativity increases across the Period because + the atomic radius decreases across the Period. + the number of protons increases across the Period. * the increase in the number of protons and the decrease in atomic radius enable the atom to accept an electron to achieve the octet electron arrangement. Melting and boiling points 1 The melting and boilis ic The ng nd oiling pon ofthe cements inerease fom the ofthe Period tothe mide of te Pe 2 Sodium, magnesium and aluminium are metals with stron; they have high melting and boiling points. The metallic of valence electrons in the order Na MgSO,(aq) + H,0() + sodium oxide: Na,O(s) + 2HCI(aq) > 2NaCl(aq) + H,0()) 4 Most metallic oxides are insoluble in water. For those that are soluble in water, they form alkali solutions. Na,O(s) + HO() > 2Na0H(aq) sodium hydroxide solution Other oxides that are soluble in water are potassium oxide (K,O) and calcium oxide (CaO). 5 Elements on the right side of the Period are non-metals. Non-metallic oxides are acidic oxides. 6 Acidic oxides react with alkaline solution to form salts and water. For example, + sulphur trioxide: SO,(g) + 2NaOH(aq) —> Na,SO,aq) +H,00) + phosphorus pentoxide: P,O,(s) + 6KOH(aq) -> 2K,PO,(aq) + 3H,0() + silicon(IV) oxide: Si0,(g) + 2NaOH (aq) —> Na,SiO,(aq) + H,0() 7. Non-metallic oxides dissolve in water to produce acidie solutions. + S0,@) + H,0() > 1,80,(aq) sulphurous acid + P,0,(6)+6H,0() > 4H,PO,aq) a phosphoric acid amphoteric oxide can react with both acids and alkalis to form Some ofthese amphoteric oxides are oxides of Group 13 and Group onal + Examples are aluminium oxide, lead(I1) oxide and tin(ID) oxide. : + Aluminium oxide: AL,0,(8) + 6HCI(aq) > 2AICL,(aq) + 31,00) aluminium chloride AL0,(6) + 2NaQH(aq) > 2NaAlO,(aq) + H,0() sodium aluminate * Other examples of amphoteric oxides are lead oxide and tin oxide (Group 14 elements)Per uc kcucuiscs How Is acid rain formed? Answer Carbon dioxide is acidic. Carbon dloxide gas in the ar dissolves in rain water and. produces carbonic acid with the pH 5.7. CO,Q)_ + H,0%) H,C0,(aq) carbonic aca Inbig cities, there are milions of vehicles. Combustion of fossl fuels in these vehicles releases acidic gases, including carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and ritrogen dioxide. These non-metalic oxides are acidic and dissolve in rain water to produce acid rain with pH as low as 4, SOQ) + H,0f) + H.SO,aq) sulphurus acid 2NO,(9) + H,0() + HNO,{aq) + HNO,(aq) ious acid nic acid ‘Acid rain harms aquatic lives, buildings, cars and forests. ‘The effect of acid rain on plants X, Yand Z are elements form the same Period in the Periodic Table. X oxide is acidic, Y oxide is basic and Z oxide is amphoteric. Arrange elements X, Y, Z in increasing proton number. A XYZ C Y,Z,x a B Z,Y,x Detectable th ae Comment: ne a is + As we go across a Period, the oxide changes from basi¢ oxide to amphoteric oxide to aicidic oxide.” + Thus, the arrangement is Y oxide, Z oxide, X oxide: s nruibae to yierinor ert ie + “The proton number increases in the order YZ, X.~ Answer: C ‘ sal Fe a eT GAGES studying the properties of oxides of elements across Period 3. | Sheet Problem statement: How do the properties of the oxides of elements in Period 3 change across the Period? Hypothesis: The oxides of elements in Period 3 change from basic to amphoteric and then acidic as we go across the Period from left to right. Variables (@) manipulated: Oxides of Period 3 elements (0) responding: Reaction with acidic or alkaline solutions (¢)_ fixed: Concentration of sodium hydroxide and nitric acid solutions Materials and apparatus: : Sodium oxide, magnesium oxide, aluminium oxide, silicon(IV) oxide, phosphorus(¥) oxide, sulphur dioxide, dichiorine heptoxide, distilled water, universal indicator, test tube, test tube holder, Bunsen burner, rubber stopper, glass rod Procedure: i (A) Reaction of the oxides of Period 3 elements with water 1 About 5 cm? of distilled water is poured into a test tube. 2 Allittle sodium oxide is added to the water. lgthe mixture is shaken. ‘ tution and the pH of the solution is recordeg, 3. The test tube is closed with a rubber stopper and inium oxide, silicon((V) oxide, Phosphoruggy ‘Two drops of universal indicator is added to the solution 5 The experiment is repeated with magnesium oxide, alum oxide, sulphur dioxide and dichlorine heptoxide. perature. So the gas is bubbled into distil ator. (8) Reaction of the oxides of Period 3 elements with sodium hydroxide and nitric acid solutions led water before recording th Note: SO, is a gas at room temper pH of the solution with a universal indic glass rod glass rod slow heating slow heating FIGURE 4.18 A\little sodium oxide is put into two different test tubes. 5 cm? of nitric acid and 5 cm? of sodium hydroxide are poured into each test tube. The contents in each test tube are heated slowly while being stirred with a glass rod. The solubility of sodium oxide in each solution is recorded. The solution is heated until about only 1 cm is left and allowed to cool. Observations are recorded. ‘The experiments repeated with magnesium oxide, aluminium oxide, silicon(IV) oxide, phosphorus(V) oxide, sulphur dioxide and dichlorine heptoxide. oanons Note: SO, is a gas at room temperature. The gas is bubbled into both NaOH and HNO, solutions before they are heated to see whether a white salt is produced. 2 Results: (A) Reaction of the oxides of Period 3 elements with water Na,O_| Dissolves in water to form Solution, obtained is a obi kali a colourless solution Sodium ovide ieee offal ot + Sodium shows metallic properties. MgO Dissolves very little in 8 + Solution obtained is a weak alkali. water to form a colouress Magnesium oxide is basic. + Magnesium shows metallic properties. ‘A,0, _| Insoluble in water 7 * pH measured is the pH of the water 35 the oxide is insoluble in water. SiO, | Insoluble in water 6 : pH measured is the pH of the water 4 ; oxide is insoluble in water. P,O,, | Dissolves in water to form 3 * Solution obtained i a colourless solution ase + Phosphorus shows non-metallic Properties,a colourless solution Dissolves in water to form The solution obtained is acidic. Sulphur shows non-metallic properties. C10, a colourless solution Dissolves in water to form The solution obtained is a strong acid. Chlorine shows non-metallic properties. (8) Reaction of the oxides of Period 3 elements with sodium hydroxide and nitric acid solutions Did not dissolve + No white salt formed Dissolved in HNO, to form a colourless solution Sodium oxide is basic because it reacts with nitric acid. + Sodium shows metallic properties. White salt formed MgO |+ Did not dissolve Dissolved in HNO, |+ Magnesium oxide is basic + No white salt formed | toformacolouriess | because it reacts with nitric acid. solution + Magnesium shows metallic + White salt formed properties. ‘ALO, |+ Dissolved in NaOH Dissolved in HNO, |+ Aluminium oxide is amphoteric toformacolourless | toformacolourless | because it reacts with both acidic solution solution and alkaline solutions. + White salt formed —|+ White salt formed SiO, [+ Reacted with NaOH |+ Doesnot react with |- Silicon((V) oxide is acidic because toform colourless | HNO, solution it reacts with sodium hydroxide solution + No white salt solution, an alkali. + White salt formed produced + Silicon shows non-metallic properties. P.O, |+ Reacted with NaOH |- Doesnot react with |+ Phosphorus pentoxide is to form a colourless HNO, solution because it reacts with sodium solution No white salt hydroxide solution, which is + White salt formed produced alkaline. + Phosphorus shows non-metallic properties. SO, | Reacted with NaOH |+ Does not react with |+ Sulphur dioxide is acidic because to form a colourless HNO, solution it reacts with sodium hydroxide solution No white salt solution, which is alkaline. + White salt formed produced + Sulphur shows non-metallic properties. C10, Reacted with NaOH Does not react with |+ Dichlorine heptoxide is acidic 7 | to form a colourless HNO, solution because it reacts with sodium ‘solution No white salt hydroxide solution, an alkali. + White salt formed produced + Chlorine shows non-metallic properties. Conclusion: [As we go across Period 3 from left to right, + the elements changes from metal to metalloid (sem! + the oxides change from basic to amphoteric to acidic, i metal) to non-metal,Uses of semi-metal elements ¢ that has both metal and non-metal properties. 1 Assemi-metal or metalloid is an elemen F Sitcom ive well-known metalloid. It behaves like a metal in some ways and like a non-metal in other ways, For example, silicon is shiny like metals but brittle like non-metals. 3 Germanium, boron, arsenic and antimony are other examples of metalloids. ‘4. Metalloids are poor conductor of electricity. «The electrical conductivities of silicon can be increased by a process called doping where metalloids from Group 13 or Group 15 are added to silicon. + Doping silicon with Group 15 elements, such as arsenic or antimony will produce n-type semiconductors. + Doping silicon with Group 13 elements, like boron, will produce p-type semiconductors. 5 Semiconductors are very important in the microelectronic industry and are used to make diodes, transistors, thermistors and microprocessors, which power juipments from smartphones to computers. ements in a Periodic Table. Pick an 4 () element that reacts with - a of Semrroaintetereton gg pera an eta on ie @) Omron nc (@) 0) slemont that tomes Sleetonlc industry w Amphotere asin te 0) Wats an anpnoterer pratt once, ay ihoth oli and atalne le two other amphoteric oxides, (2) TNote: Tis ith | WW 276) + 24,09) Pee © 0 ae +2H,00) 2u0Haq) For SPM, ont °M, only the post 1©.Caln th Pero Table ee Wt 20 lent H Jnaier ph ve TableTransition Elements 1 Transition elements are a block of elements between Group 2 and Group 13 in the Periodic Table. 1 2 a. ge gly Poth 10 Sop ev Tce wn | re | Go | ow — 3 Yo | 2 | NeeloMo| te | mw | m | pa ba fomodote pow. | pe | on foe FIGURE 4.20 Transition elements in the Periodic Table of Elements TABLE 4.9 Physical properties of transition elements in the first series |Element ee Ti Vv Cr Mn Fe Co Ni cu Atomic radius (rm) 0.147 | 0.134 | 0.130 | 0.135 | 0.126 | 0.125 | 0.124 | 0.128 Melting point (°C): 1668 | 1900 | 1875 ) 1245 | 1536 | 1495 | 1453 | 1083 Boiling point (°C) 3260 | 3450 | 2665 | 2150 | 3000 | 2900 | 2730 | 2959 Density (g cm) 451 | 61 | 719 |.743 | 786 | 99 89 | 896 Electronegativity. 15 1.6 1.6 15 1.8 1.8 18 19 Hardness (Moh's scale). 6.0 70 | 85 6.0 40 5.0 40 3.0 [Note: Diamond is the hardest substance. Its hardness is at 10 on the Moh’s scale which isthe highest) TABLE 4.10 Comparison between metals of Groups 1 and 2 and the transition metals of the Perio Table of Elements ‘Similarities rae + Conductor of heat and electricity + Have shiny surfaces Ductile and malleable Differences: Groups 1 and 2 metals Less hard and weaker Hardness and strength Harder and stronger Lower Density Higher Lower ‘Melting and boiling points Higher, except mercury, which is a liquid at room temperature. Lower Tensile strength Higher Reactive Reactivity Less reactivestances P, 2, R and S. 660 f 770 1420 1.98 2. re 79 222 1.16 f No < 00 7 1495, 291 86 s Yes Yes = 5 move to carry charges. Once in a molten (a). Sime he pation ee a9” A Crate, the ions are free to move to cany : charges. cg aki | lolecules. R cannot conduct electricit Oe pen ne ces pcre! - oth solid and molten states. So it ny @ nigel oor answer in (b)(), which is a Soret which is made up of iti n molecules. Solution: ee eet (o) (@ PandSare metals because they conduct electricity in solid and molten states. @ Atoms. Pis a metal because it conducts electricity in both solid and moiten state. (i) S'is a transition metal because it has a Metals are made up of atoms. high density as well as a high mettng (Ions. Q is an ionic compound because and boiling points. it cannot conduct electricity in solid [Note: P is also a metal but is not a state due to its ions being held by strong transition metal because it has low electrostatic force and are not free to melting point and low density,] Special properties of transition elements 1 Transition metals form coloured compounds. TABLE 4.11 The formulae and colours of some transition Iron(l) Iron) Coppertti) Cobalt( Chromium(t) Chromate(V)) ion Dichromate(V) ion Manganate(VIl) ion ved ofS?Consider the reaction below. CrOF + HO + 2croe + 2Hr ‘State the colour change during reaction, Comment: Chromate(V/) ion is yellow whereas dichromate(VIl) ion is orange. Answer: From orange to yellow 2 Transition metals have variable oxidation numbers or more than one oxidation states. The different oxidation states of transition metals are denoted by Roman numerals I, II, III, and so on. TABLE 4.12 Oxidation states of some transition metals in their compounds Copper(|) oxide +1 Copper) oxide +2 Iron(t) sulphate Fe* SOF oy lron(tl) chloride Fee ce 3 Nickel() chloride NiCI Ne cr a Nickell) sulphate NiSO, Ne so” +2 Nickell) chloride nicl, Ni cr 43. Manganese(l) oxide MnO Me oO +2 Manganese(lll) oxide Mn,0, Mn oF +3 Manganese(IV) oxide MnO, Mn‘ oF +4 Cobalt() chloride CoC, Co cr +2 Cobalt) chloride CoC, Co™ cr +3 Vanadium(l) oxide vo ve oO 2 Vanadium(t) oxide V,0, ve oO 43 Vanadium(IV) oxide vo, ve oF +4 Vanadium(V) oxide V0. ae er 2 3 Transition metals can form complex ions unlike metal ions from other Groups. A complex ion is a polyatomic cation or anion that consists of a central metal ion with other elements from other Groups (called ligand) bonded to it. TABLE 4.13 Examples of complex ions Tetraamminecopper(t) Cu(NH,)2* NH, HexaamminecobaltilIl) Co(NH,)3” NH, Hexacyanoferrat(|I) Fe(CNe CN Hexacyanoferratill) Fe(CNyg CN rede no ae on4 Transition elements or their ‘compounds tae cata Pp ems .d up chemical reactions wi . ks industries as they help to produce chemical products ata faster rg + Catalysts spec a + Catalysis are important in chemical inds used as catalysts ‘TABLE 4.14 Examples of transi the hydrogenation of unsaturated Nickel or platinum speeds UP 1 in the manufacture of margarine, vegetable oil into saturated oil Nickel or platinum Inthe Haber Process, iron powder is used as a catalyst to speed up ty Fine iron powder reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen gases to produce ammonia | N,(Q) + 3H,(9) > 2NH,(9) inthe Contact Process, which produces sulphuric acid, vanadium Vanadium(V) oxide, ‘oxide is used to speed up the reaction between sulphur dioxide and V,0, oxygen gases to produce sulphur trioxide. 280,) + 0,9) > 280,69) Uses of transition metals 1 Other than used as catalysts in industrial processes, transition metals are used to produce alloys in a proces called alloying. Alloys are better than pure metals as they are + harder. + looks more beautiful. + do not rust easily or a all ete aced m\ 7 —CH, o- pF Gn, wen a 7 OH CHAN ‘0Zab oe us ge Carbon steel alloy © ‘comprising 99% iron and 1% carbon is used in the construction of buildings, bridges, cars and ships. Titanium alloy is used to make aircraft engines. ow eet nena snus eros ee ee "30% zinc Used 10 make padlocks and pecearea sean Alnico alloy comprises aluminium, nickel and cobalt ‘ ee ae is . and trace amounts of titanium 4 ] corvebnicseine @ is used to make magnets. and is used tomake dental implants and [GR CHALLENGE —— 3 A fire fighter uses water to put off most fires. However, if a warehouse that stores sodium metal burns, it is dangerous to use water. Explain why. SAppting [4 marks} Sodium is a very reactive metal. It reacts with Water and ignites to produce f° . + Metals of Group sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas: react with water. x ‘Sodium reacts igorously with water,