Measurement Instruments and Sensors

Lecture 25
 Transducers
• Transducers are devices which converts one form of energy into another form of energy

• Transducers are devices which converts variations in physical quantity which is non – electrical such as temperature,

pressure, sound, light etc in to an equivalent electrical signal (voltage, current etc)

• In other words, it is a device that is capable of converting a physical quantity into a proportional electrical quantity

such as voltage or current.

𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

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 Block Diagram of Transducers
• A transducer consist of two parts that are closely related to each other

• The sensing element

• The sensing element is called as the sensor.

• It is device producing measurable response to change in physical conditions.

• Transduction element

• The transduction element convert the sensor output to suitable electrical form.

𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙

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 Classification of Transducers

• Transducers are classified based on certain criteria

• Analog and Digital Transducers

• Primary and Secondary Transducers

• Transducers and Inverse Transducers

• On the basis of transduction principle used

• Active and Passive Transducers

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 Analog and Digital Transducers

• On the basis of nature of output signal produced, transducers are classified into analog and digital

transducers.

Analog transducers

• Converts input signal into output signal, which is a continuous function of time

• Examples are Thermistor, Strain gauge, LVDT , Thermocouple etc.

Digital transducers

• Converts input signal into the output signal in the form of pulses e.g. it gives discrete output.

• These transducers are becoming more popular nowadays because of advantages associated with digital

measuring instruments and also due to the fact that digital signals can be transmitted over a long

distance without causing much distortion due to amplitude variation and phase shift.

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 Primary and Secondary Transducers
• On the basis of method of application, transducers are classified into primary and secondary transducers.

Primary transducers

• Primary transducer is the transducer which is directly dealing with the physical parameters like

temperature, pressure, vibration etc.

• Generally this transducer is generating an output which will not directly used in process system

Secondary transducers

• Converts the signal from the primary transducer into an equivalent electrical quantity

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐵𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑑𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝐿𝑉𝐷𝑇 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑟

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 Bourdon Tube

rimary Transducer

Secondary Transducer

Figure Courtesy
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https://instrumentationtools.com
 Inverse Transducers

• It is a device that converts an electrical quantity into a non electrical quantity.

• For example a piezoelectric crystal and translational and angular moving coil elements can be employed as

inverse transducers.

• A most useful application of inverse transducers is in feed back measuring systems.

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 On the basis of Transduction principle

• Resistive Transducers.

• Capacitive Transducers.

• Inductive Transducers.

• Voltage and current Generating Transducers

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 Active and Passive Transducers
• Transducers are classified into active and passive transducers, on the basis of methods of energy conversion used

Active Transducers

• Active transducers are those which does not require auxiliary power source to produce output.

• The energy required for production of output signal is obtained from physical quantity being measured

• These are self generating type transducers i.e the transducers which develop their output in the form of electrical

voltage or current without any auxiliary source.

• Normally such transducers give very small output, therefore, use of amplifier becomes essential.

• For example

• tacho generators used for measurements of angular velocity

• thermocouples used for measurement of temperature

• piezoelectric crystal used for measurement of force.

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 Active and Passive Transducers
Passive Transducers

• Passive transducers are those which need an auxiliary power source to produce output

• For example

• Resistive, Capacitive, Inductive

• LVDT

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 Resistive Transducers
• The transducer whose resistance varies because of the environmental effects such type of transducer is known as

the resistive transducer.

• The resistive transducer is used for measuring the physical quantities like temperature, displacement, vibration

etc.

• A simple resistance Transducer: The potentiometer

• What is the output voltage ? 𝑅

𝑊𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑅2 𝐸 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉𝑜 = ×𝐸
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅 𝑅1
𝑅2
𝑅2 𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑜 = ×𝐸
𝑅𝑇 + 𝑅

• So from this voltage we will get an idea about the movement of

the wiper which is the displacement

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 Resistive Transducers: Working Principle
The resistive transducer element works on the principle that the resistance of the element is directly proportional to

the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the area of the conductor.

𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
𝐴

Here

𝑅 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝜌 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑙 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

So we can form a resistive transducer by changing the length , changing the area of cross section or by changing the

resistivity

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 Tutorial
A linear resistance potentiometer is 50 mm long and is uniformly wound with a wire having a resistance of 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝛀. Find
the linear displacement when the resistance of the potentiometer as measure by a Wheatstone bridge for two cases is:
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝛀
𝟕𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝛀
If it is possible to measure a minimum of 𝟏𝟎 𝛀 using the arrangement, find the resolution
Answer:

So the displacement when 𝑅 = 7000 Ω?

Resistance of the potentiometer wire per unit length
7000
𝑅 10000 𝑑2 = = 35 𝑚𝑚
= = 200 Ω/mm 200
𝑙 50
Minimum displacement that can be measured ?
So the displacement when 𝑅 = 3000 Ω?
10
3000 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 0.05 𝑚𝑚
𝑑1 = = 15 𝑚𝑚 200
200

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 Tutorial
A potentiometer is made of wires of two materials as shown. Green is copper and red is aluminium. Length of both wires are
50 cm. What will be the output voltage if the wiper is 70 cm from the ground?
Given resistivity of Copper is 𝟏. 𝟔𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀𝐦.
Resistivity of Aluminium is 𝟐. 𝟔𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀𝐦.
Area of cross section is the same at 𝟏𝒎𝒎𝟐
Answer:

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 Thank You

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Measurement Instruments and Sensors
Lecture 26
 Tutorial
A potentiometer is made of wires of two materials as shown. Green is copper and red is aluminium. Length of both
wires are 50 cm. What will be the output voltage if the wiper is 70 cm from the ground?
Given resistivity of Copper is 𝟏. 𝟔𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀𝐦.
Resistivity of Aluminium is 𝟐. 𝟔𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀𝐦.
Area of cross section is the same at 𝟏𝒎𝒎𝟐
Answer:
Resistance of the Copper Wire

𝜌𝑐 𝐿𝑐 1.68 × 10−8 × 50 × 10−2

𝑅𝐶 = = = 8.4 × 10−3 Ω
𝐴𝑐 1 × 10−6

Resistance of the Aluminium Wire

𝜌𝐴 𝐿𝐴 2.65 × 10−8 × 50 × 10−2

𝑅𝐴 = = = 0.01325 Ω
𝐴𝐴 1 × 10−6

Total resistance of wire

𝑅𝑇 = 0.01325 + 0.0084 = 0.02165 Ω

 Tutorial
A potentiometer is made of wires of two materials as shown. Green is copper and red is aluminium. Length of both
wires are 50 cm. What will be the output voltage if the wiper is 70 cm from the ground?
Given resistivity of Copper is 𝟏. 𝟔𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀𝐦.
Resistivity of Aluminium is 𝟐. 𝟔𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀𝐦.
Area of cross section is the same at 𝟏𝒎𝒎𝟐
Answer:
70 cm from ground. So the resistance between the output terminals

will be

𝜌𝑐 (20 𝑐𝑚)
𝑅𝑜 = 𝑅𝐴 +
𝐴𝑐

1.68 × 10−8 × 20 × 10−2

𝑅𝑜 = 0.01325 + = 0.01661 Ω
1 × 10−6

So

𝑅𝑜 0.01661
𝑉𝑜 = × 10 = × 10 = 7.672 𝑉
𝑅𝑇 0.02165
 Strain Gauge
• A Strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force

• It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical

resistance which can then be measured.

• When external forces are applied to a stationary object, stress and strain are the

result.

• Strain Gage was invented in 1938 by Edward E. Simmons and Arthur C. Ruge

• Whenever an external force is applied to an object, it tends to change its shape and

size thereby, altering its resistance.

Figure Courtesy :
• The stress is the internal resisting capacity of an object while a strain is the amount https://www.encardio.com/

of deformation experienced by it.

 Strain Gauges

• If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on account of the fact that the both length

and diameter of the conductor change

• There is also a change in the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained and this property is called

piezo resistive effect

• Hence the resistance strain gauges are also known as piezo resistive gauges
 Theory of Strain Gauge
• If a strip of elastic material is subjected to tension, or in other words, positively strained, its longitudinal dimension

will increase while there is a reduction in the lateral dimension

• So when a strain gauge is subjected to positive strain, its length increases , while its area of cross section decreases.

• So what happens to the resistance of the conductor?

• Since the resistance of the conductor is directly proportional to length and inversely proportional to the area of

cross section, the resistance increases with positive strain

𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴

Here R is the resistance, 𝜌 is the resistivity, L is the length and A is the area of cross section

• The extra change in the resistance is attributed to the change in the resistivity of the conductor when strained. This

property is called the piezoresistive effect

 Theory of Strain Gauge
• Let us consider a strain gauge made of circular wire having length L, area of cross section A, and
resistivity 𝜌 before being strained. Then the resistance of the unstrained strain gauge is

𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
• Let a tensile stress 𝑠 be applied to the wire
• This produces a positive strain causing the length to increase and area to decrease.
• So there are changes in the dimension
• Let
Δ𝐿 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Δ𝐴 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Δ𝐷 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Δ𝑅 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
 Theory of Strain Gauge
What is Strain?

Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force. More specifically, strain 𝜖 is defined as the

fractional change in length, as shown in Figure below.

The strain is

Δ𝐿
𝜖=
𝐿

Strain can be positive(tensile) or negative (compressive)

 Theory of Strain Gauge
What is Poisson Strain?

• When a bar is strained with a uniaxial force, as in Figure, a phenomenon known as Poisson Strain causes the girth of the bar, D, to

contract in the transverse, or perpendicular, direction.

• The magnitude of this transverse contraction is a material property indicated by its Poisson's Ratio.

• The Poisson's Ratio 𝜈 of a material is defined as the negative ratio of the strain in the transverse direction (perpendicular to the force)

to the strain in the axial direction (parallel to the force).

The Poisson ratio is

𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 Δ𝐷/𝐷

𝜈=− =−
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 Δ𝐿/𝐿

Poisson's Ratio for steel, for example, ranges from 0.25 to 0.3
Thank You
Measurement Instruments and Sensors
Lecture 27
 The Formulas
Gauge factor is defined as the per unit change in resistance to
Stress is defined as force per unit area
the per unit change in length
𝐹
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑆 =
𝐴
Δ𝑅/𝑅
𝐺𝑓 =
Δ𝐿/𝐿 Modulus of elasticity is the ratio of stress to strain

Δ𝑅/𝑅
𝐺𝑓 = 𝑆
𝜖 𝐸=
𝜖

If force applied is tensile, the strain will be

𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

If force applied is compressive, the strain will be

𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

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 Tutorial
A resistance wire strain gauge having a nominal resistance of 𝟑𝟓𝟎 𝛀 is subjected to a strain of 500 micro – strain. Find the
change in the value of resistance neglecting the piezoresistive effect. Given that the gauge factor is 2
Answer:

Strain
𝜖 = 500 𝜇 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜖 = 500 × 10−6
Gauge factor is given as

Δ𝑅/𝑅
𝐺𝑓 =
𝜖
So
Δ𝑅 = 𝐺𝑓 × 𝜖 × 𝑅
𝐺𝑓 = 2
So the change in resistance will be
Δ𝑅 = 2 × 500 × 10−6 × 350
Δ𝑅 = 0.35 Ω

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 Tutorial
Find the strain that is resulted from a tensile force of 1000 N applied to a 10 m long Aluminum bar having cross sectional
area of 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎𝟐 . The modulus of elasticity of Aluminum is 𝟔𝟗 𝑮𝑵/𝒎𝟐 .
Answer:

Given that tensile force is applied. So what will be the strain Modulus of elasticity is given as
developed? Positive or negative? 𝐸 = 69 𝐺𝑁/𝑚2
It will be positive. 𝐸 = 69 × 109 𝑁/𝑚2
Given force applied Modulus of elasticity is the ratio of stress to the strain
𝐹 = 1000 𝑁 𝑆
𝐸=
Stress is the force per unit area 𝜖
So the strain will be
𝐹
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑆 =
𝐴 𝑆
𝜖=
Area is given as 𝐸
𝐴 = 4 × 10−4 𝑚2 2500000
𝜖=
So 69 × 109
𝜖 = 3.623 × 10−5
1000
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑆 = 𝜖 = 36.23 𝜇 − 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
4 × 10−4
𝑆 = 2500000 𝑁/𝑚2

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 Tutorial
A compressive force is applied to a structural member. The strain is 5 micro – strain. Two separate gauges are attached to
the structural member, one is nickel wire strain gauge having a gauge factor of -12.1 and the other is nichrome wire strain
gauge having a gauge factor of 2. Calculate the value of the resistance of the gauges after they are strained. The resistance
of both the gauges before being strained is 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝛀
Answer:
Case – I For the nickel strain gauge
Given that compressive force is applied. So what will be the
𝐺𝑓 = −12.1
strain developed? Positive or negative?
So the change in resistance will be
It will be negative. So the strain can be written as
Δ𝑅 = −12.1 × −5 × 10−6 × 120
𝜖 = −5 𝜇 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
−6
Δ𝑅 = 7.26 × 10−3 Ω
𝜖 = −5 × 10
So there is an increase in resistance by a value of 7.26 𝑚Ω
Gauge factor is given as
Case – II For the nichrome strain gauge
Δ𝑅/𝑅
𝐺𝑓 = 𝐺𝑓 = 2
𝜖
So So the change in resistance will be
Δ𝑅 = 2 × −5 × 10−6 × 120
Δ𝑅 = 𝐺𝑓 × 𝜖 × 𝑅
Δ𝑅 = −1.2 × 10−3 Ω
So there is a decrease in resistance by a value of 1.2 𝑚Ω
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 Tutorial
A resistance wire strain gauge having a gauge factor is 2 is bonded to a steel structural member subjected to a stress of
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝑵/𝒎𝟐 .(mega newton) The modulus of elasticity of steel is 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑮𝑵/𝒎𝟐 (𝒈𝒊𝒈𝒂𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏). Calculate the percentage
change in the value of the gauge resistance due to the applied stress. Comment upon the results (calculate stain and delta
r\R )
Answer:
Stress Gauge factor is given as
𝑆 = 100 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2 = 100 × 106 𝑁/𝑚2 Δ𝑅/𝑅
𝐺𝑓 =
Gauge factor 𝜖
𝐺𝑓 = 2 So

Modulus of elasticity Δ𝑅 = 𝐺𝑓 × 𝜖 × 𝑅

𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑁/𝑚2 = 200 × 109 𝑁/𝑚2 Δ𝑅 = 2 × 5 × 10−4 × 𝑅

Modulus of elasticity is Δ𝑅 = 1 × 10−3 𝑅

𝑆 So the percentage change will be

𝐸=
𝜖 Δ𝑅
% 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = × 100
𝑆 𝑅
𝜖=
𝐸 1 × 10−3 𝑅
% 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = × 100
100 × 106 𝑅
𝜖=
200 × 109 % 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 0.1 %

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𝜖 = 5 × 10−4 6
 Tutorial
A strain gauge is bonded to a beam 0.1 m long and has a cross sectional area 𝟒 𝒄𝒎𝟐 . Young’s modulus for steel is
𝟐𝟎𝟕 𝑮𝑵/𝒎𝟐 .(giga newton) The strain gauge has an unstrained resistance of 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝛀 and a gauge factor of 2.2. When a load is
applied, the resistance of the gauge changes by 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟑 𝛀. Calculate the change in the length of the steel beam and the
amount of force applied to the beam. (calculate strain, delta L, stress, force)
Answer:
The stress can be found out as
Given 0.013
𝜖=
𝐿 = 0.1 𝑚 240 × 2.2 𝑆
𝐸=
𝜖 = 2.46212 × 10−5 𝜖
𝐴 = 4 𝑐𝑚2 = 4 × 10−4 𝑚2
What is strain? 𝑆 =𝐸×𝜖
𝐺𝑓 = 2.2
𝑆 = 207 × 109 × 2.46212 × 10−5
𝐸 = 207 𝐺𝑁/𝑚2 = 207 × 109 𝑁/𝑚2 Δ𝐿
𝜖= 𝑆 = 5096588.4 𝑁/𝑚2
𝐿
𝑅 = 240 Ω
Δ𝐿 = 𝜖 × 𝐿 So force
Δ𝑅 = 0.013 Ω
Δ𝐿 = 2.46212 × 10−5 × 0.1 𝐹 =𝑆×𝐴
Gauge factor is given as
Δ𝐿 = 2.46212 × 10−6 𝐹 = 5096588.4 × 4 × 10−4
Δ𝑅/𝑅 𝐹 = 2038.63536 𝑁
𝐺𝑓 = The force applied?
𝜖
𝐹 =𝑆×𝐴
Δ𝑅/𝑅
𝜖=
𝐺𝑓
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 Thank You

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Measurement Instruments and Sensors
Lecture 28
 Capacitive Transducers

• Capacitive transducers are passive transducers that are primarily used to measure quantities like displacement,

pressure and temperature etc.

• The simplest capacitive transducer consists of two parallel metal plates.

• The plates are separated by air, or some liquid or gas

 Capacitive Transducers: Principle of Operation
The principle is based on the very familiar equation of capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor

𝐴𝜖
𝐶=
𝑑
Here
A = Overlapping area of the plates in 𝑚2
𝜖 = Permittivity of the medium in 𝐹/𝑚
d = distance between the plates in 𝑚
Also
𝜖 = 𝜖0 𝜖𝑟
So we get

𝐴𝜖0 𝜖𝑟
𝐶= Figure Courtesy:
𝑑
https://www.electricaltechnology.org/
Here
𝜖0 = Permittivity of free space 𝜖0 = 8.8542 × 10−12 𝐹/𝑚
𝜖𝑟 = Relative permittivity
 Capacitive Transducers: Principle of Operation
𝐴𝜖0 𝜖𝑟
𝐶=
𝑑
• The capacitive transducers work on the principle of change in capacitance of the capacitor.
• This change in capacitance could be caused by change in overlapping area, A of the plates, change in the distance d between the
plates and change in medium between the plates 𝜖𝑟
• In most of the cases the above changes are caused by the physical variables, such as, displacement, force or pressure.
• Variation in capacitance is also there when the dielectric medium between the plates changes, as in the case of measurement of liquid
or gas levels.
• Therefore, the capacitive transducers are commonly used for measurement of linear displacement, by employing the following effects
• Change in capacitance due to change in overlapping area of plates.
• Change in capacitance due to change in distance between the two plates.
• Change in capacitance due to change in dielectric between the two plates

Figure Courtesy:
http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/
 Capacitive Transducers Using Change in Area
𝐴𝜖
𝐶=
𝑑
What is the area of the overlapping plates?
𝐴 = 𝑊. 𝑙
So

𝑊. 𝑙. 𝜖
𝐶=
𝑑
𝑙 = length of the overlapping part of the plates
Capacitance Decreases
W = width of the overlapping part of the plates
Sensitivity of the transducer is the change in the capacitance to the change Capacitance Increases
in length (displacement)

𝜕𝐶
𝑆=
𝜕𝑙
Figure Courtesy:
𝜕 𝑊. 𝑙. 𝜖 https://electricalbaba.com/capacitive-transducer/
𝑆=
𝜕𝑙 𝑑

𝑊𝜖
𝑆=
𝑑
 Capacitive Transducers Using Change in Area
𝑊𝜖
𝑆=
𝑑
Here we can see that the sensitivity is a constant
This means that there will be a linear relation between the displacement
and the capacitance
This can be plotted as below

Capacitance
Capacitance Decreases

Capacitance Increases

Figure Courtesy:
https://electricalbaba.com/capacitive-transducer/

Displacement
 Capacitive Transducers Using Change in Distance Between {Plates

𝐴𝜖
𝐶=
𝑑

• One plate is fixed, while the other is movable

• The capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance
Capacitance
between the plates Increases

• So as the movable plate moves closer to the fixed plate the

distance decreases and the capacitance increases
• When the movable plate moves away from the fixed plate the
distance increases and the capacitance decreases Capacitance Decreases

Figure Courtesy:
https://www.electricaltechnology.org/
 Capacitive Transducers Using Change in Distance Between {Plates
The sensitivity?
The sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the change in capacitance to the change in the
distance between the plates

𝜕𝐶
𝑆=
𝜕𝑑

𝜕 𝐴𝜖
𝑆= Capacitance
𝜕𝑑 𝑑
Increases
𝐴𝜖
𝑆=−
𝑑2
We can see that the sensitivity is not constant. So the transducer will not be linear
Capacitance

Capacitance Decreases

Figure Courtesy:
https://www.electricaltechnology.org/

Displacement
 Capacitive Transducers Based on Differential Arrangement
• Consists of two fixed plates 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 and one movable plate 𝑀
Fixed Movable Fixed
• When the movable plate is at the middles, the distance between the movable Plate 𝑃2
Plate 𝑃1 Plate, 𝑀
plate and the fixed plates is 𝑑.
• An alternating voltage, 𝐸, is applied across the plates, 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 , and the
potential differences across the two capacitors is measured. d d

• The capacitance 𝐶1

𝐴𝜖
𝐶1 =
𝑑
• The capacitance 𝐶2

𝐴𝜖 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝐶2 =
𝑑
• Voltage across 𝐶1 𝐸1 𝐸2
𝐶2 𝐸
𝐸1 =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
• Voltage across 𝐶2
E
𝐶1 𝐸
𝐸2 =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
 Capacitive Transducers Based on Differential Arrangement

• Voltage across 𝐶1

𝐶2 𝐸
𝐸1 =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
• Voltage across 𝐶2

𝐶1 𝐸
𝐸2 =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
• When the movable plate is at the middle, the capacitor values are the same
and hence 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 will be

𝐸
𝐸1 = 𝐸2 =
2
• Then the differential output will be
Δ𝐸 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2
Δ𝐸 = 0 𝑉
 Capacitive Transducers Based on Differential Arrangement

• Now let the movable plate move a distance of x to the right as shown

• The capacitance 𝐶1

𝐴𝜖
𝐶1 =
𝑑+𝑥
• The capacitance 𝐶2

𝐴𝜖
𝐶2 =
𝑑−𝑥 𝑥
• Voltage across 𝐶1

𝐶2 𝐸
𝐸1 = 𝐶2
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝐶1

• Voltage across 𝐶2

𝐶1 𝐸
𝐸2 =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
 Capacitive Transducers Based on Differential Arrangement

𝐴𝜖
𝐶1 =
𝑑+𝑥

𝐴𝜖
𝐶2 =
𝑑−𝑥
So the differential voltage developed
Δ𝐸 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2

𝐶2 𝐸 𝐶1 𝐸
Δ𝐸 = −
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2

𝐸
Δ𝐸 = 𝐶 − 𝐶1
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 2

𝐸 𝐴𝜖 𝐴𝜖
Δ𝐸 = −
𝐴𝜖 𝐴𝜖 𝑑−𝑥 𝑑+𝑥
+
𝑑+𝑥 𝑑−𝑥

𝐸𝐴𝜖 1 1
Δ𝐸 = −
1 1 𝑑−𝑥 𝑑+𝑥
𝐴𝜖 +
𝑑+𝑥 𝑑−𝑥
 Capacitive Transducers Based on Differential Arrangement

𝐸𝐴𝜖 1 1
Δ𝐸 = −
1 1 𝑑−𝑥 𝑑+𝑥
𝐴𝜖 +
𝑑+𝑥 𝑑−𝑥

𝐸 1 1
Δ𝐸 = −
1 1 𝑑−𝑥 𝑑+𝑥
+
𝑑+𝑥 𝑑−𝑥

𝐸 𝑑+𝑥 −𝑑+𝑥
Δ𝐸 =
𝑑−𝑥+𝑑+𝑥 𝑑−𝑥 𝑑+𝑥
𝑑+𝑥 𝑑−𝑥

𝐸 2𝑥
Δ𝐸 =
2𝑑 𝑑−𝑥 𝑑+𝑥
𝑑+𝑥 𝑑−𝑥
𝐸𝑥
Δ𝐸 =
𝑑
Sensitivity?

𝜕Δ𝐸
𝑆=
𝜕𝑥
𝐸
𝑆=
𝑑
Thank You
Measurement Instruments and Sensors
Lecture 30
 Inductive Transducers

• Inductive transducers work on the principle of inductance change due to any appreciable change in the
quantity to be measured
• Inductive transducers work on one of the following principles for its working
• Change of self – inductance
• Change of mutual inductance
• Production of eddy current

4/24/2025 2
Inductive Transducers Working on the Principle of Variation of Self Inductance
Self inductance of a coil is given by

𝑁2
𝐿=
𝑅
Here
N = Number of turns, R = Reluctance of the magnetic circuit
Reluctance of a magnetic circuit is given as

𝑙
𝑅=
𝜇𝐴
Therefore

𝑁 2 𝜇𝐴
𝐿=
𝑙
𝐿 = 𝑁 2 𝜇𝐺
Here
𝐴
𝜇 = Effective permeability of the medium in and around the coil, 𝐺 = = Geometric factor, A = area of cross section of the magnetic
𝑙

path and l = length of the magnetic path

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Inductive Transducers Working on the Principle of Variation of Self Inductance

𝐿 = 𝑁 2 𝜇𝐺
So the variation of inductance can be caused by
1. Change in the number of turns, N
2. Change in the geometric configuration, G
3. Change in permeability, 𝜇

Inductive transducers are mainly used for the measurement of displacement

The displacement to be measured is arranged to cause variation in any of the three variables of the above equation
and thus alter the self inductance L by Δ𝐿

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 LVDT : Linear Variable Differential Transformer

Figure Courtesy :
https://electricalbaba.com/

• Linear Variable Differential Transformer, LVDT is the most used inductive transducer for converting translating linear motion into
electrical signal.
• This transducer converts a mechanical displacement proportionally into electrical signal.

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 LVDT : Construction

• LVDT is a transformer consisting of one primary winding

P and two secondary winding S1 & S2 mounted on a
cylindrical former.
• The two secondary winding have equal number of turns
and placed identically on either side of the primary
winding as shown in figure
• A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former.
• The movable core is made of nickel iron with hydrogen
annealed. Hydrogen annealing is done to eliminate
Figure Courtesy :
harmonics, residual voltage of core and thus provides high https://electricalbaba.com/
sensitivity.

• The movable core also is laminated in order to reduce eddy current loss.
• The assembly of laminated core is placed in a cylindrical steel housing and end lids are provided for electromagnetic and electrostatic
shielding.
• The displacement to be measured is attached to this movable soft iron core.

4/24/2025 6
 LVDT : Working Principle
• Since the primary winding of Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT) is supplied with AC supply, it produces an
alternating magnetic flux in the core which in turn link with the
secondary winding S1 and S2 to produce emf due to transformer
action.
• The electrical equivalent circuit of LVDT is shown below.

• Let us assume that the emf produced in secondary winding 𝑆1 is 𝐸𝑠1 and
that in 𝑆2 is 𝐸𝑠2.
• The magnitude of 𝐸𝑠1 and 𝐸𝑠2 will depend upon the magnitude of rate of
𝑑Φ
Figure Courtesy :
change of flux as per the Faraday’s Law. https://electricalbaba.com/
𝑑𝑡

• The lower the value of ‘𝑑𝑡’, the more will be the emf induced.
• But lower value of ‘𝑑𝑡’ means that core is moving faster.
• Thus we can say that the faster the movement of core, the greater will be the
magnitude of emf induced in secondary windings.
4/24/2025 7
 LVDT : Working Principle
• To get a single output voltage from the Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT), both the secondary winding are connected in
series but in phase opposition as shown in figure

• Due to this connection, the net output voltage E0 of the LVDT is

given as below.
𝐸0 = 𝐸𝑠1 − 𝐸𝑠2
• Since the secondary windings of LVDT are identical and placed
symmetrically on either side of core, therefore under normal
position the flux linkage of both the secondary winding S1 & S2 will
be same.
• This means Es1 = Es2 and hence net output voltage E0 of LVDT = 0.
• This position of soft iron core is called NULL position. Thus NULL
Figure Courtesy :
position of Linear Variable Differential Transformer is the normal https://electricalbaba.com/
position of movable core where the net output voltage is zero.

4/24/2025 8
 LVDT : Working Principle
Case 1: Core is moved left to the null position

• When core of LVDT is moved to the left of the NULL

position ‘O’ as shown in figure, the flux linkage of
secondary winding S1 will become more than that of
winding S2.
• This means the emf induced in winding S1 will be
more than S2.
• Hence Es1 > Es2 and net output voltage
𝐸0 = 𝐸𝑠1 − 𝐸𝑠2 = 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒.
• This means that the output voltage E0 will be in phase
with the primary voltage.
Figure Courtesy :
https://electricalbaba.com/

4/24/2025 9
 LVDT : Working Principle
Case 2: Core is moved right to the null position

• When core of LVDT is moved to the right of the NULL

position ‘O’ as shown in figure, the flux linkage of
secondary winding S2 will become more than that of
winding S1.
• This means the emf induced in winding S2 will be
more than S1.
• Hence Es2 > Es1 and net output voltage
𝐸0 = 𝐸𝑠1 − 𝐸𝑠2 = 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒.
• This means that the output voltage E0 will be in phase
opposition (1800 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒) with the primary
Figure Courtesy :
voltage. https://electricalbaba.com/

4/24/2025 10
 LVDT : Working Principle
From the above two cases, we can have the following conclusions:
1. The direction of movement of a physical quantity can be
identified by the output voltage of LVDT. If the output voltage
E0 is positive, this means the physical quantity is moving toward
left.
2. If the output voltage E0 is negative, this will mean that the
physical quantity is moving in the right direction from the NULL
position.
3. The amount / magnitude of displacement is proportional to the
magnitude of output voltage. The more the output voltage, the
more will be displacement. But here is a clue. You can’t take core
Figure Courtesy :
out of the former; otherwise the output voltage will become zero. https://electricalbaba.com/
4. In fact corresponding to both the cases i.e. whether core is
moving left or right to the NULL position, the output voltage will It may be noted from the graph that even at NULL position (i.e.
increase lineally up to a displacement of around 5 mm from the when there is no displacement) there is some output voltage of
NULL position. After 5mm, output voltage E0 becomes non- LVDT. This small output is due to the residual magnetism in the
linear. The graph of variation of E0 with displacement is shown. iron core.

4/24/2025 11
 Link is :

https://instrumentationtools.com/lvdt-working-principle-animation/

4/24/2025 12
 Video Link is :

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=anCnrtjNLQM

Magic Marks

4/24/2025 13
 Thank You

4/24/2025 14