Dr. H. S.

Kalsi
Dept. of Physics
Guru Nanak Khalsa College
Matunga, Mumbai
Transducers
Definition: Technically…

•A device that converts one energy form to another

(e.g. mechanical to electrical).

•Any device or component that converts an input signal of

one form to an output signal of another form.

•An element or device which receives information in the

form of one quantity and converts it to information in the
same or an other quantity or form.

•A device for translating the magnitude of one quantity

into another quantity.
1
Sensor and Transducer

• ‘Sensor' is a device that detects a change in a physical

stimulus and turns it into a signal which can be
measured or recorded.
e.g. Thermistor

• ‘Transducer' is a device that transfers power from one

system to another in the same or in the different form.
e.g. Thermistor with it associate circuit convert heat to
electricity.
Sensor and Transducer

As a comparison……

‘Sensor' for the sensing element itself and ‘Transducer'

for the sensing element plus any associated circuitry.

All transducers would thus contain a sensor.

Sensor Actuator
 Functions of Transducer
1. To sense the presence, magnitude, change in, and
frequency of some measurand.

2. To provide an electrical output that, when

appropriately
processed and applied to readout device, gives accurate
quantitative data about the measurand.
Measurand Electrical output
Transducer

Excitation

Measurand – refers to the quantity, property or condition which the

transducer translates to an electrical signal.
Some Common Transducers and their Uses

Types Applications
Thermistor/thermocouple temperature monitoring,
controlling devices
LDRs/LEDs flame or smoke
Opto-coupler data transfer
Speaker/microphone acoustic/sound
Magnetic pickup stylus/vibration
Strain gauge tension, pressure
Hall effect magnetism
Piezo stress/pressure
Quantity being Input Device Output Device
Measured (Sensor) (Actuator)

Light Dependant Resistor (LDR), Lights & Lamps, LED's &

Light Level
Photodiode, Phototransistor, Solar Cell Displays, Fiber Optics
Thermocouple, Thermistor,
Heater, Fan, Peltier
Temperature Thermostat, Resistive temperature
Elements
detectors (RTD)
Strain Gauge, Pressure Switch, Load Lifts & Jacks,
Force/Pressure
Cells Electromagnetic, Vibration
Potentiometer, Encoders, Motor, Solenoid, Panel
Position
Reflective/Slotted Opto-switch, LVDT Meters
Tacho-generator, Reflective/Slotted AC and DC Motors, Stepper
Speed
Opto-coupler, Doppler Effect Sensors Motor, Brake
Carbon Microphone, Piezo-electric
Sound Bell, Buzzer, Loudspeaker
Crystal
7
Classification of Transducers
Transducer can be classified according to their application,
based primarily on the physical quantity, property, or
condition that is measured.
The transducer can be categories into:

A) Passive transducer:
- requires an external power
-output is a measure of some variation, such resistance and
capacitance. E.g. : thermistor, condenser microphone

B) Active (Self generating transducer):

- does not require an external power, and they produce analog
voltage or current when stimulated by some physical form of
energy. E.g. : Piezo sensors, Photo voltaic, Thermocouple
 Transducer Parameters- Selecting a Transducer
Transducer operating characteristics are usually defined by a number
of parameters. Some of the main parameters to be considered are:
Range
Span
Linearity
Hysteresis
Accuracy
Precision (Reproducibility, Repeatability)
Sensitivity
Environmental compatibility
Frequency response
Usage and ruggedness
Electrical parameters
 Transducer Parameters- Selecting a Transducer

Range:
The highest(maximum) and lowest(minimum) values
that the transducer is designed to measure.
E.g. A Temperature transducer may have a range of
–500C to +500C

Span:
The difference between the upper and lower values the
transducer is designed to measure.
E.g. A Temperature transducer that has a range of
–500C to + 500C has a span of 1000C Span
 Transducer Parameters- Selecting a Transducer

Linearity:
Linearity refers to the change in output compared to the
change in input. If the change in output is proportional
to the change in input, the transducer is said to be
linear.

Hysteresis:
A transducer should produce the same output whether
the value has been reached due to a continually
increasing input or a continually decreasing input.
 Transducer Parameters- Selecting a Transducer
Accuracy :
Accuracy is how close a measured value is to the actual
or true value.

Precision (Reproducibility, Repeatability):

Precision is how close the measured values are close to
each other. i.e. the closeness among the number of
consecutive measurements(repeatability)
 Transducer Parameters- Selecting a Transducer
Sensitivity:
Sensitivity is the ability of the transducer to generate an
output for an smallest change in input.
Sensitivity = Change in output
Change in input
E.g. a thermocouple that increases the output voltage by
3mV per degree centigrade temperature change has a
sensitivity of 3mV/0C.

Environmental compatibility:
Its temperature range, for fluids (corrosive or non-
corrosive, pressure, shocks, size and mounting restrictions
 Transducer Parameters- Selecting a Transducer
Frequency response:
Its frequency response should be flat over the entire desired
range. i.e. it should be able to respond fast to the changes
in the input.

Usage and ruggedness:

Depending upon their usage (application) they should be
rugged mechanically as well as electrically.

Electrical parameters:
The length and the type of cables required, the signal to
noise ratio when interfaced to amplifiers etc.
Resistive Transducers
Resistive transducers are those transducers in which
the resistance change due to the change in some
physical phenomenon.

The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed by a

simple equation
L
R 
A
where R = resistance of conductor in Ω
L = length of conductor in m
A = cross sectional area of conductor in m2
ρ = resistivity of conductor material in Ω-m.
Resistive Transducers

There are 4 type of resistive transducers:

1. Potentiometers (POT)
2. Strain gauge
3. Thermistors
4. Resistance thermometer
Resistive Transducer – Positional Sensors: Potentiometer
Can be Linear or Rotational

Processing circuit
 Resistive Transducer – Positional Sensors: Potentiometer
The potentiometer are used for voltage division. They consist
of a resistive element provided with a sliding contact. The
sliding contact is called a wiper.

The contact motion may be linear or rotational or combination

of the two. The combinational potentiometer have their
resistive element in helix form and are called helipots.

Fig shows a linear pot and a rotary pot.

Resistive Transducer – Strain Gauges
If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed its
resistance changes on account of the fact that both the
length and diameter of the conductor changes.

When a strain gauge is subjected to a positive stress, its

length increases while its area of cross-section decreases
hence the resistance of the gauge increases.

The change in resistance value of a conductor under

strain is more than for an increase in resistance due to its
dimensional changes.
L
R 
A
Resistive Transducer – Strain Gauges
The strain gauge is a passive, resistive transducer which
converts the mechanical elongation and compression into
a resistance change.

This change in resistance takes place due to variation in

length and cross sectional area of the gauge wire, when
an external force acts on it.
Resistive Transducer – Strain Gauges: Types

The type of strain gauge are as:

1. Wire gauge
a) Unbonded
b) Bonded
c) Foil type

2. Semiconductor gauge
 Resistive Transducer – Strain Gauges: Types
Unbonded: It consists of a wire stretched between two points in an
insulating medium, such as air. The diameter of the wire used is
about 25µm. The wires are kept under tension so that there is no
sag and no free vibration. The unbonded strain gauges are usually
connected in a bridge circuit.

When an external load is applied the resistance of the strain gauge

changes causing an unbalance of the bridge circuit resulting in an
output voltage. This voltage is proportional to the strain.
Resistive Transducer – Strain Gauges: Types
Bonded: A fine wire element about 25 µm or less in
diameter is looped and forth on carrier (base) or
mounting plate, which is usually cemented to the
member undergoing stress. The wire is covered on the
top by teflon so that it is not damaged mechanically.
Capacitive Transducer
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

kA 0
C ( Farads )
where d
k = dielectric constant
A= the area of the plate, in m2
εo= 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
d = the distance between the two plates, in mts
 Capacitive Transducer
Forms of Capacitance Transducers

Rotary plate capacitor

Thin diaphragm

Rectilinear Capacitance
 Capacitive Transducer
Rotary Plate Capacitor:

•The capacitance of this unit is

proportional to the amount of
the fixed plate that is covered, or
shaded by the moving plate.

• This type of transducer will give

an electrical signal proportional
to curvilinear displacement or
angular velocity.
Capacitive Transducer
Rectilinear capacitance transducer:

• It consists of a fixed cylinder and a moving cylinder.

• These pieces are configured so the moving piece fits

inside the fixed piece but insulated from it.
 Capacitive Transducer
Thin diaphragm:
•Enclosed in an airtight container
is a metallic diaphragm which
moves when pressure is applied.
This diaphragm is used as one
plate of a variable capacitor.
•A transducer that varies the
spacing between surfaces. The
dielectric is either air or vacuum.
•Often used as Capacitance
microphones.
 Capacitive Transducer
Advantages:
1. Has excellent frequency response.
2. Can measure both static and dynamic phenomena.

Disadvantages:
1. Sensitivity to temperature variations.
2. The possibility of erratic or distortion signals owing to
long lead length.

Applications:
1. As frequency modulator in RF oscillator.
2. In capacitance microphone
3. Use the capacitance transducer in an ac bridge circuit.
 Load Cell
A load cell is a transducer that is used to
create an electrical signal whose
magnitude is directly proportional to
the force being measured.

The various types of load cells include

hydraulic load cells, pneumatic load cells
and strain gauge load cells.

A Strain Gauge Load Cell usually

consists of four strain gauges in a
Wheatstone’s bridge configuration.

 Load cells of one strain gauge (quarter

bridge) or two strain gauges (half bridge)
are also available.
 Load Cell
The electrical signal output is typically in
the order of a few millivolts and requires
amplification by an instrumentation
amplifier before it can be used.

The output of the transducer can be

scaled to calculate the force applied to
the transducer.

 Strain gauge load cells convert the load

acting on them into electrical signals.

The gauges themselves are bonded

onto a beam or structural member that
deforms when weight is applied.
 Load Cell
In most cases, four strain gauges are
used to obtain maximum sensitivity
and temperature compensation.

Two of the gauges are usually in

tension, and two in compression, and
are wired with compensation
adjustments.

When weight is applied, the strain

changes the electrical resistance of
the gauges in proportion to the load.

The Load Cell is generally used to

weigh heavy loads.
 Piezo Electrical Transducer
A symmetrical crystalline materials such as
Quartz, Rochelle salt and Barium Titanate
produce an emf when they are mechanically
stressed. This property is used in
Piezo-Electrical transducers.

The crystal is placed between a solid base and

the force or pressure summing diaphragm.

When an external force is applied, the

pressure summing diaphragm exerts a
pressure on top of the crystal. This produces
an emf across the crystal proportional to the
magnitude of the applied pressure.
Photo Electrical Transducer
Photo electric devices can be categorized as Photo-emissive, Photo-
conductive or Photo-voltaic.

In Photo-emissive devices, radiation falling on a cathode causes

electrons to be emitted from the cathode surface.

In Photo-conductive devices, the resistance of a material is

changed when it is illuminated.

Photo-voltaic cells generate an output voltage proportional to

the radiation intensity.
 Photo Electrical Transducer
Photo- Multiplier Tube(PMT):
It consists of an evacuated glass envelope
containing a photo-cathode, an anode and
several additional electrodes termed as
Dynodes, each at a higher voltage, than the
previous dynode.

Incident photons strike the photocathode

material, which is present as a thin deposit
on the entry window of the device, with
electrons being produced as a
consequence of the photo-electric effect.

These electrons are directed by the

focusing electrode toward the electron
multiplier, where electrons are multiplied
by the process of secondary emission.
 Photo Electrical Transducer
Photo- Multiplier Tube(PMT):
The electron multiplier consists of a
number of electrodes called dynodes.

Each dynode is held at a more positive

voltage, by ≈100 Volts, than the
previous one.

A primary electron leaves the

photocathode with the energy of the
incoming photon.

 As a group of primary electrons,

created by the arrival of a group of
initial photons, moves toward the first
dynode they are accelerated by the
electric field.
 Photo Electrical Transducer
Photo- Multiplier Tube(PMT):
Each electron arrive with ≈100 eV kinetic
energy imparted by the potential
difference. Upon striking the first dynode,
more low energy electrons are emitted,
and these electrons in turn are accelerated
toward the second dynode.

The geometry of the dynode chain is such

that a cascade occurs with an ever-
increasing number of electrons being
produced at each stage.

This large number of electrons reaching

the last stage, called the anode, results in a
sharp current pulse that is easily
detectable, signalling the arrival of the
photon at the photocathode about a
nanosecond earlier.
 Photo Electrical Transducer
Photo Conductive Cells:
Photoconductive cells are light-sensitive
resistors in which resistance decreases
with an increase in light intensity, when
illuminated.

These devices consist of a thin single-

crystal or polycrystalline film of compound
semiconductor substances.

Most commercially available

photoconductive cells are manufactured
from Cadmium Sulfide (CdS), Cadmium
Selenide or Cadium Sulpho-selenide, which
are sensitive to light in the visible
spectrum. 
 Photo Electrical Transducer
Photo Conductive Cells:
They are deposited in a zigzag pattern
(to obtain a desired resistance value
and power rating) separating two metal
coated areas acting as electrodes, all on
an insulating base such as ceramic.

Other materials that are less

commonly used in photoconductive
cells include Lead Sulfide (PbS), Lead
Selenide (PbSe), and Lead Telluride
(PbTe), although they react to infrared
light, and not to the visible spectrum.
 Photo Electrical Transducer
Photo Conductive Cells:
Photoconductive cells function by receiving
light energy, which in turn free electrons from
their valence bonds in semiconductor
material.

 At room temperature, the number of free

charges in a semiconductor is relatively
limited, but the addition of light-released
electrons raises conductivity (and thereby
reduces resistance).

This change is resistance may be as large as

several hundred thousand ohms from a
darkened state to only a few hundred ohms in
sunlight.   
 Photo Electrical Transducer
Photo Conductive Cells:
CdS photoconductive cells (CdS cells) are
often referred to as light dependant resistors
(LDR).

They function within the same general

spectral range as the human eye, and are
therefore widely used in applications where
this type of spectral response is required.
Photo Electrical Transducer
Photo Conductive Cells: Light Level Sensitive Switch

42
Photo Electrical Transducer
Photo Conductive Cells:
 Photo Electrical Transducer
Photo Voltaic Cell:
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an
electrical device that converts the
energy of light directly into electricity
by the photovoltaic.

It is a form of photoelectric cell,

defined as a device whose electrical
characteristics, such as current,
voltage, or resistance, vary when
exposed to light.

Solar cells are the building blocks of

photovoltaic modules, otherwise
known as solar panels.
 Photo Electrical Transducer
Photo Voltaic Cell:
Solar cells are described as being
photovoltaic irrespective of whether
the source is sunlight or an artificial
light.

They are used as a photo detector (for

example infrared detector), detecting
light or other electromagnetic
radiation near the visible range, or
measuring light intensity.
Photo Electrical Transducer
Photo Voltaic Cell:
 Photo Electrical Transducer
Photo Voltaic Cell:
The operation of a photovoltaic
(PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:

-The absorption of light, generating

either electron-hole pairs
or excitons.

-The separation of charge carriers

of opposite types.

-The separate extraction of those

carriers to an external circuit.
 Photo Electrical Transducer
Semiconductor Photo Diode:
A photodiode is a semiconductor device
that converts light  into current.

A reverse biased semi-conductor diode

passes only a small leakage current (in
µA) if the junction is exposed to light .

A photodiode is a p-n junction. When

a photon of sufficient energy strikes the
diode, it creates an electron-hole pair. This
mechanism is also known as the
inner photo-electric effect.
 Photo Electrical Transducer
Semiconductor Photo Diode:
 If the absorption occurs in the
junction's depletion region, these carriers are
swept from the junction by the built-in
electric field of the depletion region.

Thus holes move toward the anode, and

electrons toward the cathode, and a
photocurrent is produced.

The total current through the photodiode is

the sum of the dark current (current that is
generated in the absence of light) and the
photocurrent, so the dark current must be
minimized to maximize the sensitivity of the
device.
 Photo Electrical Transducer
Semiconductor Photo Diode:
The Photo-diode when operated with
a reverse voltage applied, functions as
a photo-conductive cell.

But when operated without a reverse

voltage it operates as a photo-voltaic
cell.
 Photo Electrical Transducer
Photo Transistor:
The sensitivity of a Photo-diode can be
increased by as much as 100 times by adding
a junction, resulting in an NPN device.

Illumination of the central region (i.e.

Base region) causes the release of electron
hole pairs.

This lowers the barrier potential across both

the junctions, causing an increase in the flow
of electrons from one region to the other
region through the base region.
 Photo Electrical Transducer
Photo Transistor:
For a given amount of illumination on a
very small area, the Photo-transistor
provides a much larger output current
than that available from a Photo-diode.
i.e. a photo-transistor is more sensitive.

Arrays of transistors and low current

photo-diodes are widely used as photo-
detectors for applications like punched
cards, tape readouts etc.

Even though the Photo-transistor is more

sensitive than the Photo-diode, but the
Photo-diode have a faster switching time.
Photo Electrical Transducer
Difference between Photo Diode & Photo Transistor:
Photodiode Phototransistor

53
Temperature Transducers

Most of the temperature transducers are Resistance

Temperature Detectors(RTD), Thermistors, Thermocouples
etc.

Of these RTDs and Thermistor are passive devices whose

resistance changes with temperature, hence need an
electrical supply to give a voltage.

On the other hand thermocouples are active transducers.

 Temperature Transducers
Resistance Thermometer:
Resistance of metal increase
with increases in temperature.
Therefore metals are said to
have a positive temperature
coefficient of resistivity.

Fig shows the simplest type of

open wire construction of
Platinum Resistance
Thermometer. The Platinum
wire is wound in the form of
spirals on an insulating material
such as mica or ceramic.
 Temperature Transducers
Resistance Thermometer:
This assembly is then placed at
the tip of probe.

This wire is in direct contact

with the gas or liquid whose
temperature is to be measured.

The resistance of the Platinum

wire changes with the change in
temperature of the gas or liquid.
 Temperature Transducers
Resistance Thermometer:
This type of sensor have a
positive temperature coefficient
of resistivity as they are made
from metals they are also known
as Resistance Temperature
Detectors.

Resistance thermometer are

generally of probe type for
immersion in medium whose
temperature is to be measured
or controlled.
 Temperature Transducers
Resistance Thermometer: Advantages
The measurement is very accurate.

More than one resistance element

can be clubbed to the same
indicating/recording instrument.

The temperature resistance element

can be easily installed and replaced.

High accuracy.
 Temperature Transducers
Resistance Thermometer: Advantages
They have a wide working range
without loss of accuracy and can
be used for temperature ranges
(-200oC to 650oC).

They are best suited for remote

sensing and indication.

No necessity of temperature

compensation.

Performance stability over longer

periods of time.
 Temperature Transducers
Resistance Thermometer: Disadvantages
High cost.

Need for bridge and power

source.

There is a possibility of self -

heating
 Temperature Transducers
Thermistors:
• Thermistor is a contraction of a
term “thermal resistor”.

• Thermistors are temperature

dependent resistors.

• They are made of semiconductor

material which have negative
temperature coefficient of
resistivity i.e. their resistance
decreases with increase of
temperature.
Temperature Transducers
Thermistors:

The graph shows

Resistance versus
Temperature for a
family of thermistors.

The resistance value

marked at the bottom
end of each curve is a
value at 250C
 Temperature Transducers
Thermistors:
• Thermistors are widely used in
application which involve
measurement in the range of 0-
60oC.

• Thermistors are composed of

sintered mixture of metallic
oxides such as Manganese, Nickel,
Cobalt, Copper, Iron and Uranium.
 Temperature Transducers
Thermistors:
• The thermistor may be in the
form of beads, rods and discs.

• The thermistor provide a large

change in resistance for small
change in temperature.

• In some cases the resistance of

themistor at room temperature
may decreases as much as 6% for
each 1oC rise in temperature.
Temperature Transducers
Comparative Resistance Graph: Thermistor v/s RTD
 Temperature Transducers
Thermistors: Advantages
• Small size and low cost.

• Fast response over narrow temperature range.

• Good sensitivity in Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC)

region.

• Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence

of resistance on absolute temperature.

• Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered due

to large resistance.
 Temperature Transducers
Thermistors: Disadvantages
• Non linearity in Resistance v/s Temperature characteristics.

• Unsuitable for wide temperature range.

• Very low excitation current to avoid self heating.

• Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc due to high resistance.

 Temperature Transducers
Thermocouples:
One of the most commonly used methods of measurement of
moderately high temperature is the thermocouple effect.
Temperature measurement with Thermocouple is based on the
Seebeck effect.
Seebeck Effect: When a pair of dissimilar metals are joined at
one end, and there is a temperature difference between the
joined ends and the open ends, thermal emf is generated, which
can be measured at the open ends.
 Temperature Transducers
Thermocouples:
Conductors made up of different materials have different free-
carriers densities even when at the same temperature.
When two dissimilar conductors are joined, electrons will diffuse
across the junction from the conductor with higher electron
density.
When this happens the conductor losing electrons acquire a
positive voltage w.r.t the other conductor. This voltage is called
the Peltier emf.
 Temperature Transducers
Thermocouples:
When the junction is heated a voltage is generated this is known as
Seebeck effect.
The Seebeck voltage is linearly proportional for small changes in
temperature.
The magnitude of this voltage depends on the material used for the
wires and the amount of temperature difference between the joined
ends and the other ends.
The junction of the wires of the thermocouple is called the ‘Sensing
Element’ junction.

Sensing
Element or
Hot Junction
 Temperature Transducers
Thermocouples:
Since it is the temperature difference between the Sensing
Junction and the other ends that is the critical factor, the other
ends are either kept at a constant reference temperature, or in
the case of very low cost equipment at room temperature.

Because the temperature at this end of the thermocouple wire is

a reference temperature, this function is known as reference and
also called as the ‘Cold Junction’.

Sensing
Element or
Hot Junction
Reference or
Cold Junction
 Temperature Transducers
Thermocouples:
A thermocouple, therefore consists of a pair of dissimilar metal wires joined
together at one end (Sensing or Hot Junction) and terminated at the other
end (Reference or Cold Junction), which is maintained at a known constant
temperature (Reference Temperature).
When a temperature difference exists between the Sensing Junction and the
Reference Junction, an emf is produced which causes current in the circuit.
When the reference end is terminated by a meter or a recording device, the
meter indication will be proportional to the temperature difference
between the two junctions.

Sensing
Element or
Hot Junction
Reference or
Cold Junction
 Temperature Transducers
Thermocouples:
The magnitude of the
thermal emf depends on the
wire materials used in the
temperature difference and
the reference junction.

The following graph shows

the thermal emfs for some
common thermocouple
materials. The values shown
are based on a reference
temperature of 32oF.
Temperature Transducers
Thermocouples:
 Temperature Transducers
Thermocouples: Advantages
It has rugged construction.
It has a temperature range from -270oC to 2700oC.
Using extension leads and compensation cables, long distances
transmission for temperature measurement.
Bridge circuits are not required for temperature measurement.
Comparatively cheaper in cost.
Calibration checks can be easily performed.
Thermocouples offer good reproducibility.
Speed of response is high compared to the filled system
thermometer.
Measurement accuracy is quite good.
 Temperature Transducers
Thermocouples: Disadvantages
Cold junction and other compensation is essential for accurate
measurements.
They exhibit slight non-linearity in the emf versus temperature
characteristics.
In many applications the signals need to be amplified.
To avoid stray electrical signal pickup, proper separation of
extension leads from the thermocouple wire is essential.
 Temperature Transducers
Semiconductor Diode Temperature Sensor
The semiconductor diode is a
versatile device and finds use in
many applications.

Two of its parameter, that is

Forward Voltage drop (Vf) and
Reverse Saturation Current (Is)
are temperature sensitive.
 Temperature Transducers
Semiconductor Diode Temperature Sensor
The sensitivity of Is with
temperature is non-linear, but
Vf has a linear temperature
coefficient over a wide
temperature range.

Hence Vf can serve as the basis

for electronic thermometers.
 Temperature Transducers
Semiconductor Diode Temperature Sensor
The graph shows the characteristics
of Vf v/s temperature for a typical
Silicon PN junction diode.

The linearity of this characteristics

at high values of the temperature is
affected by the following factors:
i) Dependence of Vf on Is which is
also temperature sensitive.
ii) Presence of finite surface leakage
component across the PN junction.
 Temperature Transducers
IC Type Sensor
The IC Type Sensor works on the semiconductor diode
temperature sensing principle.

IC sensor produces a voltage or current signal that increases with

the increase in temperature.

IC sensors eliminate the linearity errors associated with

thermistors.

However, being semiconductor devices, they are available in

both voltage and current output configuration.
 Temperature Transducers
IC Type Sensor
The following figure shows a National
Semiconductors LM 335 IC
temperature Sensor.
It provides a proportional output of
10mV/oC.
It operates as a two terminal zener.
It has a dynamic impedance of less than
1 Ω and operates over a current range
of 400µA to 5mA with virtually no
change in performance.
Its useable range is -10oC to +100oC and
LM 135 is also available with a range of
-55oC to +150oC.
 Temperature Transducers
IC Type Sensor
The IC Sensor can be used as a
minimum temperature sensing
circuit (because of low dynamic
impedance of the sensors) as
shown besides. The coolest sensor
will set the output voltage.

The IC Sensor can also be used as

an averaging circuit as shown
besides.
 Temperature Transducers
IC Type Sensor
A simple potentiometer circuit
used along with the IC sensor
provides one point calibration as
shown besides. The simple point
calibration is usually done at the
midpoint of the temperature scale.

As the output of the IC sensor

LM335 is also available in the form
of current source, remote sensing
of the temperature using long wire
length is also possible as shown
besides.
 Pyrometers
When temperature being measured is very high and physical
contact with the medium to be measured is impossible or
impractical, pyrometers based on the principle of thermal
radiation are used.

These pyrometers are used under condition where corrosive

vapours or liquids would destroy thermocouples, resistance
thermometer and thermistors, if made to come in contact with
the measured medium.

The word pyrometer comes from the Greek word for fire, "πυρ"

(pyro), and meter, meaning to measure.
 Pyrometers
A Pyrometer, or radiation thermometer, is a
non-contact instrument that detects an
object's surface temperature by measuring the
temperature of the electromagnetic radiation
(infrared or visible) emitted from the object.

Radiation Pyrometers measures the radiant

(energy) heat emitted or reflected by a hot
object.

Thermal radiation is an electromagnetic

radiation emitted as a result of temperature
and lies in the wavelength of 0.1 to 100µm.
 Pyrometers
Principle:
According to the principle of thermal radiation, the energy
radiated from a hot body is a function of its temperature.

Referring to the figure below, the heat radiated by the hot body
is focused on radiation detector. The radiation detector is
blackened and it absorbs all or almost all radiation falling on it. If
the temperature is very small compared with that of the hot
body, then E = 5.67 x 10-8 x T4 Watts/m2.
 Pyrometers
Principle:
The Stefan-Boltzmann law relates the total amount of radiation
emitted by an object to its temperature:
E=sT4
where:
E = total amount of radiation emitted by an object per square meter
(Watts m-2)
s = Stefan-Boltzmann Constant = 5.67 x 10-8 Watts m-2 K-4
T = temperature of the object in oK
 Pyrometers
Total Radiation Pyrometer:
The total radiation pyrometer receives virtually all the radiation
from a hot body and focuses on a sensitive temperature
transducer such as thermocouple, thermopile, bolometer etc.

Total radiation includes both visible and infrared radiation.

The total radiation pyrometer consists of a radiation receiving

element and a measuring device to indicate the temperature
 Pyrometers
Total Radiation Pyrometer:
In this type of pyrometer, a diaphragm unit along with a mirror is
used to focus the radiation on a radiant energy sending
transducers.

The distance between the lens(mirror) and the transducer is

adjusted for proper focus.
 Pyrometers
Total Radiation Pyrometer: Advantages/Disadvantages
Due to the Fourth Power Law (s proportional to T4), the
characteristics of total radiation pyrometer are non-linear and has a
poor sensitivity at lower temperature ranges.

Total radiation pyrometers cannot be used for measurement of

temperature lower than 600oC since errors are introduced at lower
temperatures.

They are used mostly in the temperature range of 1200 oC - 3500oC.

The output from total radiation pyrometers whether amplified or

not, are usually taken to a PMMC instrument or to a self-balancing
potentiometer. The output may be fed to a recorder or controller.
 Pyrometers
Optical Pyrometer
Any metal surface when heated emits radiation of different
wavelengths which are not visible at low temperatures.

But about 550oC, radiations in shorter wavelength are visible to

the eye and from the colour, approximate temperature can be
measured.

Colour Temperature
Dark Red 540oC
Medium Cherry Red 680oC
Orange 900oC
Yellow 1010oC
White 1205oC
 Pyrometers
Optical Pyrometer
The radiations from a heated body at high temperature fall
within the visible region of the EM spectrum.

Within a visible range, a given wavelength has a fixed colour

and the energy of radiation is interpreted as Intensity of
Brightness.

Hence if we measure the brightness of the light of a given

colour emitted by a hot source, we can have an indication of
the temperature. This is the principle of the Optical
Pyrometer.
Pyrometers
Optical Pyrometer
In an Optical Pyrometer, the wavelength of the radiation
accepted is restricted by means of a colour filter and the
brightness is measured by comparison with a standard lamp.

The most common type of the Optical Pyrometer used is the

disappearing filament Pyrometer.
 Pyrometers
Optical Pyrometer
An image of the radiating source is produced by a lens and made
to coincide with the filament of an electric lamp.

The current through the lamp filament is made variable so that

the lamp intensity can be adjusted. The filament is viewed
through an eye piece and filters.
 Pyrometers
Optical Pyrometer
The current through the filament is adjusted until filament and
the images are of equal brightness.

When brightness of the image produced by the source and the

brightness produced by the filament are equal, the outline of the
filament disappears as shown in Figure 3.
 Pyrometers
Optical Pyrometer
However, if the temperature of the filament is higher than that
required for equality of brightness, the filament becomes too
bright as shown in Figure 2.

On the other hand if the temperature of the filament is lower,

the filament becomes dark as shown in Figure 1.
Pyrometers
Optical Pyrometer
 Pyrometers
Optical Pyrometer
Since the intensity of the light of any wavelength depends upon
the temperature of the radiating body and the temperature of
the filament depends upon the current flowing through the lamp.

Hence, the instrument may be directly calibrated in terms of the

filament current. However, the filament current depends upon
the resistance of the filament, modern pyrometers are calibrated
in terms of the resistance directly.

The range of temperature, which can be measured by an

instrument of thus type depends on the maximum allowable
temperature of the lamp which is around 1400oC.
Pyrometers
Optical Pyrometer
The range can be extended by using an absorption type screen
placed near the objective lens.

Hence, a known fraction of the radiant energy enters the

pyrometer for comparison. The range can be extended to 3000oC
by this technique.

Optical Pyrometers are widely used for accurate measurements

of temperature of furnaces, molten metals and other heated
materials.
Pyrometers

Infrared Pyrometers

Ultrasonic Temperature Transducer