Shawn Slater Sociology module 2

notes.

FAMILY
Definition of the family (George Peter Merdock 1949)

| The family is a social group, characterized by common residence, economic cooperation, and reproduction. It
includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or
more children, own or adopted of the sexually cohabiting adults.

Definition of the family (GHS 2001)

| If you are a married couple living on your own then you are considered a family. A married opposite sex
cohabiting couple or a single parent living with a child is a family.

Not apart of the family

●​ Grandparents
●​ Foster children

Definition of a household
| People living together that do not have any relations. They may share economic responsibilities.

Family types
●​ Nuclear
●​ Single Parent
●​ Extended
●​ Joint
●​ Matrifocal
●​ Reconstituted

Nuclear family- A two generational Family. (25-30 years) The couple is legally married. There is a child/children
involved. Share common residence.
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

Extended Family- The extended family can be extended vertically or horizontally. Vertical- Grandparents->
Parents->child. Horizontal- Inlaws->sisters->cousins etc || The extended family is a two or more generational
family.

Matrifocal families -female headed families centered around women. Men are absent/ take a backseat in the
family.

Functionalist Perspective on Family

Functionalists view the family as a key institution that contributes to social order and stability by performing
essential functions. Two major functionalist theorists, George Peter Murdock and Talcott Parsons, have
provided significant insights into the role of the family in society.

George Peter Murdock (1949): The Family as a Universal Institution

Murdock studied 250 different societies and concluded that the family is a universal institution that performs
four essential functions:

​ 1.​ Sexual Gratification – The family regulates sexual behavior by providing a stable and socially
approved context for sexual relations, typically within marriage. This prevents social disruption that might arise
from unregulated sexual activity.

​ 2.​ Reproduction – Families ensure the continuation of society by producing and raising children.
Without reproduction, societies would not be able to sustain themselves over generations.

​ 3.​ Socialization – Families are responsible for the primary socialization of children, teaching them
norms, values, and cultural traditions. This process helps integrate individuals into society.

​ 4.​ Economic Function – Families provide for the economic needs of their members by ensuring
food, shelter, and financial support. Traditionally, this involved men as breadwinners and women as
homemakers, though these roles have evolved over time.

Additional Functions

Murdock also acknowledged other functions of the family, such as:

​ •​ Emotional support – Families provide love, care, and a sense of belonging.

Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

​ •​ Security and protection – Families offer physical protection and psychological comfort to their
members, especially children.

Talcott Parsons (1955): The Specialization of Family Functions

Parsons argued that the role of the family has changed due to industrialization. In pre-industrial societies, the
family was a multi-functional unit, involved in education, healthcare, and economic production. However, in
modern society, many of these functions have been taken over by institutions like schools, hospitals, and
businesses.

As a result, Parsons claimed that the family now performs only two “irreducible functions”:

​ 1.​ Primary Socialization of Children – The family is responsible for teaching children society’s
norms and values, ensuring they become functioning members of society. This process helps maintain social
stability.

​ 2.​ Stabilization of Adult Personalities (Warm Bath Theory) – The family provides emotional
support and relief from the stresses of everyday life, especially for working adults. Parsons likened the family to a
“warm bath” where individuals find comfort and relaxation.

Parsons and Gender Roles

Parsons also believed that men and women have distinct roles within the family:

​ •​ Instrumental Role (Men) – Fathers are typically the breadwinners and providers.

​ •​ Expressive Role (Women) – Mothers provide emotional care and nurture the children.

While Parsons’ view has been criticized for being outdated and reinforcing gender stereotypes, it remains an
important contribution to functionalist theories of the family.

Sociological Perspectives on the Family

The family is a key institution in society, and different sociological perspectives provide varying interpretations
of its role, structure, and impact. Below are insights from Functionalism, Marxism, Symbolic Interactionism,
and Feminism on the family.

Functionalist Perspective on the Family

Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

Functionalists see the family as a positive institution that helps maintain social order and stability by performing
essential functions.

Ronald Fletcher (1966): Increasing Functions of the Family

Contrary to Parsons’ view that modern families perform fewer functions, Fletcher argued that the functions of
the family have actually increased in modern society. Families are now responsible for:

​ •​ Healthcare – Parents act as caregivers, providing medical attention and emotional support.

​ •​ Education – Parents supplement formal education by teaching morals, discipline, and basic
knowledge.

​ •​ Recreation – Families engage in activities that promote bonding and personal development.

​ •​ Religious guidance – Parents play a role in spiritual development.

​ •​ Economic support – While the family no longer produces goods like in pre-industrial times, it
still provides financial assistance to its members.

​ •​ Transportation and logistics – Parents act as taxi drivers, taking children to school, sports, and
other activities.

Bell and Vogel (1968): Family as a Dysfunctional Institution

While functionalists generally emphasize the positive role of the family, Bell and Vogel introduced a critical
perspective within functionalism.

​ •​ They argued that the family could be dysfunctional because it sometimes acts as a scapegoat for
social problems.

​ •​ For example, children may absorb the frustrations of their parents, leading to emotional or
psychological harm.

​ •​ Despite these dysfunctions, the family still plays a stabilizing role in society by preventing
broader conflicts from escalating.

Marxist Perspective on the Family

Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

Marxists view the family as a tool for maintaining capitalism and reinforcing class inequalities.

Friedrich Engels (1884): Family, Property, and Inheritance

​ •​ Engels argued that the modern family developed alongside private property and inheritance
laws.

​ •​ The ruling class (bourgeoisie) used endogamy (marrying within the same class) and inheritance
to preserve wealth and power.

​ •​ This ensured that wealth remained in the hands of a few elite families.

Family as an Ideological Tool

​ •​ Families socialize children into ruling-class values, ensuring that capitalism is accepted as
normal.

​ •​ Parents teach children obedience and discipline, making them suitable workers for the
capitalist system.

Family as a Mechanism of Social Control

​ •​ The family controls sexual behavior, reinforcing patriarchy where men dominate and women
are exploited.

​ •​ Men’s dominance in the household reflects the larger economic exploitation of workers by
capitalists.

Karl Marx: Family as a Reproducer of Capitalism

Marx argued that the family contributes to capitalism in several ways:

​ 1.​ Reproduces the labor force – Families produce and raise new workers for capitalism.

​ 2.​ Acts as a safety valve – The family absorbs workers’ frustration, preventing rebellion against
capitalism.

​ 3.​ Provides free domestic labor – Women perform unpaid labor (childcare, housework),
benefiting the capitalist system.
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

​ 4.​ Encourages consumerism – Families are the primary consumers of goods, fueling capitalist
profits.

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective on the Family

Symbolic Interactionists focus on how individuals within families interact and create meaning.

Ernest Burgess (1926): Family as a Unit of Interacting Personalities

​ •​ Burgess emphasized that family members influence each other’s behavior and identity.

​ •​ The more time spent together, the stronger the bond and shared values.

​ •​ This view highlights the importance of communication and emotional connections in shaping
family roles.

Hutter: Internal and External Influences on Family Roles

Hutter explored how both internal and external factors shape family dynamics:

Internal Factors

​ •​ Births, deaths, and divorce can alter the emotional and structural makeup of a family.

​ •​ A new child may shift the focus of the parents, while a divorce can redefine family roles.

External Factors

​ •​ Migration, employment, and natural disasters impact family stability.

​ •​ Economic hardship may force parents to change work patterns, affecting how children are
raised.

Feminist Perspective on the Family -Feminists critique the family as a site of gender inequality and patriarchy.

Key Arguments of Feminism in the Family

​ 1.​ Gender Socialization – From an early age, children are taught traditional gender roles (e.g.,
boys are strong, girls are nurturing).
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

​ 2.​ Patriarchy in the Family – The family structure reinforces male dominance and women’s
subordination.

​ 3.​ Women’s Unpaid Labor – Women’s housework, childcare, and emotional labor are
undervalued.

​ 4.​ Economic Dependence – Traditional families make women financially dependent on men,
limiting their freedom.

Types of Feminist Perspectives on the Family

​ •​ Liberal Feminists – Advocate for equal rights and believe the family is improving with modern
laws (e.g., equal pay, parental leave).

​ •​ Marxist Feminists – Argue that women’s oppression benefits capitalism (e.g., unpaid domestic
labor reduces costs for employers).

​ •​ Radical Feminists – See the family as inherently oppressive to women, calling for major social
restructuring.

Conclusion

Each sociological perspective offers a different understanding of the family:

​ •​ Functionalists see it as essential for social stability.

​ •​ Marxists argue it maintains capitalism and class inequality.

​ •​ Symbolic Interactionists focus on daily interactions and the family’s evolving roles.

​ •​ Feminists highlight gender inequality and patriarchy within family structures.

While the family continues to evolve, these perspectives help explain its impact on society and individuals.

Sociology Notes 03.02.2025

Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

Gender Socialization in the family is reinforced by other social institutions (school, media, work, peers etc.).
Societies operate based on traditional sex roles and stereotypes.

Leo- Rhynie notes that girls are channeled into the domestic sphere- home making and child care, boys are often
channeled into the public’s sphere- sports, work, etc. These stereotypes differ/vary from home to home, for
ethnic groupings and for socio-economic groups. These gender roles are learnt and passed on.

In the Caribbean, men find more time trying to escape the family (through work, meeting up with friends,
sports). The absence of males as role models in the home is a factor responsible for the man having little to do
with the home. A criticism of this point is; Watts and Border 2005 and Wharton 2005, says that individuals
especially men are not passively socialized, many men take up their role in the home. Changes in education, work
and the feminist lobby have helped to change gender stereotypes.

Women’s involvement in the economy has made them economically independent.

Radical Feminist see patriarchy reinforced by gender socialization, this happens mostly in East Indian families
and to a lesser extent in the Afro Caribbean families.

Errol Miller (Jamaica Minister of Education) 1994- says that all Caribbean men are not oppressors especially
those who are from poor and marginalized families, says that:

- [ ] gender shouldn’t be the only basis for this analysis

- [ ] men and fathers may be absent for economic reasons

- [ ] boys in Caribbean households are underachieving in education, they are not motivated to seek higher
education or work

Females are being employed at all levels while men and fathers are unemployed affecting their authority in the
home and self confidence. This impacts their relationship with their wives and children. Millers’ theory has had
serious protests from feminists who believe that the advancement of women has not hindered men. Some believe
that men are not marginalized but engaged in behaviors that jeopardize their own advancement; this is according
to Chevannes 1996.
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

Patriarchy confines males and females to fixed notions of masculinity and femininity. In the Caribbean, gender
socialization is the key factor when focusing on men and fathers. The theory of male marginalization blames
women for men’s absence.

According to the interactionist, patriarchy has disadvantaged men i.e. conformity to sexuality, being cool, being
sport oriented, rejecting school and family has made it difficult for men to conform

Religion is the belief in the existence of supernatural beings which have a governing effect on life.

-​ Supernaturalism- Belief in spirits.

-​ Animism- Belief in bad and good spirits.
-​ Naturism- Belief in nature.
-​ Theism- Belief in a deity that governs humans.

4 categories of religion
1.​ Church- an organization that has been in existence for centuries. Catholic, Anglican
2.​ Denomination- Methodist, Baptist
3.​ Sect- world rejecting sect (Rastafarian,SDA) World Accommodating (Pentecostal) World affirming
(Scientology)
4.​ Cult-Individualistic, very small group of persons with no designed place of worship.
Polytheism- Belief of multiple gods.
Monotheism- Belief of one God.

Functionalist Perspective (Durkheim, Parsons, O’Dea)-

-​ Functions of Religions

1.​ Disciplinary function- Religion acts as a moral compass

2.​ Cohesive function- Brings people together. (Worship )
3.​ Revitalising function- By celebrating ceremonies/rituals we remember the past and the importance of it.
4.​ Euphoric function- Brings peace, puts us at ease.

Emile Durkhiem- Religion is society worshipping itself. We are the one that deems what is sacred/ important.
Religion brings people together regardless of our differences and tribulations. All religious activities have one major
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

function. (Celebration of the social group ie. Funerals, Weddings). Religion creates value consensus. (People should
marry before they have children etc..)

Talcott Parsons- Human behaviour is shaped by social norms, religion is a central part of culture and these values
are passed on through generations (continuity of culture). Religion provides guidelines for acceptable behaviour. Eg.
If you kill/sin you go to hell. Education will keep people together in modern society and not religion. People will rely
more on education rather than religion.

O’Dea- Religion functions to answer questions that science cannot explain. When we cannot explain something by
science we resort to the supernatural. Religion satisfies emotional needs in times of crisis. Religion soothes us when we
are stressed out of our minds. It gives us psychological relief.

Marxist Perspective (Marx,Weber)-

Religious institutions and organizations are part of the social superstructure they operate in the interest of the ruling
class who use religion as a means of social controls

Karl Marx
-​ Legitimates ruling class power- The royal family swear on the bible
-​ Justifies exploitation of the working class- those who are in power should he in power
-​ Religion is the opium of the masses- Opium (addictive drug that dulls pain). Religion gives you a high and
dulls your pain (exploitation) . The people leave their troubles to God instead of taking industrial action.
-​ Religion deters people from seeking change- Without religion there would be more resistance from the
working class against the ruling class
Max Weber
-​ Religion creates change. Calvinists believe in predestination (people are meant to be poor/ rich) They say
you must give up worldly pleasures. You must not save your money.. instead you must invest and make
more money.

Feminist Perspective
Religion is patriarchal and males benefit from it. Women in the bible were viewed as either pure or not. Religion
keeps women in a subordinate position. Most gods are attributed masculine characteristics.

Secularization (Max weber)

The decline in religion in society.
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

how we know this:

-​ Participation
-​ Beliefs
Evidence for secularization
●​ Fall in church attendance
●​ Religious plurality
●​ Walton- Persons are valuing rationality
●​ Praying is the last resort

Religious prejudice is judging someone by their religion without fully knowing them.
Religious discrimination is denying someone something by their religion.

Introduction to Religion

Religion is a complex and diverse concept that varies across cultures and societies. In Western societies, people often
associate religion with Christianity, but religion as a whole is much broader and includes many different beliefs
and practices worldwide.

What Religion is NOT

To understand religion better, sociologists first define what it is not:

​ •​ It is not always based on one god (monotheism). Some religions believe in many gods
(polytheism), while others, like Confucianism, have no gods at all.

​ •​ It does not always involve strict moral rules or a god who monitors behavior.

​ •​ It does not always include supernatural beliefs, an afterlife, or concepts like heaven and hell.

​ •​ It does not always explain the creation of the world. While Christianity has the Adam and Eve
story, some religions don’t focus on creation myths.

What Religion IS
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

Sociologists generally define religion as a system of beliefs and practices related to the sacred. Religion brings
people together in a spiritual community and involves rituals, symbols, and feelings of awe. Religious rituals can
include:

​ •​ Praying, singing, and chanting

​ •​ Lighting candles and fasting

​ •​ Visiting temples, churches, or shrines

Religion also influences culture, shaping art, music, and traditions. In many societies, religious leaders (priests,
shamans, etc.) play important roles, whether by performing rituals or offering spiritual guidance.

Sociological Perspectives on Religion

Durkheim: Functionalism

Sociologist Émile Durkheim studied how religion helps society function. He focused on small societies and found that
religion separates the sacred (holy things) from the profane (everyday things). He argued that:

​ •​ Religion strengthens social bonds and brings people together through rituals.

​ •​ It helps people deal with major life events like birth, marriage, and death.

​ •​ In modern society, religious influence may decline, but new “civil religions” (such as patriotism
and national celebrations) could take its place.

Weber: Religion and Social Change

Max Weber studied major world religions and how they influenced society. He argued that:

​ •​ Protestant Christianity, especially the “Protestant Work Ethic,” helped develop capitalism.

​ •​ In contrast, religions like Hinduism, which focus on spiritual growth instead of material success,
slowed capitalism.

​ •​ Christianity encourages active struggle against sin, unlike some Eastern religions that emphasize
harmony and acceptance.
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

Marx: Conflict Theory

Karl Marx believed religion was used to control people. He saw it as:

​ •​ A tool for the powerful to keep people content with their suffering by promising rewards in the
afterlife.

​ •​ A way to justify social inequality.

​ •​ A temporary refuge from oppression, which would disappear when social equality was achieved.

Final Thoughts on Religion

Religion is a shared system of beliefs, behaviors, and values that gives meaning to life and helps people connect with
their society and the universe. While it often involves the supernatural, it mainly serves to create unity, provide
moral guidance, and explain life’s mysteries.

Types of Religious Systems

The origins of religion are unclear, but anthropologists and historians have identified different types of religious
beliefs and practices. These types are not necessarily stages of development but rather different ways religion has
evolved across cultures.

1. Pre Religious Beliefs: Some early belief systems, like those of certain Australian Aboriginal groups, did not
distinguish between natural and supernatural forces. These beliefs included magic and fetishism, where objects were
thought to have special powers.

2. Spiritual Beliefs in Nature: Many Oceanic and African tribal religions believed in spirits inhabiting objects
like trees or animals. Sometimes, events like a falling tree were seen as supernatural signs. This stage introduced
rituals, priests, and a sense of group protection through supernatural forces.

3. Polytheism and Mythology: In religions such as those of ancient Egypt, Babylon, Greece, and Hinduism, gods
were associated with natural forces (e.g., the sun god Ra, fertility goddess Ishtar). These deities were worshipped
through rituals and myths.

4. Higher Religions: These religions involve a belief in a transcendent force beyond human needs. They include:
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

- Polytheism (many gods, e.g., Hinduism, ancient Greek religion)

- Dualism (good and evil deities, e.g., Zoroastrianism)
- Monotheism (one God, e.g., Christianity, Judaism, Islam)
- Supratheism (mystical union with the divine, e.g., Hindu Vedanta, Buddhism)
- **Pantheism** (God and the universe are the same, e.g., some Hindu and Taoist beliefs)

Some religions are revealed, meaning their knowledge comes from divine sources (e.g., Judaism, Christianity,
Islam). Others are natural, meaning they developed from human thought (e.g., Buddhism, Brahmanism,
Taoism).

---

Can Social Science Explain Religion?

Over the past 150 years, social scientists have studied religion in various ways. Some early theories suggested religion
was an irrational attempt to explain the world, but later theories focused more on its social and emotional functions.

Early Theories
1. Edward Tylor (1870s): Defined religion as belief in spirits (animism). He thought religion arose from trying to
explain dreams and psychological experiences.
2. Max Müller (1870s): Suggested religion came from humans interpreting natural forces as having personalities
(naturism). For example, people might see lightning as the act of a spirit.

Both saw religion as primitive and believed it would disappear as science advanced.

Social Function Theories

1. Vilfredo Pareto & Emile Durkheim: Argued that religion serves emotional and social functions beyond just
explaining the world. It shapes culture, morality, and social order.
2. Bronislaw Malinowski (1920s): Religion helps people cope with uncertainty and anxiety, such as in farming
or fishing. While magic aims for specific results, religion deals with events beyond human control, like death.
Religion also helps maintain social stability.
3. Durkheim's Totemism: Believed early religion centered around totems, which symbolized both a group's god
and society itself. Religion, in his view, strengthens social unity and moral authority.

Beyond Social Function: Meaning and Belief

Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

- Max Weber (1920s): Religion helps people answer life's deep questions and make sense of their existence.
- Talcott Parsons: Religion provides moral guidance and a sense of purpose beyond logic or science.
- Clifford Geertz: Religion helps people cope with three major problems: the unknown, suffering, and moral
dilemmas. However, religious belief depends on accepting religious symbols and authority, not just logical reasoning.

Does Social Science Disprove Religion?

Social science does not prove or disprove religious beliefs. It only explains how religion functions in society and
psychology. Religion may still be divinely inspired, but it is also shaped by human culture, emotions, and social
needs. While social science challenges the idea that one religion is absolutely correct, it also shows that faith is based
on more than just reason—it is deeply tied to human experience and meaning.

All religion centers on transcendent explanations of the world; that is, they appeal to dimensions or forces beyond
that which we can directly apprehend with our senses.
• Turner (1997:107) defines religion as "that structuring of activities revolving around beliefs and rituals
pertaining to the sacred and/or supernatural and organized into cult structures which have consequences for
reinforcing norms, legitimating inequality, guiding socialization and social placement, and managing variable
sources of tension and anxiety in a society."
! sociologists are not interested in the "truth" or "falsity" of a given religious experience or belief, only in their social,
cultural, and behavioral effects

Religion can be seen as many things...

• aspects of religion:
• individual or collective ecstatic, euphoric, or orgiastic experience
• a means to separate the sacred from the profane
• a system of meaning for life and the world
• a hierarchy of social organization
• religion may be seen as basically rational or emotional
• religion has many functions in a society

Some important distinctions in the study of religion:

• religion: a system of beliefs in spiritual, sacred, and transcendent things and the institutions, practices, and
rituals, associated with such beliefs; these beliefs and practices unite the believers into a moral community; religious
doctrines supply answers to ultimate or existential questions that have no empirical answers c
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

• ecclesia: a supranational, formal religious organization (e.g., the Roman Catholic Church)
• church: any body of people, and their institutions, beliefs, and practices constituting a distinctive religious
grouping
• denomination: a distinctive branch of a church usually differing on one or more important doctrinal points
• sect: a religious social movement opposed to or rejecting orthodox religious institutions; they may have several
responses to an orthodoxy: conversionist, revolutionist, introversionist, manipulationist, thaumaturgical, reformist,
or utopian (Bryan Wilson, 1973)
• cult: the most informal and transient type of religious organization or movement, usually deviating from
established religious orthodoxies within a society; they often center on charismatic leaders and recombine existing
cultural capital in innovative ways (syncretism)
• magic: an attempt to fulfill functional ends through supernatural or spiritual agencies; in contrast with religion,
the focus of magic is usually more immediate and instrumental, while also being more personal and less
organizationally developed (Clarke's Third Law: "Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from
magic.")
Religion gives its adherents a sense of meaning and order through these common aspects:
●​ separates the sacred from the profane
●​ supplies a set of calendrical and occasional rituals
●​ a set of beliefs that shape our sense of order and propriety
cosmology: a picture of how both the natural and (supposed) transcendent world works
values: ethical ideals giving purpose to social goals and organizations and guiding social interactions
●​ a revered canon of teachings often passed down in sacred texts
●​ internal social structures and hierarchies
●​ rules for determining who belongs and does not belong, as well as those governing how others can join
●​ religions and their sects differ in the latitude of interpretation individuals and groups are afforded

Religions can be both conservative and revolutionary or disintegrative forces

Key Ideas:
Religion, church, sect, cult, sacred vs. profane, ritual.

Definition
●​ Robertson (1991) - religion is “the belief in the existence of supernatural beings which have a governing
effect on life”.
●​ Stark and Bainbridge 1987 – religion has to do with those socially shared and organised ways of
thinking, feeling and acting that concerns ultimate meanings about the existence of the supernatural or
‘beyond’.
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

Types of belief systems

•Supernaturalism – Belief in spirits. Spirits are used to explain all aspects of life
•Animism – Belief in clearly defined supernatural beings e.g. spirits and demons.
•Naturism – Beliefs in things of nature e.g. worship sun, moon, stars etc.
•Theism – Belief in God or gods who control human activities and reveal themselves to humans in various ways
–Monotheism – belief in a single God e.g. Christianity, Islam and Judaism
–Polytheism – belief in more than one gods or goddesses e.g. Hinduism, Buddhism etc.

Religious Organisations
The Church – e.g. Roman Catholic, Church of England, Orthodox Church of Russia
-​ Considers itself uniquely legitimate and typically enjoys a positive relationship with mainstream society.
-​ Operates with a bureaucratic structure and claims to include most members of society.
-​ It is conservative, with close ties to the state
-​ Deeply rooted in the religious politics and economic life of a society
-​ Has a hierarchy of paid official/cleric and elaborate rules prescribing behaviour
-​ It is the major religious force in a society
-​ Member s are born into the church
-​ They believe the possess a monopoly on religious truth
-​ Congregation plays a limited role in religious ceremonies
-​ They do not attempt to control the lives of their members

Denomination – e.g. Baptist, Methodist, Presbyterian, Lutherans

-​ Accepts the legitimacy claims of other religions and enjoys a positive relationship with the dominant society.
-​ In some cases this is a sect in an advanced stage of development and adjustment to the secular world.
-​ The membership comes largely from the middle class.
-​ Mainly found in Western societies
-​ Call for separation between church and state
-​ Do not claim to have a monopoly on religious truth and so are more tolerant of other religious groups
-​ Do not attempt to control the lives of its members, but ask them to exercise moderation in all things
-​ Like the church they have a hierarchy of paid officials

Sect – e.g. Pentecostals, Seventh Day Adventist

-​ World rejecting sect – Jehovah’s witnesses, Rastafarian
-​ World accommodation - Pentecostals
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

-​ World affirming –Scientology

-​ Sects think of themselves as religious elite, they stand apart from mainstream society, but rooted in
established religious traditions
-​ Consists of small voluntary followers, members are converted
-​ Formed from a break away from another religious body and claim their way is the ‘right’ way (have a
monopoly on religious truth.
-​ Mainly attract persons from the lower classes
-​ Strict rules guide behaviour of members (restricted lifestyle/ pull away from society)
-​ They have no central authority, just one charismatic leader

Cult – People’s Temple, Solar Temple

-​ Small religious groups with no specific place of worship, no well defined body of rituals, ethics etc. to guide
behaviour.
-​ They are individualistic
-​ Usually headed by a charismatic leader who is believed to be infinite and has direct contact with a deity.
-​ They attract people from all social classes particularly the young and wealthy
-​ Some allow members to participate in society, others demand withdrawal from society.

Theories on Religion
●​ Functionalist – Durkheim, Parsons, O’Dea
●​ Conflict - Marx
●​ Interactionist – Max Weber (protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism)
●​ Feminist

Functionalist
•Functions of religion:
1.Disciplinary function
2.Cohesive function
3.Revitalising function
4.Euphoric function

Durkheim
•Religion is society worshipping itself (sacred and profane)
•Religion brings people together (social solidarity)
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

•All religious activities have one major function i.e. celebration of the social group
•Religion creates value consensus in that they all share common beliefs

Parsons
•Human behaviour is shaped by the pressures of social norms, religion is a central part of culture and these values
are passed to new generations – continuity of culture.
•Religion provides guidelines for acceptable patterns of behaviour that helps to maintain order, consensus and
stability in society.
•Education not religion will keep people together in modern society.

O’Dea
•Religion functions to answer questions that science cannot explain
•Religion satisfies emotional needs in times of crisis
•Religion provides ethical codes of conduct for behaviour
•Prayer and sacrifice provides psychological relief for people

Marxist
•Religious institutions and organizations are part of the social superstructure they operate in the interest of the
ruling class who use religion as a means of social control.

•Religion:
•Legitimates ruling class power
•Justifies the exploitation of the working class
•RELIGION IS THE OPIUM OF THE PEOPLE
•It deters people from seeking changes which would destroy the stability of the society (capitalism)
•It prevents social change

Max Weber
•Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
•Calvinist Religion (beliefs):
•Predestination
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

•Giving up worldly pleasure

•Sinful to hoard money
•God like rational level headed persons
•Calvinist (a protestant religion) their work ethic helped to create Capitalist economic system

Feminist
•Religion is a patriarchal institution that benefits males… evidence of this are:
1.Religious text support male domination
2.Religious views of women
3.Women are denied leadership positions in many religions (Islam, Catholic, Rastafarian etc.)
God has been attributed masculine characteristics
Secularisation
•Idea put forward by Weber – a decline in religious participation, values and beliefs.
•Science and technology has caused this decline as rationality has replaced mysticism.
•Arguments for secularisation:
1.Religious pluralism Berger 1967
2.Society values Rationality Walton 2000
3.Fall in church attendance Wilson 1982
4.People pray only after exhausting all other options Bruce
Secularisation
•Arguments against:
•People are distrusting science
•Resurgence of religiosity world wide Berger 1999
•Not enough evidence from Weber. Hadden 1987 and Stark 1999
•Separation of church and state forced churches caused churches to become more competitive and increase their level
of ferment in society.

Religious Prejudice and Discrimination

•Religious prejudices or Religious intolerance is the intolerance of another's religious beliefs or practices. The mere
statement on the part of a religious group that its own beliefs and practices are correct and any contrary beliefs
incorrect does not in itself constitute intolerance (i.e., ideological intolerance).
•Because of religious intolerance many people are discriminated against. This causes people to not be accepted in
their community. For example people will often not get jobs because of their religion and way of dressing. Also kids
because of what their beliefs are, are bullied.
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

Definition of Education- Education is the transmission of particular attitudes, knowledge and skills to members
of society through formal systematic training.
●​ Schooling – structured learning that is limited to instructions in the classroom.
●​ Education encompasses a broader spectrum where learning is more qualitative and comes from various
spheres not limited to the classroom. It can take place formally and informally.

---

Types of Education
-​ Formal Education (Structured learning)
There are 4 levels:
1.​ Pre-primary/Early Childhood (Kindergarten)– Ages 3-5+
2.​ Primary – Ages 5+ to 11+
3.​ Secondary – Ages 11+ to 18+
4.​ Tertiary (University/College) – Age 18+

Formal education includes:

-​ Core subjects (Math, English, Science, etc.)
-​ Other subjects (Physical Education, Religious Education, etc.)
-​ Extracurricular activities (Sports, Music, Drama, etc.)

Hidden Curriculum -The hidden curriculum refers to the unspoken lessons students learn in school. It includes
values, beliefs, and social expectations learned through:
-​ School rules
-​ Relationships with teachers and peers
-​ Textbooks and classroom setup

Views on Hidden Curriculum:

-​ Functionalist Perspective: Helps maintain order, cooperation, and achievement in society.
-​ Marxist Perspective: Encourages obedience, submission, and benefits the ruling class.

Examples of Hidden Curriculum:

Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

1.​ Cultural Expectations – Teachers may set different expectations for students based on background,
influencing their success.
2.​ Cultural Values – Some schools encourage strict rule-following, while others promote creativity and
questioning authority.
3.​ Cultural Perspectives – Schools may either ignore or celebrate multicultural diversity, affecting students'
sense of belonging.
4.​ Curriculum Topics – The way history or social studies are taught can shape perspectives on culture and
power.
5.​ Teaching Strategies – The way students are rewarded or disciplined teaches them certain behaviors and
values.
6.​ School Structure – Organization of programs can affect students’ sense of inclusion or exclusion.
7.​ Institutional Rules – Dress codes and discipline policies send messages about social norms and values.

---

Theories on Education

Functionalist Perspective (Durkheim, Parsons, Davis & Moore)

- Education maintains social order by teaching shared values and preparing students for jobs.
- Durkheim: Schools teach discipline, self-control, and cooperation.
- Parsons: Schools act as a bridge between home and society, ensuring students follow universal standards and
succeed based on merit.
- Davis & Moore: Schools allocate roles in society through:
1.​ Role Allocation– Assigning people jobs based on skills.
2.​ Sorting & Placement– Filtering students into different career paths.
3.​ Functional Importance– More important jobs require more skill and education.

Criticisms of Functionalism:
1.​ Difficult to determine which jobs are most important.
2.​ Education is not truly **equal** for everyone.
3.​ Different social groups receive different values in school.
4.​ Not all students accept school values.
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

5.​ Education mainly benefits the wealthy.

6.​ The system can cause inequality and social conflict.

---

Marxist Perspective (Bourdieu, Bowles & Gintis)

- Education reinforces inequality and benefits the wealthy.

Bourdieu:
-​ Cultural capital** (advantages of the rich) helps wealthy students succeed.
-​ Schools serve the interests of the powerful.

Bowles & Gintis:

Correspondence Principle:
Schools prepare students for the workforce by teaching:
1. Motivation by external rewards (grades, money).
2. Acceptance of hierarchy (teacher-student → boss-worker).
3. Fragmentation of knowledge (subjects taught separately like work tasks).
4. Competition (students vs. workers).
5. Alienation (lack of personal fulfillment).
6. Reproduction of social classes (keeping rich people rich and poor people poor).

Criticisms of Marxism:
-​ Not all students are obedient; some resist school rules.
-​ Some working-class students succeed despite disadvantages.
-​ Cultural capital is more accessible now than before.
-​ Other social factors (media, religion) also shape students, not just education.
-​ Some teachers challenge the system instead of enforcing it.

---

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective (Becker, Rosenthal & Jacobson, Rist)

Focuses on classroom interactions and how labels affect students’ success.

-​ Becker: Teachers have an ideal student type and judge students based on appearance and behavior.
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

-​ Cicourel & Kitsuse: Counselors judge students more on social background than ability.

-​ Hargreaves & Keddie:

Labeling theory– Students live up to the expectations placed on them (self-fulfilling prophecy).

-​ Rist: Teachers seat students based on social class rather than intelligence.
-​ Rosenthal & Jacobson: Teachers’ expectations impact student performance.
-​ Sadker & Sadker: Schools reinforce gender stereotypes through student-teacher interactions.
-​ Jackson: Teachers dominate classroom communication, limiting student input.

Key Concepts:
-​ Labeling– Teachers label students as "bright" or "dull," affecting confidence and achievement.
-​ Streaming – Grouping students into ability levels impacts opportunities.
-​ Hidden biases– Some students are treated better based on gender, class, or race.

---

Feminist Perspective (Liberal, Socialist, Radical, Black Feminists)

- Education reinforces gender inequality by shaping expectations for boys and girls.

Types of Feminism in Education:

1.​ Liberal Feminists– Want equal opportunities for boys and girls by changing textbooks, teacher
behavior, and career guidance.
2.​ Socialist Feminists– Argue that schools prepare working-class women for low-paying jobs, maintaining
capitalism.
3.​ Radical Feminists – Say schools favor men in leadership and knowledge, and push for a woman-centered
curriculum.
4.​ Black Feminists– Focus on how racism and sexism affect Black girls’ education and limit their
opportunities.

---

Summary of Key Points:

1. Education has both a formal and hidden curriculum.
2. Functionalists believe education creates stability and social order.
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

3. Marxists argue education benefits the wealthy and maintains inequality.

4. Symbolic Interactionists focus on how teacher-student interactions shape success.
5. Feminists highlight how education reinforces gender inequality.

Got it! Here's your content without any highlighting but still structured clearly for readability.

---

Education in the Caribbean

Tracing the Development of Education in the Caribbean

Education in the Caribbean has evolved through three main periods:
1. Colonial Period – Pre-Emancipation and Post-Emancipation
2. Independence Era
3. Contemporary Era

Colonial Period

Pre-Emancipation Era
Education was not a priority for non-Europeans. It was influenced by socio-economic status, ethnicity, and race.
Wealthy European males received private tutoring at home and later studied at universities abroad. Enslaved
people were forbidden from receiving an education to maintain control over them. Some schools existed for poor
white children, and planters brought teachers from England for their own children, focusing on classical education
similar to that in England.

Some early schools established during this period include:

- Wolmer’s in Jamaica (1729)
- Queen’s College in Guyana (1844)
- St. Joseph’s Convent and St. George’s College in Trinidad & Tobago (1836, 1837)

Missionaries made the first attempts to educate the enslaved, primarily teaching reading and writing. However,
there was no proper infrastructure, such as schools or trained teachers. The Amelioration Act of 1812 introduced
moral and religious instruction for enslaved people.
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

Post-Emancipation Era
The Education Act of 1833 allowed children of ex-slaves to access elementary education, but higher levels of
education remained restricted. The Negro Education Grant (1835) provided £30,000 per year to fund schools and
train teachers. When the grant ended, religious groups continued primary education, sometimes charging fees.

The curriculum focused on reading, writing, and arithmetic, helping to reduce child labor and instill British values
and traditions among former enslaved people.

Mass education was established in the Caribbean around the same time as in Britain. However, access to higher
education remained limited, with only affluent children advancing to secondary school and beyond. Some teachers
had little formal education themselves, while secondary school teachers were typically university graduates. Poor but
academically gifted boys were sometimes given scholarships to attend high school and later entered the civil service or
studied abroad.

---

Independence Era
New Caribbean leaders introduced significant educational reforms, but colonial influences remained. The
education system continued to emphasize external exams like the GCE. Education remained competitive, with
limited access to post-secondary institutions.

Over time, there was a stronger push for decolonization and the development of a more indigenous education
system. The number of students enrolled in secondary education increased.

By the 1980s, major reforms led to the creation of new education laws and plans. Caribbean universities were
established to reduce reliance on overseas education. The introduction of Caribbean-specific syllabi, including CXC
examinations, reflected a shift toward regionalism. Education was increasingly seen as a tool for economic
development, identity formation, and nation-building.

---

Contemporary Era
Today, most Caribbean countries have centralized ministries of education. Access to schooling has expanded to
include all social groups, aiming to provide equal opportunities for education.
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

Governments have increased spending on education, focusing on modernization and keeping up with international
standards. However, many elements of the British system remain, such as school uniforms, sorting students by
ability, and a strong focus on examinations.

Globalization has also influenced Caribbean education, with the rise of ICT integration, distance learning, and
blended learning models.
Here's your content structured clearly without any highlighting but still easy to read and understand.

---

Challenges in Education
One of the biggest challenges in education is identifying the underlying issues that prevent students from learning.
These challenges vary based on perspectives—whether from students, parents, educators, or policymakers.

Classroom Size
- Teachers struggle to effectively educate students in overcrowded classrooms.
- Research from the Tennessee Star study shows that classes with 15–17 students in grades K-3 provide both short-
and long-term benefits.
- Minority students, students living in poverty, and male students benefit the most from smaller class sizes.

Poverty
- Students from low-income backgrounds have higher dropout rates.
- Lack of food, sleep, and basic resources negatively impacts academic performance.
- Schools attempt to provide essentials, but resources remain insufficient.

Family Factors
-​ Home environments play a crucial role in a student's ability to learn.
-​ Issues like divorce, single parenting, poverty, and violence impact student performance.
-​ Schools and teachers try to support students, but parental involvement varies, making it difficult to address
these challenges effectively.

Technology
- Many students are more technologically advanced than their teachers.
- Technology can be both a distraction and an opportunity for learning.
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

- Cash-strapped schools struggle to fund necessary technological resources.

Bullying
- Bullying has a major impact on students’ mental and emotional well-being.
- Cyberbullying, through social media and texting, has worsened the problem.
- Laws surrounding cyberbullying remain unclear, making it difficult for schools to take action.

Student Attitudes and Behavior

- Teachers report issues such as apathy, disrespect, tardiness, and absenteeism.
- These behavioral problems are more common in secondary schools.
- Disciplinary issues and delinquency remain major concerns.

No Child Left Behind (NCLB)

- The policy has been criticized for its overemphasis on standardized testing.
- Teachers feel pressured to "teach to the test" rather than focus on holistic learning.
- Reduction in non-academic activities (e.g., recess, lunch) to allow more time for test preparation.

Parental Involvement
- Some parents are entirely absent from their child’s education.
- Others are overly involved, sometimes interfering with the learning process.
- Finding a balance in parental engagement is a challenge for teachers.

Student Health
- Childhood obesity is a growing problem, contributing to lower academic achievement.
- Obesity increases risks for diabetes and high blood pressure, leading to more absenteeism.
- Mental health issues, such as anxiety and depression, are on the rise.
- There is an increasing number of students engaging in self-harm or experiencing suicidal thoughts.

Funding
- Budget cuts have led to smaller school staffs, fewer resources, and reduced student services.
- Some argue that more funding alone won't fix education, while others believe that financial constraints are at the
root of many educational problems.

Other Factors
- School safety– Concerns over violence and security in schools.
Shawn Slater Sociology module 2
notes.

- Disciplinary policies– Debate over effectiveness and fairness of school discipline.

- Teacher salaries – Low pay affects teacher retention and morale.
- Standardized testing– Over-reliance on testing as a measure of student success.
- Dropout rates– Students leaving school before completion remains a major issue.
- Student underachievement– Many students fail to reach their full potential.
- Grade repetition – High rates of students repeating grade levels.

Curriculum and Pedagogy Concerns

- Outdated curriculum content and teaching methods.
- Many students graduate unprepared for the workforce and adulthood.
- High levels of illiteracy and poor numeracy skills.
- Significant gender disparities in academic achievement.
- Curriculum changes are not always matched with corresponding changes in assessment methods.

---