Introduction to

Sociology
Family and Marriage
Family

A family can be defined as a set of people related by blood, marriage, or some other agreed- on relationship,
or adoption, who share the primary responsibility for reproduction and caring for members of society.

There are many variations in the family from culture to culture. Yet the family as a social institution exists in
all cultures. Moreover, certain general principles concerning its composition, kinship patterns, and authority
patterns are universal.

Group Discussions: what is family?

Composition of Family – Nuclear and Extended

Nuclear family – Sociologists use the term nuclear family to describe a family when a married couple and their unmarried
children lives together. This type of family serves as the nucleus, or core, on which larger family groups are built

Extended Family - A family in which relatives—such as grandparents, aunts, or uncles—live in the same home as parents
and their children is known as an extended family.

According to Schaefer (2018) the structure of the extended family offers certain advantages over that of the nuclear
family. Crises such as death, divorce, and illness put less strain on family members, since more people can provide
assistance and emotional support. In addition, the extended family constitutes a larger economic unit than the nuclear
family. If the family is engaged in a common enterprise—a farm or a small business—the additional family members may
represent the difference between prosperity and failure.
Family as ‘Unit of Production’ and ‘Unit of Consumption’

The family as a unit of production

Before industrialization and the growth of factory based consumption the family was also a unit of production – the family
produced most of the goods it consumed itself, mainly food and clothes. Today, in most cases, the family household no
longer produces its own goods for consumption.

The Family as a unit of consumption

Contemporary Marxists argue that one of the main functions of the family in capitalist societies is to act as a 'unit of
consumption' – Families are expected to purchase goods and services necessary for their daily lives, which in turn fuels the
capitalist economy by creating demand for these products. This shift marks a significant transformation in the role and
function of the family in society from producers to consumers..
Family and Kinship

Kinship groups encompass a broader range of relatives, including aunts, uncles, cousins, and in-laws. These kin do not always
reside together or function as a collective on a daily basis, but they often carry obligations and responsibilities towards one
another.

Kinship groups are determined by principles of descent, which assign individuals to specific kinship categories based on their
relationships with their parents. There are three primary systems of determining descent:

Bilateral Descent: In this system, both the mother's and father's sides of the family are considered equally important. For
example, no distinction is made between the paternal and maternal uncles.

Patrilineal Descent: In societies that follow patrilineal descent, the father's relatives hold significance in terms of property
and inheritance.

Matrilineal Descent: In contrast, matrilineal descent societies give prominence to the mother's relatives in matters of
property, inheritance, and emotional connections.
Family – Power Questions

In terms of authority patterns within families, different societies distribute power differently.

Patriarchal societies, where males dominate family decision-making, are common in many cultures.

Conversely, matriarchal societies, where women have greater authority than men, are rare. In the
matrilineal society, we can observer women holding greater autonomy but that might not constitute
matriarchal society.

The third pattern is the egalitarian family, where spouses are considered equals. In such families,
decision-making are shared.

Group Discussions- family, kinship and power

Sociological Perspectives of Family
The concept of the family has been examined from various sociological perspectives. Different theoretical perspectives analyse on various
aspects of family life and its impact on individuals and society as a whole.

Functionalist Perspectives

The functionalist perspective emphasizes how the family fulfills the needs of its members and promotes social stability. The family performs
six paramount functions, first outlined nearly 80 years ago by sociologist William F. Ogburn (Ogburn and Tibbits 1934):

Reproduction: For a society to maintain itself, it must replace dying members. In this sense, the family contributes to human survival
through its function of reproduction.

Protection: Families are responsible for the protection and upbringing of children in all cultures.

Socialization: Parents and kin transmit cultural norms, values, and language to children.

Regulation of sexual behavior: Sexual norms are subject to change both over time (for instance, in the customs for dating) and across
cultures (compare strict Saudi Arabia to the more permissive Denmark). However, whatever the time period or cultural values of a society,
standards of sexual behavior are most clearly defined within the family circle.

Affection and companionship: Ideally, the family provides members with warm and intimate relationships, helping them to feel satisfied
and secure. Of course, a family member may find such rewards outside the family—from peers, in school, at work—and may even perceive
the home as an unpleasant or abusive setting. Nevertheless, we expect our relatives to understand us, to care for us, and to be there for us
when we need them.

Provision of social status: The family presents the newborn child with an ascribed status based on race and ethnicity that helps to
determine his or her place within society’s stratification system. Moreover, family resources affect children’s ability to pursue certain
opportunities, such as higher education.
Sociological Perspectives of Family

Conflict Theoretical Perspectives

Conflict theorists see the family as a reflection of societal inequality rather than a source of stability. Conflict
theorists view the family as an economic unit that perpetuates inequality by transferring power, property, and
privilege from one generation to the next.

Social mobility is constrained, as children inherit the social and economic status of their parents. Family
socioeconomic status significantly influences children's socialization experiences, access to resources like nutrition
and education, and overall life chances. Thus, conflict theorists argue that the family plays a role in maintaining
societal inequality.
Sociological Perspectives of Family

Feminist Theoretical perspectives

Feminist sociologists argue that traditional family structures have upheld male dominance throughout history.
While recent feminist efforts have made family roles more equal, male authority still exists. Some fathers now
help with caregiving or household works, but women still do most of it. Additionally, domestic violence remains a
concern, further reinforcing male power within families.

They investigate how traditional gender roles impact families, question assumptions about family structures, and
emphasize the strength and adaptability of women in various family situations.

They have looked particularly closely at how women’s work outside the home impacts their child care and
housework duties. Arlie Hochschild (1990, 2005, 2012) has referred to as the “second shift.” Today, researchers
recognize that for many women, the second shift includes the care of aging parents as well.

They've also explored families with no adult males (single-parent and lesbian couples) and challenged the idea
that they're problematic or dysfunctional.
Marriage Types

The most common form of marriage is monogamy, where an individual has only one partner at a time. While it was
traditionally between a man and a woman, same-sex couples can now legally marry.

Polygamous marriage allows an individual to have multiple spouses simultaneously. There are two primary subtypes
of polygamy:
• Polygyny: In polygynous marriages, a man can have multiple wives at the same time.
• Polyandry: In polyandrous marriages, a woman can have multiple husbands at the same time, although this form is
relatively rare.

The existence of different types of marriage can be attributed to cultural, historical, religious, and societal factors.
These factors influence how marriage is defined, practiced, and regulated in various regions and communities.
Additionally, changes in societal attitudes and legal frameworks have contributed to the evolution and acceptance of
various marriage forms, including same-sex marriage.

The Marxist perspective on marriage types emphasizes how different marital arrangements can either reinforce or
challenge economic inequalities within societies. Marriage, in this view, is not just a personal or emotional choice but
is deeply intertwined with economic factors, power dynamics and socio-political context.
Marriage - Courtship and Mate Selection

Whom a person is allowed to marry varies from culture to culture. It is not only personal choices, sociology teaches
us that social institutions and cultural values also influence them.

Possible ways to find a partner has changed over the years. Before family, friends, or work played a significant role in
finding a partner, but, nowadays, many couples meet online through dating websites.

Different cultures have different ways of courtship. For example, in Uzbekistan, parents often arrange marriages, and
young women may meet their future husbands only once before marriage. In the U.S., courtship is more individual-
driven and may involve complex dating rituals influenced by societal norms.

Factors like financial stability and independence are contributing to people marrying later in life. In the 1960s, men
typically married at around age 23, and women at 21. In 2015, the average age was about 29 for men and nearly 27
for women (Schaefer 2018)
Marriage Rules – Endogamy and Exogamy
Marriage rules varies from culture to culture. We are going to focus on two specific rules – Endogamy and Exogamy. Both
endogamy and exogamy are not merely individual choices but are deeply embedded in the socio-political, cultural, and
economic context.

• Endogamy: This means marrying within a specific group, like race, ethnicity, or religion. Endogamy is often practiced
to maintain cultural or ethnic identity and continuity. By marrying within a specific group, communities can preserve
their distinct cultural practices, languages, religious beliefs, and social norms. Endogamous practices reinforce group
cohesion and solidarity. They ensure that social ties, support networks, and communal bonds are strengthened and
maintained within the group. In some societies, endogamy can be a way to maintain social hierarchies and power
structures, particularly in caste-based or stratified societies. It can serve to keep social classes distinct and often
perpetuates inequalities.

• Exogamy: This is the opposite of endogamy, where one expected to marry outside certain groups, especially family.
Anthropologists note that exogamous marriages can be strategic for forming alliances between different families,
clans, tribes, or social groups. These alliances can be vital for political, economic, or social reasons. By encouraging
members to seek spouses outside their immediate community, can also minimize local conflicts, as marrying outside
the group often requires maintaining peaceful relations with different communities. Exogamous rules often define
not just whom one can marry, but also who is considered an outsider. This demarcation can play a role in structuring
social identity and belonging, distinguishing between 'us' and 'them' and defining group boundaries.