3.

1) characteristic as a variable resistor in reaction to

A Zener diode is a semiconductor device that makes the current an implemented voltage.
flow in the forward or in the backward direction. The diode PIN Diode Symbol
usually consists of a p-n junction which is heavily doped. The as already discussed, PIN means Positive Intrinsic
diode is designed to conduct the flow of current in the reverse Negative. In symbol of PIN Diode, it represents the PIN
direction after reaching a specified voltage. The Zener diode has diode structure. PIN diodes have two terminals anode and
a reverse-breakdown voltage at which the diode starts
cathode.
conductivity electric current, and remains continuous in the
reverse-bias mode. The voltage drop across the diode always
remains constant irrespective of the applied voltage, and this
feature of the Zener diode makes it suitable for voltage
regulation.
Zener Diode Working
In a Zener diode, high-level impurities are added to the
semiconductor material to make it more conductive. Due PIN Diode
to the presence of these impurities, the depletion region
of the diode becomes very thin. The intensity of the
2.B)
electric field is increased across the depletion region, due
A rectifier is an
to heavy doping even if a small voltage is applied.
electronic device that
converts an alternating
current into a direct
current by using one or
more P-N junction
diodes.

When no biassing is applied across the Zener diode, the  AC Input: Firstly the Bridge Rectifier connects to
electrons accumulate in the valence band of the p-type an AC power source, which supplies electricity
semiconductor material and no current flow occurs that constantly changes direction resembling
through the diode. The band in which the valence ocean waves. This type of AC power is commonly
electrons are present is called the valence band electron. obtained from outlets.
When external energy is applied across the valence band,  Diode Action: Strategically arranged within the
the electrons get easily moved from one band to another. Bridge Rectifier are four diodes that form a bridge
When the reverse bias is applied across the diode and configuration. When the AC voltage is positive on
when the Zener voltage is equal to that of the supplied one side, two diodes allow the current to flow
voltage, the diode starts conducting in the direction of through them in one direction. Conversely when
reverse bias. The Zener diode voltage is the particular the AC voltage reverses the other two diodes
voltage at which the depletion region vanishes become active. Enable the current to pass
completely. through them in the previous direction.
 Conversion: As a result of this alternating action
3. 2) of the diodes, the negative and positive halves of
A PIN diode is a special type of diode made from three the AC waveform get separated. The diodes
different semiconductor layers. It is made by placing an effectively "Cut off" the portions permitting only
intrinsic semiconductor layer (I) between the P-type and the positive portions to pass through.
N-type semiconductor layers. Hence it is named PIN  DC Output: Consequently what we obtain as an
diode. output from the
A PIN diode, quick for Positive-Intrinsic-Negative diode, is Bridge Rectifier
a semiconductor tool that belongs to the diode family. is a stream of
Unlike normal diodes, PIN diodes include three layers: current (DC).
 p-type (high-quality) semiconductor layer This DC output
 Intrinsic (undoped or gently doped) represents a
semiconductor layer flow of
 n-type (poor) semiconductor layer electricity in a
The intrinsic layer performs a crucial role within direction akin,
the device's operation, permitting it to to a steady river
 stream. We know that,
XC=12πfcXC=12πfc
It means that the capacitive reactance is inversely
NO.4 proportional to the frequency.
RC Coupled Amplifier NO.5.
The constructional details of a two-stage RC coupled Op Amp As Adder
transistor amplifier circuit are as follows. The two stage The name "Summing Amplifier" is used since op-amps can
amplifier circuit has two transistors, connected in CE be used to add two or more input voltages and generate a
configuration and a common power supply VCC is used. single output from it. It is important to note that input
The potential divider network R1 and R2 and the resistor voltages are applied to the inverting terminal of the op-
Re form the biasing and stabilization network. The emitter amp while the non-inverting terminal is grounded. The
by-pass capacitor Ce offers a low reactance path to the below circuit shows op-amp as an adder. Look at the
signal. circuit used in this conversion with a mathematical
formula that shows that the output voltage is proportional
Operation of RC Coupled Amplifier to the sum of input voltages.
When an AC input signal is applied to the base of first
transistor, it gets amplified and appears at the collector
load RL which is then passed through the coupling
capacitor CC to the next stage. This becomes the input of
the next stage, whose amplified output again appears
across its collector load. Thus the signal is amplified in
stage by stage action.
The important point that has to be noted here is that the Summi
total gain is less than the product of the gains of individual ng Amplifier
stages. This is because when a second stage is made to Vout = -(Rf/R1 .V1 + Rf/R2 .V2 + Rf/R3 .V3)
follow the first stage, the effective load resistance of the
first stage is reduced due to the shunting effect of the Integrator
input resistance of the second stage. Hence, in a An integrator is an electronic circuit that produces an
multistage amplifier, only the gain of the last stage output that is the integration of the applied input. This
remains unchanged. section discusses about the op-amp based integrator.
As we consider a two stage amplifier here, the output An op-amp based integrator produces an output, which is
phase is same as input. Because the phase reversal is an integral of the input voltage applied to its inverting
done two times by the two stage CE configured amplifier terminal. The circuit diagram of an op-amp based
circuit. integrator is shown in the following figure −
Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier
Frequency response curve is a graph that indicates the
relationship between voltage gain and function of
frequency. The frequency response of a RC coupled
amplifier is as shown in the following graph.

In the circuit shown above, the non-inverting input

terminal of the op-amp is connected to ground. That
means zero volts is applied to its non-inverting input
terminal.
According to virtual short concept, the voltage at the
From the above graph, it is understood that the frequency inverting input terminal of op-amp will be equal to the
rolls off or decreases for the frequencies below 50Hz and voltage present at its non-inverting input terminal. So, the
for the frequencies above 20 KHz. whereas the voltage voltage at the inverting input terminal of op-amp will be
gain for the range of frequencies between 50Hz and 20 zero volts.
KHz is constant.
1.
a) A DC load line is a graphical representation that depicts the
relationship between collector current (IC) and collector-emitter
voltage (VCE) in a transistor circuit, particularly when there is no
signal applied and only a DC supply is present.
b) Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) are classified into two types: NPN
and PNP, based on the doping of their semiconductor materials. 2..A
The V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode describe the relationship between
voltage and current through the diode

c) The voltage at which the forward diode current increases rapidly is

known as Knee voltage or cut in voltage. Knee voltage for
germanium is 0.3V & for silicon is 0.7V. The maximum reverse bias
voltage that p-n diode can withstand without breaking down is known
as peak inverse voltage.
d) Efficiency is the ratio of output power to input power, expressed as a
percentage. In a half-wave rectifier, the maximum efficiency is
40.6%, while for a full-wave rectifier, it's 81.2%
e) Forward Bias:

 In forward bias, the positive terminal of the external voltage is

connected to the p-type material, and the negative terminal is
connected to the n-type material.

 This reduces the width of the depletion region, allowing current to

flow.

 The V-I curve shows a steep rise in current after a certain threshold
voltage, which is typically around 0.7V for silicon diodes
f) FET is called a unipolar device because it relies on a single type of
charge carrier for current conduction. Reverse Bias:

BJT is called a bipolar device because it utilizes both electrons aholes as  In reverse bias, the positive terminal of the external voltage is
charge carriers connected to the n-type material, and the negative terminal is
connected to the p-type material.
g) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) refers to the maximum reverse voltage a
diode can withstand before breaking down.
 This increases the width of the depletion region, blocking current
flow.
Ripple factor, on the other hand, is a measure of the remaining AC ripple voltage
in the output after rectification
 The V-I curve shows a small leakage current until a critical reverse
h) voltage (breakdown voltage) is reached, after which the reverse
current increases rapidly.

i) Negative feedback offers several advantages, including stabilized gain,

reduced distortion and noise, improved stability, increased input
resistance, and decreased output impedance

j)