NARASARAOPETA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(AUTONOMOUS)

ENGINEERING PHYSICS MATERIAL

NAME: ------------------------------------------------------------------------

ROLL NO: --------------------------------------------------------------------

BRANCH: ---------------------------- SECTION: -----------------------

YEAR OF STUDY: ----------------------------------------------------------

 NARASARAOPETA ENGINEERING COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)

L T P C
3 0 0 3
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
(Common for all branches of Engineering)

Course Objectives:
To bridge the gap between the Physics in school at 10+2 level and UG level engineering courses
by identifying the importance of the optical phenomenon like interference, diffraction etc,
enlightening the periodic arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids and concepts of quantum
mechanics, introduce novel concepts of magnetic materials and superconductors, physics of
semiconductors and smart materials.

Course Outcomes:
 Analyze the intensity variation of Laser light and it ’s pr o pagat io n in o pt ica l fiber s .
 Familiarize with the basics of crystals and their structures.
 Summarize various types of Magnetic materials and Super conductors.
 Explain the basic concepts of Quantum Mechanics and the free electron theory.
 Identify the type of semiconductor ,Smart materials and their applications

UNIT I: Lasers and Optical Fibers

Lasers: Introduction – Characteristics of lasers – Spontaneous and Stimulated emission
of radiation – Population inversion -Einstein’s coefficients and relation between them -–
Ruby laser – Helium Neon laser- Semiconductor Laser-Applications.

Optical Fibers: Introduction- Basic Structure and Principle of optical fiber - Acceptance
angle – Acceptance cone - Numerical Aperture - Step Index and Graded index fibers -
Applications.

UNIT II: Crystallography and X-ray diffraction

Crystallography: Space lattice, Basis, Unit Cell and lattice parameters – Bravais Lattices –
crystal systems (3D) – coordination number - packing fraction of SC, BCC & FCC.

X-ray diffraction: Miller indices – separation between successive (hkl) planes.

Bragg’s law - crystal structure determination by Laue’s and powder methods.

UNIT III: Magnetic Materials and Superconductivity

Magnetic Materials: Introduction - Magnetic dipole moment - Magnetization-Magnetic
susceptibility, permeability and relation between them - atomic origin of magnetism -
Classification of magnetic materials: Dia, para, Ferro, anti-ferro & Ferri magnetic materials -
Hysteresis - soft and hard magnetic materials.

Superconductivity: Introduction- Properties, Meissner effect - Type-I and Type-II super

conductors- BCS Theory- AC and DC Josephson effect-Applications
UNIT IV: Quantum Mechanics and Free electron theory
Quantum Mechanics: de-Broglie’s matter Waves – Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
– Significance and properties of wave function – Schrodinger’s time independent wave
equation – Particle in a one-dimensional infinite potential well.

Free Electron Theory: Classical free electron theory (Qualitative with discussion of merits
and demerits) – electrical conductivity based on classical free electron theory – Quantum free
electron theory – Fermi energy- Fermi-Dirac distribution.

UNIT V: Semiconductors and Smart materials:

Semiconductors: Formation of energy bands – classification of solids – Types of
semiconductors - Drift and diffusion currents – Einstein’s equation - Hall Effect and its
applications.
Smart materials: Introduction - properties - types of smart materials- shape memory alloys -
piezoelectric materials- magnetostrictive materials – Thermoelectric materials- magneto
rheological fluids- electro rheological fluids- Chromic materials – Engineering applications of
smart materials.

Textbooks:
1. A Text book of Engineering Physics - M. N. Avadhanulu, P.G.Kshirsagar & TVS Arun Murthy,
S. Chand Publications, 11th Edition 2019.
2. Engineering Physics - D.K.Bhattacharya and Poonam Tandon, Oxford press (2015).

Reference Books:

1. Engineering Physics - B.K. Pandey and S. Chaturvedi, Cengage Learning

2. Engineering Physics - Shatendra Sharma, Jyotsna Sharma, Pearson Education, 2018.
3. Engineering Physics” - Sanjay D. Jain, D. Sahasrabudhe and Girish, University Press.
4. Engineering Physics - M.R. Srinivasan, New Age international publishers (2009).
 I B.Tech I Semester Regular/Supple. Examinations, Month/Year R23
Sub Code: Engineering Physics
Time: 3 hours (Branch: Electronics and communication Engineering) Max. Marks: 70
Note: Question Paper consists of Two parts (Part-A and Part-B)

PART-A
Answering all the questions from Part-A is compulsory (10 x 2M = 20M)
Q.No Questions KL CO Marks
a) List the 4 Characteristics of Laser K 1 2M
b) Explain is the Principle of Optical fiber K2 1
2M

c) Define unit cell K1 2

2M

d) State Bragg’s Law K1 2

2M

e) Define susceptibility and Permeability K1 3

2M
1 K3 3
f) Illustrate the phenomenon of Meissner effect 2M

g) state Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle K1 4

2M

h) What are the failures of Classical free electron theory K1 4

2M

i) Classify the types of semiconductors K2 5

2M

j) What is a piezo electric material K1 5

2M

PART-B
Answer either ‘a’ or ‘b’ from each question of PART-B (5 x 10M = 50M)

Q.No Questions KL CO Marks

Unit-I
i) With the help of suitable diagram explain the principle, K2 1
6M
a construction and working of He-Ne laser
ii) Write any four applications of lasers. K1 1 4M
OR
2
i) Derive the mathematical expression for acceptance angle K3 1
7M
and numerical aperture of an optical fiber.
b ii) Calculate the Numerical aperture of an optical fiber K4 1
with refractive index of core and cladding as 1.543 and 3M
1.522
Unit-II
i) Explain the relation between SC, BCC, FCC structures in K3 2
7M
a terms of coordination number and atomic packing fraction
3
ii)Define Unit cell and Lattice parameters K1 2 3M
OR
b i)Derive the expression for Inter planar spacing K3 2 6M
 ii)State and explain Braggs law K1 2 4M
Unit-III
i)Explain Dia, Para and Ferro magnetic materials K2 3 5M
a
ii) Define Bohr Magneton and derive the expression K1 3 5M
4 OR3
i)What is Meissner effect and Classify Type I & II super K1 3
5M
b conductors
ii)Explain the Phenomenon of AC & DC Josephson effect K3 3 5M
Unit-IV
i)Derive the expression for energy of the electron in one K3 4
5M
a dimensional potential box.
ii) Derive Schrodinger’s time dependent wave equation K3 4 5M
5
OR
i) What are the failures of Classical free electron theory K1 4
5M
b and explain the Quantum free electron theory
ii)Derive the expression for electrical conductivity K3 4 5M
Unit-V
i) Explain Hall effect and obtain an expression for the Hall K3 5
5M
a coefficient
ii) Explain briefly about Drift and diffusion currents K2 5 5M
6 OR
i)Explain the principle and properties of Shape memory K2 5
5M
alloys and piezo electric materials
b
ii) What are the applications of smart materials in K1 5
5M
engineering fields
KL: Blooms Taxonomy Knowledge Level CO: Course Outcome M: Marks

***
 I B.Tech I Semester Regular/Supple. Examinations, Month/Year R23
Sub Code: SUBJECT NAME
Time: 3 hours (Branch : XXXXX) Max. Marks: 70
Note: Question Paper consists of Two parts (Part-A and Part-B)

PART-A
Answering all the questions from Part-A is compulsory (10 x 2M = 20M)
Q.No Questions KL CO Marks
a) what is Population inversion K1 1 2M
b) Define Total internal reflection K1 1 2M
c) What is Atomic packing Fraction K1 2 2M
d) What are Miller indices K1 2 2M
e) Define Magnetic Dipole moment K1 3 2M
1
f) What is the phenomenon of Meissner effect K1 3 2M
g) What are the properties of matter waves K1 4 2M
h) Define Fermi energy K1 4 2M
i) Define drift and diffusion currents K1 5 2M
j) Write the applications of Shape memory alloys K1 5 2M

PART-B
Answer either ‘a’ or ‘b’ from each question of PART-B (5 x 10M = 50M)

Q.No Questions KL CO Marks

Unit-I
i) Describe the principle, construction and working of a K3
1 6M
ruby laser.
a
ii)Explain the differences between Spontaneous and K2
1 4M
Stipulated Emission
2 OR
i)Classify the optical fibers based on its refractive K4
1 6M
index profiles
b ii) The refractive indices of an optical fiber of core K3
and cladding are 1.48 and 1.45 respectively. Calculate 1 4M
(i) Acceptance angle and (ii). Numerical Aperture.
Unit2-II
i) Classify the crystal based on lattice parameters K2 2 7M
a
ii)Define Unit cell and Lattice parameters K3 2 3M
3
OR
i)What are Miller Indices and explain the procedure to K2
b 2 6M
find out the miller indices of plane with example
 ii)Illustrate [110] & [111] planes K2 2 4M
Unit-III
i)Explain Hysteresis in ferro magnetic materials K4 3 6M
a ii) Write the differences between Soft and Hard K1
3 4M
magnetic materials
4
OR
i)Explain How BCS Theory explains Superconductivity K2 3 6M
b ii) Explain the magnetic behavior of Type-1 and Type -2 K2
3 4M
Super conductors
Unit-IV
i) What are matter waves and derive the expression for K1
4 6M
wavelength of matter waves
a
ii)what is a wave function and Explain the significance K2
4 4M
5 of wave function
OR
i)Explain briefly the quantum free electron theory K2 4 5M
b ii)Derive the expression for electrical conductivity K3
4 5M
based on classical free electron theory
Unit-V
i) Describe the classification of solids on the basis K3
5 5M
a of Forbidden energy gap
ii)Derive Einstein’s equation in semiconductors K3 5 5M
6 OR
i) What are smart materials and write its application K1
5 5M
in various fields.
b
ii) Explain the principle of piezoelectric, K2
5 5M
magnetostrictive and Thermoelectric materials.
KL: Blooms Taxonomy Knowledge Level CO: Course Outcome M: Marks

***
 UNIT – I
Chapter – I: Lasers

Chapter – II: Fiber Optics

Course Outcome:

CO 1: Analyze the intensity variation of Laser light and its propagation in optical
fibers
 LASER
Introduction:-
The word “Laser” stands for “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation”

 Laser is outcome of “MASER”. It stands for “Microwave amplification and

Stimulated Emission of Radiation”.
 Laser Principle is extended up to X-Rays and Gamma rays. Gamma ray lasers
are called “GASERS”
 Laser is used many fields of science and technology like radio astronomy,
satellite communication, optical fiber communication, holography, data
processing, testing and welding of materials, medicine etc.

Characteristics of Lasers:-
Laser differs from conventional light source in a number of ways such as sun,
a flame or incandescent lamps. The most striking features of laser beam are

1. High Directional
2. High Intensity
3. High Monochromaticity
4. High Degree of Coherence

High Directionality:-

The conventional light sources emit light in all directions due to spontaneous
emission. On the other hand, laser emits light only in one direction due to stimulated
emission. The directionality of the laser beam is also expressed in terms of
r2 -r1
divergence. The divergence  = ,
d 2 -d1

Where r1 and r2 are the radai of laser beam spots at distance d1 and d2 respectively.

High Intensity:-

The laser gives out light into a narrow beam and its energy is concentrated in
a small region and has a great intensity.

Ex: 1 Watt of laser would appear many thousand times more intense than 100 watt
of ordinary lamp.

1
 So, laser light is intense light, because of all the emitted waves are in phase
or coherent. In coherent beam, the resultant intensity is the sum of individual
intensities and is proportional to na2

Where ‘n’ is the number of waves

‘a’ is the amplitude of each wave

High Monochromaticity:-
Laser light is a monochromatic light, because all the photons have the same
energy (E2-E1) above the ground state and they have the same frequency.
i.e hν = E2-E1
ν = E2-E1 / h
The laser source is the best monochromatic source.

High Degree of Coherence:-

The laser has a high degree of coherence, because all the photons or waves
are in phase. That is, purity of the spectral line is expressed in terms of coherence.
Due to its coherence only, it is possible to create high power in space with laser
beam.

Fundamental terms of lasers:-

1. Absorption
2. Spontaneous emission
3. Stimulated emission
4. Population Inversion

Absorption:-
The process of moving electron from ground state to excited state with the
supply of energy is known as “Absorption”.
(Or)
An atom (or) molecule in the ground state E1 can absorb a photon of energy
hν and go to the excited state E2. This process is known as “Absorption”

2
 Rate of Absorption = B12 ρ (ν) N1

Where B12 - Einstein coefficient of absorption

N1 - Concentration of electron in ground state

ρ (ν) – Energy density

Spontaneous emission:-
The emission of electron from excited state to the ground state on their own
without any supply of external energy is known as “Spontaneous emission”.

The excited atom does not remain in that state for a long time. After a short
interval of time i.e., 10-8 sec, it falls to its ground state by emitting a photon as shown
in figure.

Here the excited atoms jump back to its ground state on its own and hence
the process is called Spontaneous emission

i.e., Rate of Spontaneous emission = A21N2

Where A21 - Einstein coefficient of absorption

N2 - Concentration of electron in excited state

Stimulated emission:-
The emission of electron from the excited state to ground state with the
supply of external energy is known as stimulated emission.

3
The process of speeding up the atomic transition from the excited state to ground
state is called Stimulated emission.

Rate of Stimulated emission = B21 ρ (ν) N2

Where B21 - Einstein coefficient of absorption
N2 - Concentration of electron in excited state
ρ (ν) – Energy density

Difference between Spontaneous emission Stimulated emissions:-

Spontaneous emission Stimulated emissions

The emission of electron moving on The emission of electron from the

their own from excited state to ground excited state to ground state with the
state is known as Spontaneous emission supply of external energy is known as
stimulated emission.

It is non- directional It is highly directional

Spontaneous emission is in-coherent Stimulated emissions is coherent

Intensity of laser radiation is low. Intensity of laser radiation is high.

Spontaneous emission cannot be Stimulated emissions can be controlled

controlled from outside from outside

sodium lamp and mercury lamp are the Ruby laser and He-Ne gas lasers are the
examples of Spontaneous emission examples of Stimulated emissions

4
Population Inversion:-
Finding more number of electrons in higher energy level than lower energy
level is known as population inversion.

Population inversion is a pre

required condition in order to have laser
radiation. This population inversion can
be understood in terms of metastable
energy level.

Metastable State:-
The energy level which exits in between
ground state energy level and excited energy level is
known as metastable energy level.
Concentration of electron in the ground state
energy level N1 from Boltzmann statistics can be
given as
N1  N 0 e- (E1/K B T)

Concentration of electron in the excited state

energy level N2 from Boltzmann statistics can be
given as
N2  N0 e - (E 2 /K B T)

N2
 e  ( E2  E1 / K BT )
N1
N1
 e ( h / K BT )
N2
Where No - Equilibrium concentration of electron
KB - Boltzmann constant
T - Absolute temperature
Population inversion is not possible in two level systems; it can be
overcome by three levels and four level systems.
5
Einstein coefficient:-
The probability of spontaneous emission of radiation and probability of
stimulated emission of radiation under thermal equilibrium condition are obtained
by using Einstein coefficient.

Absorption:-
The process of moving electron from ground state to excited state with the
supply of energy is known as “Absorption”.

N12 = B12 ρ (ν) N1 ……… (1)

Spontaneous emission:-

The emission of electron from excited state to the ground state on their own
without any supply of external energy is known as “Spontaneous emission”.

U21= A21N2 ………. (2)

Stimulated emission:-

The emission of electron from the excited state to ground state with the
supply of external energy is known as stimulated emission.

N21= B21 ρ (ν) N2 ……. (3)

At thermal equilibrium: - Absorption = Emissions

B12 ρ (ν) N1 = A21N2 + B21 ρ (ν) N2 …………. (4)

A 21
 ( ) = …………… (5)
 N1 
B12    B21
 N2 
h
N1
 e KT …………. (6)
N2

A 21
 ( ) = ………….. (7) [ !B12 = B21]
 h 
B21  e KT  1
 

From the plank’s quantum theory of radiation

6
 1
4hn 3  h 
 ( ) = 3  e KT  1 ………….. (8)
  

Where n = Refractive Index of medium

h = Plank’s constant
λ = Wavelength.

From equation (7) and (8)

A21 4hn 3
 …………. (9)
B21 3

A21
 1 …….. (10)
B21

This results in stimulated emission; this will cause laser radiation.

Types of Lasers:-
Lasers are of different types basing on types basing on the type of active
medium that we have with the Laser. Some of the important lasers are

1. Solid state laser – Ruby laser

2. Gas laser – He-Ne gas laser

3. Semiconductor laser

Ruby Laser:-
The Ruby Laser namely called as “solid state laser”. This is being constructed
in the year 1960 by T.H. Maiman. It is a three-level laser system.

Ruby laser has the laser output to be in visible region. i.e. the output of ruby
laser is red in color. Ruby laser finds good number of applications in so many fields
like atmospheric sciences, engineering medicine and the technology.

Construction of Laser:-

Ruby laser can be identified by means of four important components. They

are

1. Energy source – Xenon flash tube

2. Active medium – Ruby rod

7
 3. Active centers – Cr3+ ions.

4. Reflecting mirrors – Polished opposite ends

A ruby laser consists of ruby rod

prepared out of Al2O3 with 0.05% of Cr2O3.
Cr3+ ions will act as active centers. The ruby
rod appears pink in color due to presence of
Cr3+ ions. The ends face of the rod is highly
polished and then silvered while the other
end face partially reflecting. The ruby rod is
enclosed in a glass tube and surrounded by
xenon flash lamp, which provides the suitable
light energy to raise the chromium ions to the
higher energy level. The flash tube not only
emits light but also emits heat, so a cooling system is
used.

Working Principle:-

The chromium ions are the active centers and

have three energy levels names as Ground state (GS),
Metastable state (MS) and excited state (E.S). initially
cr3+ ions are present in the ground state. When the
energy is applied with the xenon flash lamp, the cr3+ ions are moves from ground
state to excited state, which absorbs the light of wavelength 5600A⸰. The Cr3+ ions
are in excited state, it stays about of 10-8 sec and can return into two steps. The first
transition is from E2→E3 (Metastable state), which is a shorter jump and energy
emitted in this transition is not radiated in the form of photons and this transition is
call “non-radiative transition” (or) “Radiation less transition”. The accumulation of
atoms in E3 level increases, then after a short interval of time population inversion
is created between E3 and E1. Now the second transition is takes place from E3 →E1
by the process of stimulated emission. Hence it produces high intense light in red
color of wavelength 6943 A⸰ is emitted and it is produced in visible region.

Merits:-

1. The output of ruby laser falls in visible region

2. It can cause output only in one color (red)
3. The laser radiation is not harmful.

8
Demerits:-
1. The output of the Ruby laser is discontinuous

2. Intensity of laser radiation is very less

3. Unnecessary heat will be generated at active medium

4. Separate cooling arrangement is required

Gas Lasers (Helium – Neon Laser):-

He – Ne gas laser was the first gas laser constructed in the year 1961, by
scientist “Alijavan”. It also called as Four level laser system. This laser can cause
continuous laser beam . He – Ne gas laser finds good number of applications.

Construction:-

He – Ne gas laser consists of long narrow quartz tube of 80cm length and
1.5cm in diameter. This will get filled with He – Ne gas mixture taken in the ratio
10:1 with a pressure of about 1mm of mercury. Both ends of the tube are silvered.
One of them is partially silvered, so that sufficiently built laser beam passes through
it. A high frequency electric discharge, acts as a pumping source, to excite the He –
Ne mixture. Helium atoms help to achieve the population inversion by imparting
their energy to the Ne atoms. The reflecting mirrors are arranged at the opposite
ends of the quartz tube.

Working Principle:-

The working principle of He-Ne laser is shown in the below energy

level diagram. In helium there are three active energy levels namely He1, He2 and
He3. Where as in neon atoms Ne1, Ne2, Ne3, Ne4, Ne5 and Ne6. When electric
9
discharge is passed through the He – Ne mixture, electrons from the discharge
source collide with He – Ne atoms and thus transfer of their energy to these atoms.
As a result, He – Ne atoms are excited to higher state He2 and He3. But neon atoms
are remains in the ground state. The atoms stay longer time at He2 and He3 levels
which has a life time of 10-4 sec respectively. After completion of their life time
helium atoms return to the ground state and collide with the neon atoms which are
present in the ground state and excited to Ne4 and Ne6 levels. Therefore, the states
Ne4 and Ne6 of neon atoms acts as a meta stable state. As the energy exchange
continuous, the population of Ne atoms, in the excited states increases more and
more and population inversion takes place.

The He-Ne laser has mainly four prominent transitions, those are Ne6→Ne5,
Ne6→Ne3, Ne4 → Ne3, Ne3 → Ne2. For the transition Ne6→Ne5 releases the
electromagnetic radiation of wavelength 3.39 μm will be released. Whereas another
transition from Ne4 → Ne3, it releases 1.15 μm of energy is released. Another
transition is occurred by the process of stimulated emission from Ne6→Ne3 laser
light is emitted with a wavelength of 6328A˚. Now the atoms are present in Ne3 state
and returned to the ground state by process of spontaneous emission with a non-
radiative transition. After arriving ground state once again the Ne atoms are moving
to excited state by the collisions of the He atoms. This process is continuous and
continuous laser beam is produced.

Merits:-

1. No exchange heat can develop

2. We require no separate cooling arrangement
3. The output result will last for long time.

10
Semiconductor laser:
The semiconductor laser is also called junction laser. In semiconductor laser,
the laser radiation is highly monochromatic and highly directional. The
semiconductor laser differs from other lasers in several aspects. This semiconductor
lasers are mainly used as light sources in optical fiber communication.
The basic mechanism responsible for light emission for a semiconductor laser
is the recombination of electrons and holes at a P-N junction when a current is passed
through the diode. The wavelength of the emitted photons depends upon the band
gap of the material. Depending upon the formation of junction between the
semiconducting materials, these are classified into two types. Namely
1. Homojunction semiconductor laser
2. Heterojunction semiconductor laser
If the P-N junction is formed from the same semiconducting material, the
semiconductor laser is called homojunction semiconductor laser, where as the
junction is formed between two dissimilar semiconductors, the semiconductor laser
is called heterojunction semiconductor laser.
Construction:

A schematic diagram of homojunction semiconductor laser is shown in figure.

The diode is extremely small in size with sides of the order of 1mm. The junction
lies in a horizontal plane through the center. The top and bottom faces are metallized
and ohmic contacts are provided to pass current through the diode. The front and
rear faces which are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of the

11
junction are polished. The other two opposite faces are roughened to prevent lasing
action in that direction. The active region consists of layer of about 1 mm thickness.
As the refractive index of semiconductor is high, most of the radiation is reflected
at the semiconductor air interface. Therefore, no special reflection coating is done.
Working Principle:
The working principle is same for the homojunction and heterojunction
semiconductor lasers. The junction is forward biased by means of ohmic contacts
attached to the top and bottom faces as shown in above figure. When a current passes
through the junction, radiation is emitted at the junction due to the recombination of
the charge carriers. If the current density is sufficiently high, the population
inversion is created as shown in below figure.

The photon emitted initially travels along the junction layer causing further
recombination. In order to amplify the radiation, it has to travel back and forth within
the cavity resonator. The wavelength of the laser radiation of the semiconductor
laser depends upon the band gap. If Eg is the band gap of the semiconductor, then
wavelength of emitted radiation is

hc

Eg

where c is the velocity of light =3x108 m/s

h is the plank’s constant = 6.625x10-34 J-s
substituting the values of h and c in the above equation, then

12
 1.2
 m
Eg
At room temperature the light emitted by the laser has a wavelength about
9000A

Applications of Laser:-
Laser finds wide and variety of applications in various fields basing on
Directionality, Intensity, Monochromaticity and Coherence.
The applications of laser are wide spread over various scientific disciplines
such as physics, chemistry, biology, medicine etc. They have exciting potential
applications in industry, communication and warfare.
Lasers in Medicine:-
1. Laser radiation is often used in controlling hemorrhages.
2. Lasers are used in destroying kidney stones.
3. Lasers are used in ophthalmology to reattach a detached Retina.
4. They are used in cancer diagnosis and therapy and also stomotology.
Lasers in Industry/Engineering:-
1. They are used to blost holes in diamond and hard steel.
2. Lasers are used to test quality of a fabric.
3. It has been observed that finger prints on documents, current bills, cloths etc.
4. Laser cutting technology is widely used in the fabrication of Spacecrafts.
Lasers in Science and Research:-
1. Lasers are best suited for optical communication.
2. Lasers are used to study the internal structure of micro-organisms and cells.
3. Lasers are used for isotopic separation.
4. Lasers are used to produce certain chemical reactions.
5. Lasers have several applications in the field of computers.
6. To transmit memory blanks from one computer to another.
7. Laser is used in computer printers.
8. It is used to read the data from CD-ROM.

13
 FIBER OPTICS
Introduction:
Fiber optics is the branch of physics, which deals with the transmission of
light rays using optical fibers.

Optical Fiber:-
An optical fiber is a dielectric wave guide, which having high tensile strength,
which will be capable to transmitting the signals with no loss of energy.

(Or)

Optical Fibers are wave guide inside which light signals can travel.

 Optical Fiber causes the communication basing on the principal of “Total

Internal Reflection (TIR)”
 The optical fiber communication is being realized in terms of simple
observations of “Sir John Tyndoll” in the year
1857.
 According to these observations light rays can
be made to pass through narrow streams of
water coming out of small opening by “Total
Internal Reflection (TIR)”
 The optical fiber are being first utilized in the
year 1927 in U.S.A, for transmission of voice signals and it has began from
1957.
 Laser along with optical fibers have brought in so much of unprecedencial
development in the field of communication.

Structure of optical fiber:-

Optical Fiber is a very thin, narrow and flexible wire having a cylinder
shape consisting of three parts or sections.

1. Core
2. Cladding
3. Buffer (or) Sheath (or) Outer Jacket.

The structure of optical fiber is a shown in below figure

14
Core and cladding:-

The core is central part of optical fiber to facilitate the “Total Internal
Reflection (TIR)”. The core is made up of pure silica (SiO2) glass and its diameter
is ~50μm, which is surrounded by a cladding whose diameter is ~125μm. The
cladding is formed by the addition of small amounts of boron, germanium (or)
phosphorus in SiO2 glass to increase the refractive index of the core than cladding
to satisfy the condition of Total Internal Reflection.

Sheath:-

To protect the fiber material and also give mechanical support, there is a
protective cover called the Outer Jacket. It is made up of plastic material. In order
to avoid damages it acts as a protective cover.

The optical fiber will get basically prepared in terms of either the glass (or)
plastic material, depending on the way that we prepare the optical fiber. Optical fiber
can broadly into 3 types, they are

1. Glass – Glass Fiber

2. Glass – Plastic Fiber
3. Plastic – Plastic Fiber

Principal of Optical Fiber: - (Total Internal Reflection)

The light travels through optical fiber on the principle of “Total Internal
Reflection”

The Total Internal Reflection takes place only when the following two
conditions are satisfied.

15
 1. The refractive index of the core (n1) must be greater than that of the cladding
(n2).
2. The angle of incidence (θ) must be greater than the critical angle (θc).

When light ray travels from core of refractive index n1 to the cladding of
refractive index n2, refraction occurs. Since light travels from denser to rarer
medium, the angle of refraction is greater than the angle of incidence, which is
shown in figure (a).

With the increase in angle of incidence, the angle of refraction also increases,
and for a particular angle of incidence (θ=θc) the refracted ray simply passes through
the interface between the core and cladding. That angle we called it a critical angle,
which is shown in figure (b).

When the angle of incidence is further increased the ray is reflected back into
the core. This phenomenon is called “Total Internal Reflection”

According to law of refraction n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 ………. (1)

When θ1 = θc

θ2 = 90˚ Therefore n1 sin θc = n2 sin 90

n2
 sin c = ......... (2)
n1
 n2 
c = sin -1   ......... (3)
 n1 
From equation (3) is the condition for “Total Internal Reflection”

“The reflection of light rays into the same medium, when the light rays are made
to pass from denser medium to rarer medium with an angle of incidence greater than
the critical angle is known as “Total Internal Reflection”.

16
Acceptance angle:-
When a light beam launched into a fiber
at its one end, the entire light may not pass
through the core, only the rays make the
angle of incidence greater than the critical
angle at the core, cladding interface undergo
“Total Internal Reflection” and propagate through core. The other rays are refracted
into the cladding material and are lost. Hence it is essential to know at what angle
known as “Acceptance angle”. We have launched the beam at its end to enable the
entire light to propagate through the core.

The light is launched form a medium (air) of refractive index n0 (`1) into core
of refractive index n1. The ray enters with an angle of incidence αi to the fiber end
face at a point “A” and proceeds after refraction at an angle αr. Then it undergoes
total internal reflection at “B” on core wall at an angle of incidence “θ”.

According to Snell’s law, we have Sin  i n

 1 ............ (1)
Sin  r n0
n1
Sin  i = Sin  r
n0

From le ABC   r  (90- )

n1
 Sin  i = cos  ............ (2)
n0

αi be the maximum possible angle of incidence at “A”, when θ=θc

The equation (2) can be written as

n1
 Sin  i (max) = cos  c ............ (3)
n0

 cos  c = 1- Sin 2  c n2
∵ sin  c =
n 22 n1
= 1-
n 12
n12 -n 2 2
= ......... (4)
n 12

17
Substitute equation (4) in equation (3)

n1 n12 -n 2 2
sin  i (max) =
n0 n12

n n12 -n 2 2
= 1
n0 n1

n12 -n 2 2
=
n0
! Here n0 is refractive index of air (n0) = 1.

sin  i (max) = n12 -n 2 2

 i (max) = sin-1  n12 -n 2 2 

Thus “maximum angle αi is called “acceptance angle”.

Acceptance Cone:-
Rotating the acceptance angle about the
fiber axis describes the acceptance cone of the
fiber. Half angle is called acceptance cone.

Numerical Aperture (NA):-

Light collecting capacity o the fiber is expressed in terms of Numerical
aperture (Or)

Light gathering ability of an optical fiber in order to propagate through it is

known as “Numerical Aperture” (Or)

Sine of maximum acceptance angle is known as “Numerical Aperture”

i.e. Numerical Aperture = sin  i (max) = n12 -n 22 ……….. (1)

18
 n12 -n 2 2
Let  = ........... (2)
2n12
 n12 -n 2 2 = 2n12 
n12 -n 2 2 = n1 2 ........... (3)

Substituting equation (3) in eq (1)

NA = n1 2
∆ is the fractional difference between the refractive indices of the core and
cladding known as fractional refractive index change.

The Numerical Aperture of the fiber is effectively depending on the refractive

indices of core and cladding material, but not on the fiber dimensions. The value of
numerical aperture ranges from 0.13 to 0.50.

Types of Optical Fibers:

Based on the variation of refractive index of core of an optical fiber, fibers
are classified into two types

1. Step Index optical fiber

2. Graded Index optical fiber

Again, based on the number of paths (modes) available for the light rays
inside the core, these optical fibers are further divided into two types,

1. Single Mode optical fiber

2. Multimode optical fiber

Single Mode optical fiber:

The number of modes that the fiber supports

depends on the dimensions of the fiber. If the thickness of
the fiber is so small then it supports only one mode, then
the fiber is Mono-mode (or) Single mode fiber. The Mono-
mode fiber has very small core diameter of the order of 2-8 µm.

19
 In single mode optical fiber, the width (or) diameter of the core is smaller
when compared to the width of the cladding. As a result, only a single path (mode)
is available for the light ray through the fiber.

Multi-Mode optical fiber:

If the fiber supports more than one mode then it is called multimode fiber.
The core diameter of the multimode fiber is of the order of 50 µm.

When the width of the core is greater than the cladding, then large numbers
of paths (modes) are available for the light ray through the fiber and also known as
multimode optical fiber.

Step Index optical fiber:

Single mode step Index optical fiber:

In these fibers the entire core has uniform. i.e. refractive index of the core
remain constant throughout the core. The refractive index core (n1) slightly greater
than the refractive index of the cladding (n2), with a step refractive index profile at
interference of core-cladding is known as “Step-Index optical fiber”.

The transmission of information will be in the form of signals (or) pulses.

Forma single-mode, step-index optical fiber, a single light ray from the signal
enters into the fiber and transverses a single path and forms the output signal. In this
case, two signals match with each other,

20
Multi-mode step index optical fiber:

Due to large width of core, greater number of light rays from the input signals enters
into the core and takes multipath as shown in figure.

 The light ray (1) which makes greater angle with the fiber axis suffers more
reflections through the fiber and takes more time to transverse the optical
fiber.

 The light ray (2) makes less angle with the axis, suffers less reflections and
within a short time, it transverse the optical fiber.

 At the output end we receive ray (2) first, later we get ray (1).

 Due to the path difference between the light rays when they superimpose to
form the output signals, the signals are overlapped.

 In this, we get signal distortion, known as “Intermodal dispersion”

 In a step- index fiber, the propagation of light rays is due multiple reflections.
So, it is of reflective type.

Graded Index multimode fiber:

In Graded index fibers, the refractive index of the core varies continuously. It
starts increases from one end of the core diameter and arraigns a maximum at the
center. Again, refractive index value increases as moves away from the center
towards another end of the core diameter. This type of fibers transmits signals
effectively.

 In Graded index optical fiber, the refractive index of the core decreases from
the fiber axis to the cladding interface in a “Parabolic manner”. When a light

21
 ray enters into the core and moves towards the cladding interface, it
encounters a more and more rare medium due to decrease of refractive index.

 As a result, the light ray bends more away from the normal and finally bends
towards the axis and moves the axis and moves the core – cladding interface
at the bottom. Again, it bends in upwards direction.

 Thus, the light due to refractive takes sinusoidal paths. i.e this fiber is a
refractive type.

 When two light rays (1) and (2) making different angles with the axis enter
into the fiber, they adjust their velocities (due to variation of refractive index)
and come to focus at the same point.

 As a result, all the light rays will be received at the output end at the same
time. There is no intermodal dispersion and output signals match with input
signals. It is easy to retrieve the information from the signals.

Applications of optical fiber:

1. Extremely wide band width, the rate at which information can be transmitted
is directly related tp signals frequency. Light has very high frequency in the
range 1014 to 1015 Hz. So, the optical signal can transmit information at a
higher rate.

2. Smaller diameter, light weight cables.

3. Lack of cross talk between parallel fibers.

4. Potential of delivering signals at low cost

5. Much safer than copper cables.

6. Longer life span

7. High temperature resistance

8. Optical fibers are more reliable and easier to maintain than copper cables.

22
 UNIT-I

Short answer questions on LASERS

1. What is the acronym of Laser

“Laser” stands for “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation”

2. What are the characteristics of Laser light.

Characteristics of Lasers are
1. High Directional
2. High Intensity
3. High Monochromaticity
4. High Degree of Coherence

2. What is Population inversion.

Population inversion is the necessary condition for stimulated emission. It
is defined as the process at which Finding a greater number of electrons in
higher energy level compared to the lower energy level is known as
population inversion

3. Define spontaneous and stimulated emission.

Spontaneous emission: The emission of electron from excited state to the
ground state on their own without any supply of external energy is known as
“Spontaneous emission”.
Stimulated emission: The emission of electron from the excited state to
ground state with the supply of external energy is known as stimulated
emission.

23
4. Define Metastable state.
The energy level which exits in between ground state and excited state is
known as metastable energy level.
5. Mention any two conditions for getting lasers.
Conditions for getting lasers are
1. Population Inversion
2. Stimulated emission

6. Write any 4 applications of lasers

1. Lasers are used in cancer diagnosis and therapy and also stomatology
2. They are used to blost holes in diamond and hard steel
3. Lasers are best suited for optical communication
4. Lasers have several applications in the field of computers

Short answer questions on FIBER OPTICS

1. Write a short note on structure of optical fiber

Optical Fiber is a very thin, narrow and flexible wire having a

cylinder shape consisting of three parts or sections.

4. Core
5. Cladding
6. Buffer (or) Sheath (or) Outer Jacket.

2. What is the principle of optical fiber

“Total Internal Reflection” is the principle of optical fiber

3. Define critical angle and Acceptance angle

Critical angle: the angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90
degrees is called critical angle.
Acceptance angle: The maximum angle at (or) below which the light can
suffer total internal reflection is called as acceptance angle.
24
4. Define Acceptance Cone and Numerical Aperture
Acceptance Cone: Rotating the acceptance angle about the fiber axis
describes the acceptance cone of the fiber. Half angle is called acceptance
cone.
Numerical Aperture: Sine of maximum acceptance angle is known as
Numerical Aperture

5. write any 4 applications of optical fibers

1. Smaller diameter, light weight cables.
2. Lack of cross talk between parallel fibers.
3. Much safer than copper cables.
4. Longer life span
5. High temperature resistance
6. Optical fibers are more reliable and easier to maintain than copper cables.

6. Classify different types of Fibers

Based on the variation of refractive index of core of an optical fiber,
fibers are classified into two types

3. Step Index optical fiber

4. Graded Index optical fiber

Again, based on the number of paths (modes) available for the light
rays inside the core, these optical fibers are further divided into two types,

3. Single Mode optical fiber

4. Multimode optical fiber

25
 Problems on Fiber Optics

1. A glass fiber has core material of refractive index 1.466, cladding material
of refractive index 1.46. If it is surrounded by air medium, compute the
critical angle at the core-cladding interface.

Sol: Given that

The refractive index of core n1= 1.466

The refractive index of cladding n2= 1.46

We know that critical angle

 n2 
 c  sin 1  
 n1 
 1.46 
 c  sin 1   84.81
 1.466 
The critical angle at the core-cladding interface θc=84.81.

2. An optical fiber has a core material of refractive index of 1.55 and cladding
material of refractive index 1.50. The light is launched into it in air. Calculate
its numerical aperture.
Sol: Given that

The refractive index of core n1= 1.55

The refractive index of cladding n2= 1.50

n12  n2 2
NA 
n0
For air medium n0=1

NA  n12  n2 2
= 1.552 -1.502
= 0.39

The numerical aperture of an optical fiber, NA=0.39.

26
3. The numerical aperture of an optical fiber is 0.39. if the fractional refractive
index change of the material of its core and cladding is 0.05, calculate the
refractive index of the material of the core.
Sol: Given that

The numerical aperture of an optical fiber, NA=0.39

Fractional refractive index change Δ=0.05

NA  n1 2 
NA 0.39
n1 =   1.233
2 2x0.05
The refractive index of the material of the core, n1=1.233.

4. Calculate the acceptance angle and the numerical aperture of a given optical
fiber. If the refractive indices of core and cladding are 1.563 and 1.498
responsibility.
Sol: Given that

The refractive index of core n1= 1.563

The refractive index of cladding n2= 1.498

We know that the expression for Numerical aperture is

NA  n12  n2 2
= 1.5632 -1.4982  0.4461

The numerical aperture of an optical fiber, NA=0.4461

We know that the expression for Numerical aperture is

sin  c   
n12  n2 2  NA

 c =sin (NA)
-1

 c =sin -1 (0.4461)=26.49

The acceptance angle of the optical fiber θc=26.49.

27
5. The numerical aperture of optical fiber is 0.2 when surrounded by air. Given
the refractive index of the cladding is 1.59. Find the acceptance angle when
the fiber is in water. Assume the f=refractive index of water as 1.33.

Sol: Given that

The numerical aperture of an optical fiber NA=0.2

The refractive index of cladding n2= 1.59

The refractive index of water n0= 1.33

We know that the numerical aperture of optical fiber is

n12  n2 2
NA 
n0
For air medium n0=1, then
NA  n12  n2 2
n12 = (NA) 2 +n2 2
= (0.2) 2 +(1.59) 2
= 1.602

We know that the expression for acceptance angle

 n2 n 2 
 a  sin 1  1 2

 n0 
 
 (1.602)2  (1.59) 2
1

 a  sin    8.46
 1.33 
 

The acceptance angle of the fiber in water θa=8.46

28
 UNIT – II
Chapter – I: Crystallography

Chapter – II: X-ray diffraction

Course Outcome:

CO 2: Familiarize with the basics of crystals and their structures

 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
Introduction:
Matter is available in the universe in different forms; those are Solids,
Liquids and Gases.

Solids: - A Solid consists of a large number of closely packed atoms or

molecules. Solids are classified into two categories based on the arrangement of
atoms. They are 1. Crystalline Solids
2. Amorphous solids
Crystalline Solids:-
In Crystalline Solids atoms or
molecules are arranged in a regular
manner. The Crystalline Solids have
directional property; hence they are
called as anisotropic substances.
Amorphous solids:-
In Amorphous solids atoms or
molecules are arranged in a random
manner. The Amorphous solids have
no directional property; hence they
are called as isotropic substances.

Crystal:-
Crystal is a transparent material, which has the regular periodic array of
atoms.

Fundamental terms of Crystal structure:-

Space Lattice:- Space Lattice is
nothing but a lattice, but it will have
similar environment to see with
reference lattice point is called Space
Lattice.

29
 Basis: - Lattice point with one or more
atoms.
(or)
Group of atoms is called Basis

Unit cell: - The fundamental block of a

crystal structure is known as Unit Cell.

Lattice parameters: - Lattice parameters are six in numbers. They are Three are Primitives
and Three are inter axial / inter facial angles. a, b, c and α, β, δ are known as lattice
Parameters. From these lattice parameters we can find out the external structural of the
crystal.

Lattice: - The regular periodic array of atoms is called Lattice

Crystal Structure: - Lattice + Basis = Crystal Structure.

Crystallographic axis: - A line is drawn to touch the Three faces of unit cell is called
Crystallographic axis.

Inter axial / Inter facial angles: - The angular inclination varies between crystallographic
axis is called Inter axial / Inter facial angles.

Primitive cell or Simple cell: - The primitive cell is defined as a unit cell which contains
lattice points at corners only. Such cell contains effectively one lattice point per cell i.e. one
lattice point is associated with each primitive cell.

Non-primitive cell: - If a unit cell contains more than one lattice point then it is called non-
primitive cell (or) multiple cell.

Crystal systems and Bravasis Lattice:-

Crystals are classified into seven systems on the basis of the shape of the
unit cell or lattice parameters, angles of the unit cell.

The seven crystal systems are classified in to 14 different types of unit

cell. Those 14 types of systems are called Bravasis Lattice.

30
 Types of No. Of
Crystal Lattice
S.No Bravasis Bravasis Figure
systems parameters
Lattice Lattice

1. Cubic a=b=c P 3
α=β=δ=90˚ I
F

2. Tetragonal a=b≠c P 2
α=β=δ=90˚ I

3. Orthorhombic a≠b≠c P 4
α=β=δ=90˚ I
F
C

4. Mono Clinic a≠b≠c P 2

α=β=90˚≠ δ C

5. Tri Clinic a≠b≠c P 1

α≠β≠δ≠90˚

6. Rhombohedral a=b=c P 1
α=β=δ≠90˚

7. Hexagonal a=b≠c P 1
α=β =90˚
δ =120˚

Bravasis 14
Lattice

31
The classification of Bravasis lattice is based on the following crystal lattice

1. Primitive Cell (P): - In this lattice, the unit cell consists of eight corner
atoms and all these corner atoms contributes only one effective atom.

2. Body Centered Lattice (I):- In addition to the eight corner atoms, it

consists of an extra atom at the center of the body.

3. Face Centered Lattice (F):- Along with corner atoms, each face will
have one center atom.

4. Base Centered Lattice (C):- Along with corner atoms, Base and
opposite face will have center atom.

Simple Cubic Structure:

Simple cubic structure consists of 8
corners and 6 faces. All corners of the
unit cell are touch with one another.

1. Effective number of atoms:-

The total number of atoms considering the corner atoms is called
Effective number of atoms.
1
Total number of atoms and Corner atoms = 8 X  1
8

2. Nearest neighboring distance(a):-

The distance between two nearest
neighboring atoms is known as nearest
neighboring distance.
The nearest neighboring distance for Simple Cubic is
a = 2r
3. Atomic Radius (r):-

Atomic Radius is the half of the distance between the atoms.

Atomic Radius r = a/2.

4. Coordination Number(N):-
The number of equidistant neighboring atoms is called
Coordination Number.
32
 Coordination Number for Simple cubic structure = 6
5. Atomic Packing Factor(APF):-

Atomic Packing Factor is defined as the total volume occupied by

the unit cell to the volume of the unit cell.
 No.of atoms present in a unit cell X volume of one atom

V volume of the unit cell
4
  volume of one atom =  r 3
3
V  volume of unit cell = a = (2r)3 = 8r
3

1
Number of atoms present in unit cell = X8 1
8
4 3
 No.of atoms present in a unit cell X volume of one atom
1X r 
  3  ≃ 0.52(or )52%
V volume of the unit cell 8r 3 6

Thus 52% of the volume of the simple cubic structure is occupied

by the atoms. Hence it is loosely packed structure.

Body Centered Cubic Structure:

Body centered cubic structure
consists of 6 faces and 8 corners atoms
along with one body centered atom. All
corners atoms will be touch with one
another via body centered atom.
1. Effective number of atoms:-
The total number of atoms considering the corner atoms and center
atoms is called Effective number of atoms.
1
Total number of atoms and Corner atoms = 8 X  1  2
8
2. Nearest neighboring distance(a):-
The distance between two nearest neighboring
atoms is known as nearest neighboring distance.

33
 consider le ABD
 AB2 =AD 2 +DB2 =a 2 +a 2 =2a 2
consider le ABC
 AC 2  AB 2  BC 2
(4r ) 2  2a 2  a 2
16 2 4
16r 2  3a 2  a2 = r  a= r
3 3

3. Atomic Radius (r):-

Atomic Radius is the half of the distance between the atoms.

3
Atomic Radius r = r = a
4

4. Coordination Number(N):-
The number of equidistant neighboring atoms is called
Coordination Number.
Coordination Number for Simple cubic structure = 8

5. Atomic Packing Factor(APF):-

Atomic Packing Factor is defined as the total volume occupied by

the unit cell to the volume of the unit cell.
 No.of atoms present in a unit cell X volume of one atom

V volume of the unit cell
4 3
  volume of one atom = r
3
4 3
V  volume of unit cell = a 3 = ( r)
3
1
Number of atoms present in unit cell = X 8 1  2
8

4
2 X  r3
3  3
  ≃ 0.68(or )68%
64 3 8
r
3 3

Thus 68% of the volume of the Body centered cubic structure is

occupied by the atoms. Hence it is closely packed structure.

34
Face Centered Cubic Structure:
Face centered cubic structure
consists of 8 corners and 6 faces along
with six face centered atom.

1. Effective number of atoms:-

The total number of atoms considering the corner atoms and center
atoms is called Effective number of atoms.
1 1
Total number of atoms and Corner atoms = 8 X  6 X  4
8 2

2. Nearest neighboring distance(a):-

The distance between two nearest
neighboring atoms is known as nearest
neighboring distance.
consider le ABC
 AC 2  AB 2  BC 2
(4r ) 2  a 2  a 2
16r 2  2a 2  a 2 = 8r 2
 a=2 2r
3. Atomic Radius (r):-

Atomic Radius is the half of the distance between the atoms.

a
Atomic Radius r = r =
2 2

4. Coordination Number(N):-
The number of equidistant neighboring atoms is called
Coordination Number.
Coordination Number for Simple cubic structure = 12

5. Atomic Packing Factor(APF):-

Atomic Packing Factor is defined as the total volume occupied by

the unit cell to the volume of the unit cell.
 No.of atoms present in a unit cell X volume of one atom

V volume of the unit cell

35
 4 3
  volume of one atom = r
3
V  volume of unit cell = a 3 = (2 2r)3 =16 2r 3
1 1
Number of atoms present in unit cell = X 8  6 X  4
8 2
4
4 X  r3
3 
 3
 ≃ 0.74(or )74%
16 2r 3 2

Thus 74% of the volume of the Face centered cubic structure is

occupied by the atoms. Hence it is very closely packed structure.

36
 X-RAY DIFFRACTION
Introduction:-
X- Rays are electromagnetic waves. The wavelength of X- Rays is of the
order of 1A˚.

 X- Rays are produced, when fast moving electron hit the target (or)
material then it produces the radiation. These radiations are considered as
X- Rays.
 X- Rays Diffraction is defined as bending of X- Rays around the
obstacle.
 The X- Rays Diffraction occurs the size of the obstacle must be
compared with the wavelength of radiation.
 X- Rays of wavelength is less than size of the obstacle it cannot produce
X- Rays Diffraction.

Miller Indices:-
The set of parallel planes are represented by certain numbers is called as
Miller Indices.
(Or)
There are smallest possible integers taken out of reciprocal of the intercepts
made by crystal planes along three crystal axis.

Rules to find Miller Indices:-

1. Note intercepts made by the crystal planes along three crystal axis.
2. Take a coordinator of the intercepts made by the planes.
3. Find the inverse of the coordinates.
4. Multiplying with the LCM in order to have proper integer value.
5. Keep the value thus obtained in the parent.

i. 3a 2b 2c
ii. 3 2 2
1 1 1
iii.
3 2 2
1 1 1
iv. X6 X6 X6
3 2 2
V (2 3 3)

37
  Miller Indices can be generally represented as (h k l)
 The crystal direction can be represented as [h k l]
Important points of Miller Indices:-
1. Miller Indices always represented as parallel planes in crystals.
2. Miller Indices of the parallel crystal planes would be one and same.
3. Any plane passing parallel to any of the crystal axis will leave an at
infinity. Then the miller indices value will be taken as zero.
4. If (h k l) are the Miller Indices of a crystal planes than the
crystallographic intercepts made by the planes can be taken as a/h, b/k,
c/l.
5. Miller indices can be used to find the inter planner distance of separation
between the crystal planes.
a
Inter planner distance of separation d 
h  k2  l2
2

6. The angular inclination between the crystal direction of [U1, V1, W1] and
[U2,V2, W2] can be given as
U1U 2  VV
1 2  WW
cos   1 2

U I 2  V12  W12 U 2 2  V2 2  W2 2

Distance of separation between successive (h k l) Planes:-

In figure OX, OY and OZ are orthogonal axis.

The origin is ‘O’. Consider any set of crystal planes
represented by miller indices (h k l), the reference
plane passing through the origin “o”, the next plane
cutting the intercepts a/h, b/k, c/l on X, Y, Z axis
respectively.

i.e OA = a/h
OB = b/k
OC = c/l

A normal “ON” is drawn to the plane ABC from the origin. The length of
this from the origin to the plane will be the interplanar separation.

38
Let α, β and δ is the angles made by On with X, Y and Z directions respectively.
ON d
cos  = 
OA a/h
ON d
cos  =  …………………….. (1)
OB b/k
ON d
cos  = 
OC c/l

The law of direction cosines is represented as

cos 2   cos 2   cos 2   1 ……………………….. (2)

Substituting the values from equation (1) in equation (2)

2 2 2
 d   d   d 
 a / h    b / k    c / l   1
 h2 k 2 l 2 
d2  2  2  2  1
a b c 
 
 1 
d2   2 2 2 
h k  l 
 a 2 b 2 c 2 
1
The Interplanar distance of separation is given by d
h k 2 l2
2
 
a 2 b2 c 2
The above equation is known as general equation for interplanar separation
for any set of planes. In Cubic system, as we know that a=b=c, then the expression
becomes equal to
a
d
h2  k 2  l 2

Bragg’s Law:-

Bragg’s law is known as one of the fundamental law of crystal

physics. This is being invented by W.H. Bragg and his son W.L. Bragg in the
year 1913. This law is being awarded with Nobel Prize in the year 1915. This
Bragg’s law enables us to have the complete structure of crystal.

39
 Consider a set of parallel planes
PQ, RS, TU separated by a distance “d”.
Let AB and DE be the incident beam of
X-Rays, BC and EF are the diffracted
beam of X-Rays.
Let θ be the Braggs angle(Or) Glancing
angle. Let BG and BH be the normal drawn to
BE and EF respectively.
From figure we have GBE   , EBH  
The path difference between the diffracted beams of X-Rays can be given as
∆=GE+EH ………… (1)
GE GE
From the le GBE  sin  = 
BE d
 GE = d sin  ..........(2)
EH EH
Similarlly from thele EBH  sin  = 
BE d
 EH = d sin  ..........(3)

Substituting equation (2) and (3) in Equation (1)

∆ = d sin θ + d sin θ
= 2d sin θ ………. (4)
The condition for the constructive interference of diffracted beam of X-Rays is
equal to “nλ”
∆ = nλ ……….. (5)
From equation (4) and (5)
2d sin θ = nλ
The Bragg’s Law states that “The Path difference between the diffracted light
rays is an integral multiple of the Wavelength “λ”.

Limiting conditions for Bragg’s law:-

From Bragg’s law 2d sin  = n
n
We know that Sin   1 sin  =
2d
n
  1
2d
 n  2d
For first order diffraction n=1,
   2d

This is the limitation on wavelength of X-rays to diffraction

40
Important Crystal Planes of Cubic Crystal Systems:-
There are three important crystal planes in the cubic crystal system. They
are (100), (110), (111). This can be represented as,

1. (100)
Indices - ( 100)
Intercepts - (a/h, b/k, c/l)
For Cubic Unit Cell a=b=c=1
(1/1 1/0 1/0) = (1 α α) = (1 0 0)

2. (110)
Indices - ( 110)
Intercepts - (a/h, b/k, c/l)
For Cubic Unit Cell a=b=c=1
(1/1 1/1 1/0) = (1 1 α) = (1 1 0)

3. (111)
Indices - ( 111)
Intercepts - (a/h, b/k, c/l)
For Cubic Unit Cell a=b=c=1
(1/1 1/1 1/1) = (1 1 1)

4. (010)
Indices - ( 010)
Intercepts - (a/h, b/k, c/l)
For Cubic Unit Cell a=b=c=1
(1/0 1/1 1/0) = (0 1 0)

41
5. (0 0 1)
Indices - ( 0 0 1)
Intercepts - (a/h, b/k, c/l)
For Cubic Unit Cell a=b=c=1
(1/0 1/0 1/1) = (0 0 1)

6. (0 1 1)
Indices - ( 0 0 1)
Intercepts - (a/h, b/k, c/l)
For Cubic Unit Cell a=b=c=1
(1/0 1/1 1/1) = (0 1 1)

7. (1 0 1)
Indices - ( 1 0 1)
Intercepts - (a/h, b/k, c/l)
For Cubic Unit Cell a=b=c=1
(1/1 1/0 1/1) = (1 0 1)

8. ( 1 0 1)
The Miller Indices can be
positive as well as negative. The
negative Miller Indices can be
represented as ( 1 0 0)

9. Indices - ( 1 2 3)
Intercepts -
1 1 1
 
1 2 3 
1 1 1 
 X6 X 6 X 6
1 2 3 
 6 3 2

42
 10. Indices - ( 1 0 2)
1 1 1 
Intercepts -  1 0 2 
1 0 2 

Laue Method:
The Laue method is used for determination of the structure of a single
crystal. The experimental arrangement of Laue method is shown in below figure.
It consists of source of X-Rays, Pin hole collimator, crystal and photographic
plate.

The X-rays are produces from the X-ray source of wavelength 0.2 to 2A⸰,
which are allowed to pass through the slits S1 & S2 to become of fine sharp beam.
This beam is allowed to incident on a crystal placed in a crystal holder. After
passing through the crystal x-rays are diffracted and recorded on a photographic
plate because the x-rays penetrate into crystal and scattered from different atomic
diffraction centers. this is possible because of the range of wavelength in the
continuous spectrum and to satisfying the Bragg’s condition 2d sinθ = nλ.
The diffraction pattern consists of a central spot surrounded by concentric
circular spots as shown in the figure. The symmetrical pattern of spot is known
as Laue pattern. Each spot in the Laue pattern corresponds to an interference
maximum for a set of crystal planes to satisfying the Bragg’s condition.

43
 From this method it is impossible to find the lattice constant and interplanar
spacing. The Laue method is useful for the determination of crystal orientation,
symmetry and also the study the crystalline imperfections.

The Laue method is used for the determination of structure of single

crystals only. There are many materials for which it is impossible to obtain single
crystal of required size. For such materials powder photography is highly suitable.

Powder Method:
The powder method is an X-ray diffraction technique used to study the
structure of tiny crystallites in the form of powder. This method gives the
information regarding the size and orientations of the crystallites in the powder.
This method developed by Debye and Scherrer in Germany, also known as Debye
and Scherrer method.

44
 The experimental arrangement of powder method is shown in above figure.
It consists of a cylindrical camera, whose length is small when compared to the
diameter. The powdered sample is filled in capillary tube and mounted at the
center of the camera. The x-rays are allowed to pass through a filter to emit a
monochromatic beam and is passes through a slits S1 and S2 to become a fine and
sharp beam. The x-rays are entered through the collimator and strike the
powdered sample. It contains a large number of tiny crystallites with random
orientations with all possible values of λ and d. the diffraction takes place for the
values of d and θ, which satisfy the Bragg’s condition, i.e., 2dsinθ=nλ. The
diffracted rays corresponding to the fixed value of θ and d lie on the surface of a
cone with its apex at the sample and the semi vertical angle 2θ.

The transmitted x-rays move out of the camera through an exit hole located
opposite to the entrance hole. A photographic film is attached to the inner side of
the curved surface of the camera. Each cone of the reflected beam leaves two
impressions on the film, which are in the form of arcs on either side of the exit
hole with their centers coinciding with the holes. The film is exposed for a few
hours in order to obtain arcs of sufficiently high intensity. Then it is removed
from the camera and developed. The circular arcs are observed on the film as
shown in figure.

From the figure, the angle θ corresponding to a particular pair of arcs is

related to the distance S between the arcs.
S  180  57.296 S
 4 (degrees)   
R   R
Using the above expression, θ can be calculated. Then the interplanar
spacing for various sets of parallel planes can be evaluated from the Bragg’s law
as fallows

d
2sin 

Knowing all the parameters, crystal structure can be determined.

45
 UNIT-II

Short questions on CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

1. Distinguish between crystalline solids and amorphous solids

Crystalline Solids: -
In Crystalline Solids atoms or molecules are
arranged in a regular manner. The Crystalline
Solids have directional property; hence they are
called as anisotropic substances.

Amorphous solids: -
In Amorphous solids atoms or molecules are
arranged in a random manner. The Amorphous solids
have no directional property; hence they are called as
isotropic substances.
2. Define the terms Space lattice, Basis
Space Lattice: Space Lattice is nothing but a lattice, but it will have
similar environment to see with reference lattice point is called Space
Lattice.
Basis: Lattice point with one or more atoms. (or) Group of atoms is
called Basis
3. Define the terms Unit Cell and lattice parameter.
Unit cell: The fundamental block of a crystal structure is known as Unit
Cell.
Lattice parameters: Lattice parameters are six in numbers. They are
Three are Primitives and Three are inter axial / inter facial angles. a, b, c
and α, β, δ are known as lattice Parameters. From these lattice parameters
we can find out the external structural of the crystal.

46
4. Define Coordination Number.
The number of equidistant of nearest neighbouring atoms is called
Coordination Number.

5. Define Atomic Packing Factor (APF)

Atomic Packing Factor is defined as the total volume occupied by the unit
cell to the volume of the unit cell.

 No.of atoms present in a unit cell X volume of one atom


V volume of the unit cell

Short questions on X-RAY DIFFRACTION

1. Define Miller Indices

The set of parallel planes are represented by certain numbers is called as
Miller Indices.

2. Write any two properties of Miller Indices.

1. Miller Indices always represented as parallel planes in crystals.
2. Miller Indices of the parallel crystal planes would be one and same.
3. Any plane passing parallel to any of the crystal axis will leave an at
infinity. Then the miller indices value will be taken as zero.
4. If (h k l) are the Miller Indices of a crystal planes than the
crystallographic intercepts made by the planes can be taken as a/h, b/k,
c/l.

3. State Bragg’s Law

The Bragg’s Law states that “The Path difference between the diffracted
light rays is an integral multiple of the Wavelength “λ”.

4. Write the equation for separation between successive (hkl) planes

47
 a
d
h  k 2  l2
2

5. What are the uses of Laue Method and Powder Method.

The Laue method is used for determination of the structure of a single
crystal.
The powder method is an X-ray diffraction technique used to study the
structure of tiny crystallites in the form of powder.
6. Draw (100) and (110) planes.

11. (100)
Indices - ( 100)
Intercepts - (a/h, b/k, c/l)
For Cubic Unit Cell a=b=c=1
(1/1 1/0 1/0) = (1 α α) = (1 0 0)

12. (110)
Indices - ( 110)
Intercepts - (a/h, b/k, c/l)
For Cubic Unit Cell a=b=c=1
(1/1 1/1 1/0) = (1 1 α) = (1 1 0)

48
 Problems on XRD

1. Show that in a simple cubic lattice the separation between the successive
lattice planes (100), (110) and (111) are in the ratio of 1:0.71:0.58.
Or
Calculate the ratio d (100): d (110): d (111) for a simple cubic structure.
Sol: Given that

The three planes are (100), (110) and (111)

We know that the expression for interplanar spacing for a cubic crystal

 a 
d ( hkl )  
2 
 h k l 
2 2

 a 
d (100)   a
 1 0 0
2 2 2

 a  a
d (110)   
2 
 1 1  0 
2 2
2
 a  a
d (111)   
 1 1 1
2 2 2
 3

a a
Hence d (100) : d (110) : d (111)  a : :
2 3
1 1
=1: :
2 3
1 1
= 6 : 3 : 2  1: :
1.414 1.732

2. In a tetragonal lattice a=b=2.5A, c=1.8A. deduce the value of interplanar

separation for planes given by (111).
Sol: Given that a=b=2.5A, c=1.8A

49
 We know that the expression for interplanar spacing for any lattice
1
1 d ( hkl ) 
2
d (111)   1.26 A h k 2 l2
1 1 1  
  a 2 b2 c 2
(2.5) (2.5) (1.8)2
2 2

The interplanar separation for (111) planes is d=1.26Aᵒ

3. Calculate the interplanar separation for a plane of simple cubic structure
whose Miller indices are (321). Assume lattice constant as 4.2x10-10
meter.
Sol: Given that

Lattice constant a= 4.2x10-10meter

We know that the expression for interplanar separation for a cubic

structure

 a 
d ( hkl )  
2 
 h k l 
2 2

 4.2 x1010  4.2 x1010

d (321)     1.12 x1010 m
 9  4 1  14
4. A beam of x-rays of wavelength 0.071 nm is diffracted by (110) plane of
rock salt with lattice constant of 0.28 nm. Find the glancing angle for the
second order diffraction.
Sol: Given that

Wavelength λ=0.0071 nm=0.071x10-9m

Miller indices of diffraction plane (hkl)=(110)

Lattice constant a=0.28nm=0.28x10-9 m

Diffraction order n-2

We know that the expression for interplanar spacing for a cubic crystal

 a 
d ( hkl )  
2 
 h k l 
2 2

 0.28 x109  0.28 x10 9

d (110)     0.197 x10 9 m
2 
 1 1  0 
2 2
2

50
 The Bragg’s law is 2dsinθ=nλ
 n 
sin    
 2d 
n
  sin 1  
 2d 
 2x0.071x10-9 
  sin 1  -9 
 sin 1 (0.360)  21.12
 2x0.197x10 

The glancing angle θ=21.12.

5. A beam of x-rays is incident on Nacl crystal with lattice spacing
0.282nm. Calculate the wavelength of x-rays if the first order Bragg’s
reflection takes place at a glancing angle of 8.35. Also calculate the
maximum order of diffraction possible.
Sol: Given that

Glancing angle θ=8.35

Lattice spacing d=0.282 nm=0.282x10-9 m

Diffraction order n=1

We know that Bragg’s law is 2dsinθ=nλ
2 x 0.282x10-9 x sin (8.35) =1 x λ
λ = 0.0841x10-9m=0.841x10-9m=0.0841Aᵒ
2d sin 
Maximum order of Diffraction n 


For maximum order of diffraction the Bragg’s angle, θ=90ᵒ

2x(0.282x109 ) sin 90
n  6.7
0.841x1010

Maximum order diffraction, n=6

6. What is the glancing angle at which the third order reflection of X-rays of
0.79 Aᵒ wavelength can occur in a calcite crystal of 3.04x10-8 cm
spacing?
Sol: Given that
Wavelength λ=0.79Aᵒ= 0.79x10-9 m

51
 Lattice spacing d=3.04x10-8cm=3.04x10-10 m.
Diffraction order n=3.
According to Braggs law, 2d sinθ=nλ
 n 
sin    
 2d 
 n 
  sin 1  
 2d 
 3x0.79x10-10 
  sin 1  -10 
 sin 1 (0.3898)  22.942
 2x3.04x10 
Bragg’s angle θ=22.942.
7. Monochromatic X-rays of wavelength 1.5Aᵒ are incident on a crystal face
having an interplanar spacing of 1.6 Aᵒ. Find the highest order for which
Bragg’s reflection maximum can be seen.
Sol: Given that
Wavelength of X-rays λ=1.5Aᵒ= 1.5x10-10 m
Lattice spacing d=3.04x10-8cm=3.04x10-10 m.
We know that Bragg’s law is 2dsinθ=nλ
2d sin 
n

For maximum order of diffraction, the Bragg’s angle, θ=90ᵒ

2x(1.6x1010 ) sin 90
n  2.133
1.5x1010

Maximum order diffraction, n=2

52
 UNIT – III
Chapter – I: Magnetic Materials

Chapter – II: Superconductivity

Course Outcome:

CO 3: Summarize various types of Magnetic materials and Super conductors

 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
Introduction:-
The story of magnetic materials began with a mineral known as
“Magnetite”. This magnetite is available abundantly at a place called “Magnesia”.
The “magnet” comes from the word “Magnetite”

The materials which get magnetized in the presence of magnetic field are
known as “Magnetic material”. These materials are known to mankind from 800
B.C. But the actual development of magnetic material has taken place from 15th
century efforts are due to scientist “Gilbert”. The 19th century development efforts
are due to “Orsted”. According to him electric current will always be
accompanied by magnetic fields, starting from the invention of compass box
(mariners compass). These materials find wide and variety of applications in the
field of science, engineering and technology.

Magnetism:-

The attracting property exhibited by the magnet.

Magnetic Dipole:-

The two ends are known as Magnetic poles and are called North Pole and
South Pole.

If a system consisting of two equal and opposite magnetic poles separated

by a distance “2l”.

Magnetic moment (μm):-

If “m” is the magnetic pole strength and “2l” is the length of the magnet,
then its magnetic dipole moment is given by the product of “m” and “2l” is called
Magnetic moment.

Magnetic field:-

The space surrounding the magnet up to which its attracting influence is

felt is known as “Magnetic field”.

53
Magnetic Induction (B) (or) Magnetic flux density:-

It is defined as the number of magnetic lines of force passing through a unit

area of cross- section of magnetic materials.

B=Φ/A – weber-m2 (or) Tesla

Magnetic field intensity (or) Magnetic field strength (H):-

It is the force experienced by a unit North Pole placed at a given point in a

magnetic field.

Magnetic permeability (μ):-

Consider an unmagnetised bar of a magnetic material in a uniform

magnetic field as shown in figure. It has been observed that the bar gets
magnetized by induction and a polarity. After magnetization, the magnetic lines
in the bar possess N-Pole throughout region and then re-enters to the south S-Pole
as shown in figure (a). These lines from a closed loop within the magnet. By
passing from S-Pole to N-Pole, that the lines of the magnetized bar opposes the
lines of the original field outside the magnet and favor inside the magnet, the
result is shown in figure (b).

As a result of this, the magnetic field strength (H) is increased inside the
bar and decreased outside the bar. Similarly the magnetic flux (B) becomes high
inside the bar and low outside the bar. Thus we find that flux density (B) is
directly proportional to the magnetic field strength (H).

BαH

i.e. B = μ H ………. (1)

μ= B / H

Where “μ” is a constant proportionality and is known as “Absolute Permeability”

If the flux density is established in air (or) vacuum (or) in a non- magnetic
material, then the above equation can be written as

54
 B0 = μ0 H …………. (2)

μ0 = B0 / H

Where B0 is the flux density in air (or) vacuum

μ0 is the absolute permeability of air (or) vacuum

Magnetic permeability of free space (μ0):-

It is defined as the ratio of magnetic induction (or) magnetic flux (B0) of a

free space to the applied magnetic field strength (H).

μ0 = B0 / H

B0 = μ0 H …….. (3) μ0 = 4πx10-7 Hm-1

Relative permeability (μr):-

It is defined the ratio of permeability of a material to the permeability of

free space.

i.e. μr = μ / μ0

μ = μr μ0 ……….. (4)

Magnetization (M):-

Magnetization refers to the process of converting from unmagnetised bar

into magnetized bar. (Or)

The magnetic moment per unit volume

Magnetic susceptibility (χ):-

It is the ratio of the intensity of magnetization produced in the sample to

the magnetic field intensity which produced the magnetization.

χ = M / H ………… (5)

55
Relation between Magnetic Induction (B), Magnetization (M), Relative
permeability (μr), and Magnetic susceptibility (χ):-

We know that
r =  /0
B  H
 = 0  r
= 0  r H

i.e.B  0  r H + 0 H-0 H
= 0 H + 0 H ( r - 1)
= 0 H + 0 M
B = 0 ( H + M) where M= H(r  1)

Where the magnetization M is equal to = H (μr – 1)

i.e. B = μ0 (H+M).

The first term on the right side of equation (5), is due to external field. The second
term is due to magnetization.

Thus the magnetic induction (B) is a solid is B = μ0 (H+M)

μ0 = B / (H+M)

Relative Permeability μr = μ / μ0
B
 M
 H =
H M
= 1+
M ∵  = 
B H  H
H
H M

r = 1 + 

Atomic origin of magnetism:

Materials are generally made up of atoms. These atoms consist of a nucleus
surrounding which electrons are revolving in their orbits. So, the magnetic
materials will be due to “motion of electrons”. The motion of electrons can be
understood in terms of orbital motion of electrons, and then we get orbital
magnetic moment ( ℓ ).

Then the electrons are revolving around the nucleus, the electron spin about
their axis which results in a magnetic field and we get spin magnetic moment of

56
the electrons (μS). Along with this the magnetic moment will also be due to the
nuclear spin (or) spin proton. This contribution to a magnetic moment (μPS). i.e.
Magnetic moment due to nuclear spin.

Orbital magnetic moment ( ℓ ):-

Consider an electron of charge “e”, mass “m” moving with a velocity “v”
in an orbital of an atom. Let “r” be the radius of the atom, the orbital motion of
the electron can be taken similar to that current carrying loop.

Here Pl is the angular momentum

μl is the mechanical momentum

According to Gyro magnetic ratio

ℓ e
= ........... (1)
pℓ 2m

But Pl is quantized, i.e. Pℓ = ℓ ℏ ......... (1)

Where “l” is a quantum number

eℏ eh
B = =
 e  2m 4 m
ℓ = ℓ ℏ  
 2m 
eℏ h
=ℓ. = ℓ ( B ) ........... (3) ℏ=
2m 2

Where μB is known as “Bohr magneton”.

Magnetic moment due to spin motion of electron:-

Consider an electron having a nucleus along with the spin motion about its
own axis Gyro magnetic ratio due to spin motion of electrons can
be given as
s  e 
= 2.   ........... (1)
ps  2m 

Here ps is quantized.
i.e. Ps = s. ℏ ........... (2)

Where “S” is known as spin quantum number and the spin

quantum number of an electron is only ±1/2.
57
i.e. S = ± ½ ………… (3)
 e 
 s = S ℏ 2. 

 2m 
1  e  eℏ
= ℏ 2.  = =  B ........... (4)
2  2m  2m

The spin magnetic moment μs is always equal to Bohr magneton and is equal to
the Bohr magneton and is equal to μB= 9.273x10-24 amp-m2.

Magnetic moment due to nuclear spin:-

Similar to that of Bohr magneton the nuclear spin can be given as

 eℏ  eh
 ps =   = 5.05x10-29 A/m 2
 2M P  4  M p

Where Mp mass of proton

Classification of Magnetic materials:-

Magnetic materials are broadly classified into three categories. Those are

1. Diamagnetic materials

2. Paramagnetic materials

3. Ferromagnetic materials

Diamagnetic materials:-

Materials composed of atoms or molecules, having zero

magnetic moment are called diamagnetic materials

 In diamagnetic materials, the dipoles are oriented randomly.

 When external magnetic field is applied it causes the magnetic

moment of its atoms will align in the opposite direction of the
applied field.

58
Properties:-

1. Permanent dipoles are absent.

2. The relative permeability (μr) of these materials is less than 1(μr<1), and
susceptibility is (χ) is negative (- ve).

3. Diamagnetic materials are independent of temperature

4. When placed inside a magnetic field, magnetic lines of force

are repelled.

5. The intensity of magnetization is negative.

6. No spin alignment is present.

Paramagnetic materials:-

If the paramagnetic materials have net magnetic moment, these

magnetic moments are weakly coupled to each other.

 If the permanent dipoles do not interact with each other is

called paramagnetic materials.

 When these are placed in a magnetic field, acquired feeble

magnetism, the moment start to align, but only a small fraction
is deflected into the field direction.

Properties:-

1. Paramagnetic materials posses’ permanent dipoles.

2. The relative permeability (μr) of these materials is greater than

1(μr>1), and susceptibility is (χ) is positive (+ ve).

3. paramagnetic materials are greatly depends on temperature

4. When placed inside a magnetic field, it attracts the magnetic lines of force.

5. The intensity of magnetization is positive (+ ve) and moderate.

6. The temperature “T” is less than Curie temperature, and then the material
converted into diamagnetic material.

59
Ferromagnetic material:-

In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic interaction between any two

dipoles aligns themselves parallel to each other.

 Thus, ferromagnetic substances posses’ magnetic moment even in the

absence of the applied magnetic field. This magnetization is known as
“Spontaneous magnetization”.

Properties:-

1. The ferromagnetic materials possess spontaneous

magnetization.

2. The Relative permeability (μr) of these materials is very

greater than 1(μr>>1), value of susceptibility is (χ) is
positive (+ ve) and very large.

3. Ferromagnetic materials are also greatly depends on temperature.

4. When placed inside a magnetic field, it attracts the magnetic lines of force
very strongly.

5. The intensity of magnetization is positive (+ ve) and high.

6. The temperature below Curie temperature, the material would have

ferromagnetic behavior. Temperature above Curie temperature the material
is converted into paramagnetic material.

Depending upon the spin orientation the electrons, ferromagnetic materials

are classified into two types. They are

1. Anti Ferro magnetic material

2. Ferri magnetic material

60
Anti Ferro magnetic material:-

The materials with anti- parallel magnetic moment (spin

magnetic moment) are known as Anti Ferro magnetic materials.

In Anti Ferro magnetic materials, the magnetic interaction

between any two adjacent dipoles align themselves anti parallel
to each other. If the material is composed of atoms. One of the
atoms having their moment oriented in one direction and the other of atoms
having their spin moments in the opposite direction as shown in figure.

Properties:-

1. Anti ferro-magnetic materials posses’ permanent dipoles.

2. The relative permeability (μr) of these materials is greater than 1(μr>1), and
susceptibility is (χ) is positive (+ ve).

3. Anti-Ferro magnetic materials are greatly depends on temperature

4. When placed inside a magnetic field, it attracts the magnetic lines of force.

5. The intensity of magnetization is positive (+ ve) and moderate.

6. The temperature “T” is less than Curie temperature, and then the material
converted into diamagnetic material.

Ferri magnetic materials:-

The substances which consist of anti-parallel magnetic

moment of different magnitudes are known as Ferri magnetic
substances.

(Or)

In Ferri magnetic materials, the magnetic interaction between any two

adjacent dipoles, align themselves anti parallel to each other.

Properties:-

1. The Ferri magnetic materials possess spontaneous magnetization.

2. The Relative permeability (μr) of these materials is very greater than

1(μr>>1), value of susceptibility is (χ) is positive (+ ve) and very large.

61
3. Ferri magnetic materials are also greatly depends on temperature.

4. When placed inside a magnetic field, it attracts the magnetic lines of force
very strongly.

5. The intensity of magnetization is positive (+ ve) and high.

6. The temperature below Curie temperature, the material would have

ferromagnetic behavior. Temperature above Curie temperature the material
is converted into paramagnetic material.

Hysteresis Loop:-
The hysteresis of Ferro magnetic materials refers to the lag of
magnetization behind the magnetic field. It gives the relationship between
the magnetic flux density (B) and magnetic field (H) referred as B-H curve.

Consider an unmagnetized ferromagnetic

material is placed in a magnetic field. When the
material is slowly magnetized and the magnetic
flux density (B) increases with increase of
magnetic field (H) initially through OA and
reaches saturation at point ‘A’ known as
“saturation magnetization (Bs)”. When external
magnetic field (H) is removed, the magnetization
slowly decreases but not comes to zero (at H=0), which is referred to as
residual magnetization (Br) at the point OB this phenomenon is called
“retentivity”. When reverse magnetic field is applied, the residual
magnetism decreases and comes to zero for a particular value of reverse
magnetic field known as coercive field (Hc) at the point OC and this
phenomenon is called as “coercivity”. After reaching the saturation level
D, when the magnetizing field is reversed, the curve closes to the point A,
completing the cycle. The loop OABCDEFA is called hysteresis loop as
shown in figure.

The retentivity and coercivity are important characteristics of

different ferromagnetic materials. Based on the degree of their values, the
ferromagnetic materials may be classified as soft and hard magnetic
materials.

62
Hard and soft magnetic materials:-
The magnetic materials are classified into two types.

1. Hard magnetic materials

2. Soft magnetic materials

Hard magnetic materials:-

The materials which are very difficult to magnetize and demagnetized are
said to be hard magnetic materials.

Properties:-

1. Hard magnetic materials have large hysteresis loss due to large

hysteresis loop area.

2. These materials have low value of susceptibility and permeability.

3. The coercivity and retentivity are large

4. These materials have large amount of impurities

Soft magnetic materials:-

The materials which are easy to magnetize and demagnetized are said to
be soft magnetic materials.

Properties:-

1. Soft magnetic materials have low hysteresis loss due to small

hysteresis loop area.

2. These materials have large value of susceptibility and

permeability.

3. The coercivity and retentivity are small

4. These materials are free from irregularities like strain and impurities.

63
 SUPER CONDUCTIVITY
Introduction:-
Resistance (or) resistivity is the property exhibits by the materials. This is
mainly due to the scattering of electrons, while interacting with positive ions
present in the materials. When temperature of material is decreased to a low
value, then due to lower energy, scattering of electrons decreases and as a result
resistance (or) resistivity decrease. Then the conductivity increases.

The phenomenon of attains zero resistivity (or) infinite conductivity at low

temperature is known as super conductivity.

The materials which exhibit superconductivity are known as super

conductors.

Super conductivity was first observed by

Kammerlingh onne’s in the year 1911 in the case of
mercury. When temperature of mercury is decreases
then the resistance also decreases and it is zero at 4.2 K
temperature as shown in figure.

The temperature at which the material undergoes

a transition from normal state to superconducting state is known as critical
temperature (or) transition temperature.

Different materials have different Tc values

1. Aluminium Tc – 1.19 K
2. Lead Tc – 7.2 K
3. Tungsten Tc – 0.01 K
4. Tin Tc – 1.19 K
5. Cadmium Tc – 1.19 K

General properties:-

1. Super conductivity is a low temperature phenomenon

2. The transition from normal state to superconducting state occurs below the
Critical Temperature(Tc).

3. Different materials will have different critical temperatures.

64
 4. The current ones setup in a super conductor persists (stay) for a long time
due to zero resistivity.

5. Super conductors do not allow magnetic field through them and behaves
as a Dia magnetic material. This property of expulsion (repulsion) of
magnetic field is known as “ Meissner effect”

6. The magnetic field at which a super conductor loses its superconductivity

and becomes a normal conductor is known as Critical Magnetic field (Hc).

7. Super conductivity occurs in metallic elements in which the number of

valence electrons lies between 2 to 8.

8. Super conducting materials are not good conductors at room temperature

Meissner effect:-

Consider a normal conductor at room temperature as shown in Figure (a).

When a magnetic field (H) is applied to it then it allows the magnetic lines to pass
through it. Thus we have a magnetic induction field (B) in a conductor as shown
in figure (b).

When the entire system is cooled so that T<Tc, then the normal conductor
becomes a super conductor and it will not allow the magnetic lines to pass through
it. It expels the magnetic lines. This effect, observed by Meissner, is known as
“Meissner effect”. Thus the superconductor does not allow the magnetic lines
through it (or) expels the magnetic lines as shown in figure (c).

65
 For a normal conductor, magnetic induction field “B” is given by

B = μ0 (H+M)

Where μ0 is the permeability of free space (or) air

M is the magnetization of the normal conductor

For a super conductor, B=0

μ0 (H+M) =0

H= -M

i.e. applied magnetic field induces magnetization in opposite direction

χ = M / H = -1

χ = -1

Types of super conductors:-

In the presence of critical magnetic field, a super conductor converts into a

normal conductor. Based on the conversion process, super conductors are
classified into two types.

1. Type – I super conductors

2. Type – II super conductors

Type – I super conductors:

The super conductors exhibit a complete Meissner effect (perfect Dia

magnetism) are called Type-I super conductors are also known as soft super
conductors.

When the magnetic field strength is gradually increased from its initial
value H<Hc at Hc, the diamagnetism abruptly disappears and the transition from
super conducting state to normal sate is sharp as shown in figure(a).

66
Type –II superconductors :

Type –II superconductors are shown in figure (b), up to the field, the
specimen is in a pure superconducting state. The magnetic flux lines are rejected.
When the field is increased beyond HC1 (the lower critical field), the magnetic
flux lines start penetrating. The specimen is in a normal state. This means that the
Meissner effect is incomplete in the region between Hc1 and Hc2. This region is
known as vertex state (or) mixed state. Type –II super conductors are known as
hard super conductors.

BCS Theory:-
BCS Theory of super conductivity was put forward by Bardeen, Cooper
and Schrieffer in 1957 and hence named as BCS theory. This theory explains the
super conducting state of super conductor. This theory involves the electron
interaction through phonon as mediators.

(i). Electron – Electron interaction via lattice deformation:-

Let us consider an electron passing through the lattice of positive ions. The
electron is attracted by the neighboring positive ions, forms a positive ion core as
shown in figure (a) and gets screened by them. The screening greatly reduces the
effective charge of this electron. Due to the attraction between the electron and
the ion core, the lattice gets deformed on local state.

67
 K1  q  K1' and K 2 + q = K 2 ' ........... (1)

Now if another electron passes by the side the assembly of the electron and
the ion core, it gets attracted with the first electron via lattice deformation. This
interaction is said to be due to the exchange of virtual phonon q, between the two
electrons. This interaction process can be written in terms of the wave vector K
as i.e K1+K2 = K1’ + K2’. This gives the net wave vector of the pair is conserved.
The momentum is transferred between the electrons. These two electrons together
form a cooper pair and are known as Cooper electron.

(ii). Cooper Pair:-

To understood the mechanism of cooper pair formation, let us consider the

distribution of electrons in metals as given by Fermi – Dirac distribution function
1
F (E ) =
 E  EF 
1 + exp  
 KT 
At T=0K, all the energy state below Fermi level EF are completely filled.
all the energy state above Fermi level EF are completely empty.

Let us see, what happens when two electrons are added to a metal at
absolute zero. Since all the quantum states with energies E≤ EF are filled. They
are forced to occupy states having energies E≥EF. Cooper showed that if there is
an attraction between the two electrons, they are able to form a bound state so
that their total energy is less than 2EF. These electrons are paired to form a single
system. These two electrons together form a Cooper pair and are known as cooper
electrons.

68
Josephson Effect:-
Consider two super conductors which are joined together with the help of
a thin insulating layer as shown in figure. These super conductors consist of
paired electrons known as cooper pair in the super conducting state. These cooper
pairs will try to penetrate or tunnel through the thin insulator and constitute a
small super current. The insulator which forms the junctions between super
conductors is known as Josephson junction and this effect is known as “Josephson
Effect”.

This effect is of two types, they are

1. DC – Josephson Effect

2. AC – Josephson Effect

DC – Josephson Effect:-

Without any applied voltage across the junction due to tunneling of cooper
pairs, a small direct super current (DC) flows across the junction. This effect is
known as DC – Josephson Effect.

Let the propagation of cooper pair be in the form of waves. The phase
difference between the two parts of the waves on either side of the junctions, in
terms of wave function is 0 = 2 - 1

The tunneling current is given by I  I0 Sin 0

Where I0 is the maximum current that flows through the junction without
any voltage across the junction. The above equation represents a direct current
(DC) that flows across the junction.

69
AC – Josephson Effect:-

When a static potential V0 is applied

across the junction, then the cooper pairs starts
oscillating through the insulating layer. As a
result, an alternating current (AC) flows through
the junction. This effect is known as AC –
Josephson Effect.
Et
Due to V0 an additional phase difference of  = is introduced for the
ℏ
cooper pairs, where E is the total energy of the cooper pair at any time‘t’.

E = (2e) V0
2eV0 t
 =
ℏ
The tunneling current can be written as
I  I0 Sin 0   
 2eV0 t 
= I0 Sin  0  
 ℏ 
2eV0
= I0 Sin 0  wt  w  angular frequeny
ℏ

This represents an AC with angular frequency w, current-

voltage characteristics of a Josephson junction as shown in below
graph.

1. When V0=0, there is a constant flow of DC current Ic through

the junction. This current is called super conducting current
and the effect is DC-Josephson effect.

2. When V0<Vc, a constant DC-current Ic flows.

3. When V0>Vc, the junction has a finite resistance and the current oscillates
2eV0
with frequency w  . This effect is AC-Josephson effect.
ℏ

70
Applications of Super conductors: -
1. Electric generators: -
Super conducting generators are smaller in size with less weight and
consume very low energy. The low loss super conducting coil rotated in a
strong magnetic field. This is the basis of new generation of energy-saving
power system.
2. Low loss transmission and transformers: -
When super conducting wires are used as electric cables then the
transmission losses are minimized. If super conductors are used for winding
of a transformer, the power losses will be very small.
3. Magnetic levitation: -
Dia magnetic property of a super conductor is the basis of magnetic
levitation. This effect can be used for high-speed transportation.
4. Generation of high magnetic field: -
The application of magnetic field generator than the changes the
superconducting state to normal state and removal of the field reverse the
process. This principle is used in switching element.
5. Fast electrical switching: -
The application of magnetic field greater than the changes the
superconducting state to normal state and removal of the field reverse the
process. This principle is used in switching element.
6. Logic and storage functions in computers: -
The I-V characteristic of Josephson Effect is used for memory elements
in computers. Thus, super conductors are used to perform logic and storage
function in computers.
7. Super Conducting Quantum Interference Devices (SQUIDS):-
Super Conducting Quantum Interference Devices is basically in the
form of a tiny Super conducting ring consists of two super conductors
separated by thin insulating layer so as to form two Josephson junctions.
SQUIDS can measure magnetic field of the order of 10-14 tesla. SQUIDS are
used in the construction of sensitive magnetometers to measure accurately the
magnetic field produced in case of heart and brain also the earth magnetic field
at different place.

71
 UNIT-III

Short questions on MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

1. Define Magnetic permeability & susceptibility

Magnetic permeability (μ): -
It is defined as the ratio of magnetic induction (or) magnetic flux (B)
to the applied magnetic field strength (H).

μ= B / H

Magnetic susceptibility (χ): -

It is the ratio of the intensity of magnetization produced in the

sample to the magnetic field intensity which produced the magnetization.

χ=M/H
2. Define Relative permeability & Magnetization
Relative permeability (μr): -
It is defined the ratio of permeability of a material to the permeability
of free space.
μr = μ / μ0

Magnetization (M): -

Magnetization refers to the process of converting from unmagnetized

bar into magnetized bar.
3. What are different types of magnetic materials

Magnetic materials are broadly classified into three categories.

Those are
1. Diamagnetic materials
2. Paramagnetic materials
3. Ferromagnetic materials
Depending upon the spin orientation the electrons, ferromagnetic
materials are classified into two types. They are
1. Anti Ferro magnetic material
72
 2. Ferri magnetic material
4. Define Dia, Para and Ferro magnetic materials
Diamagnetic materials: -
Materials which having zero magnetic moment are called
diamagnetic materials

Paramagnetic materials: -

The materials have net magnetic moment are called Paramagnetic

materials and these magnetic moments are weakly coupled to each other.

Ferromagnetic material: -

In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic interaction between any

two dipoles aligns themselves parallel to each other. Ferromagnetic
substances posses’ magnetic moment even in the absence of the applied
magnetic field. This magnetization is known as “Spontaneous
magnetization”.

5. What is Hysteresis loop

The hysteresis of Ferro magnetic materials refers to the lag of
magnetization behind the magnetic field. It gives the relationship between
the magnetic flux density (B) and magnetic field (H) referred as B-H curve.

6. Distinguish between Sift and Hard Magnetic Materials

Soft magnetic materials: -
The materials which are easy to magnetize and demagnetized are
said to be soft magnetic materials.

Hard magnetic materials: -

The materials which are very difficult to magnetize and
demagnetized are said to be hard magnetic materials.

73
 Short questions on SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

1. Define Superconductivity
The phenomenon of attains zero resistivity (or) infinite conductivity at
low temperature is known as super conductivity
(or)
Superconductivity is the ability of certain materials to conduct a direct
electric current (DC) with practically zero resistance.

2. What is Meissner effect

Super conductors do not allow magnetic field through them and

behaves as a Dia magnetic material. This property of expulsion (repulsion)
of magnetic field is known as “Meissner effect”

3. Distinguish between Type- I and Type-II Superconductors

Type – I super conductors:
The super conductors exhibit a complete Meissner effect (perfect
Dia magnetism) are called Type-I super conductors are also known as soft
super conductors.
Type – II super conductors:
The super conductors do not exhibit Meissner effect (perfect Dia
magnetism) are called Type-II super conductors are also known as Hard
super conductors.

4. Explain DC – Josephson Effect and AC – Josephson Effect.

DC – Josephson Effect: -
Without any applied voltage across the junction due to tunnelling of
cooper pairs, a small direct super current (DC) flows across the junction.
This effect is known as DC – Josephson Effect.

AC – Josephson Effect: -

When a static potential V0 is applied across the junction, then the

cooper pairs start oscillating through the insulating layer. As a result, an

74
 alternating current (AC) flows through the junction. This effect is known
as AC – Josephson Effect.

5. What are cooper Pairs

A pair of electrons in a superconductor that are attractively bound
and have equal and opposite momentum and spin are called Cooper Pairs.

6. Write any three applications of Superconductors

 Electric generators
 Low loss transmission and transformers
 Magnetic levitation
 Logic and storage functions in computers
 Super Conducting Quantum Interference Devices (SQUIDS)

75
 Problems on Magnetic Properties

1. Find the relative permeability of a ferromagnetic material id a field of

strength 220 amp/m produces a magnetization of 3300 amp/m in it.

Sol: Given that

The field strength of ferromagnetic material if a field H= 220 amp/m

Magnetization I=3300 amp/m
We know that the expression for relative permeability
I
r  1 
H
3300
= 1+  16
220
The relative permeability of a ferromagnetic material µr=16.

2. A magnetic material has a magnetization of 3300 amp/m and flux of 0.0044

weber/m2. Calculate the magnetizing field and the relative permeability of
the material. The permeability of vacuum is 4πx107 H/m.
Sol: Given that

Magnetization of the material I=3300 amp/m

The flux density B=0.0044 weber/m2
The permeability of vacuum µ0=4πx107 H/m.
We know that the expression for magnetic flux density is
B  0  H  M 
B
H I
0
0.0044
=  3300  200amp / m
4x3.142x107
And the expression for relative permeability is
I 3300
r  1   1  17.5
H 200
The expression for magnetic flux density H=200 amp/m
The relative permeability of the magnetic material µr=17.5

76
3. The magnetic field in the interior of a certain solenoid has the value of
6.5x10-4 T. when the solenoid is empty. When it is filled with iron, the
field becomes 1.4T. Find the relative permeability of iron.
Sol: Given that

The magnetic field of solenoid without iron Bᵒ=6.5x10-4 T

The magnetic field of solenoid with iron B=1.4 T

We know that the expression for magnetic flux density, B=µH

B  0 r H and B0  0 H
B 1.4
r    2154.
B0 6.5x104

77
 UNIT – IV
Chapter – I: Quantum Mechanics

Chapter – II: Free electron theory

Course Outcome:

CO 4: Explain the basic concepts of Quantum Mechanics and the free electron theory
 QUANTUM MECHANICS
Introduction: -
The Classical Newtonian Mechanics explains the macroscopic system in
which the particles are stationary (or) move with ordinary speed.

 The Classical Mechanics fails to explain a host experimental result of

atomic phenomenon involving electron, proton etc, whose size and
interacting distances are extremely small.
 Another difficult with classical theories is that they are formulated
separately to particles and waves.
 So, physicists struggle continuous in search of most general and unified
theory which can explain all macroscopic as well as microscopic systems.
 This has led to the development of quantum theory, quantum mechanics
and relativistic quantum mechanics also known as quantum field theory.

Quantum Mechanics is a branch of physics, which deals with the microscopic

particles.

Ex: - A little sugar added to water in a glass, it dissolves without raising the water
level.

The phenomenon like interference, diffraction, polarization of light etc. is

explained on the basis of wave nature of light.

On the other hand, photo electric effect, Compton Effect etc. is explained
on the basis of particle nature of light.

i.e., Radiation (or) light waves has “Dual nature”

Wave: -
A wave is nothing but spreading of disturbance in a medium. (or)
propagation of energy by creating the disturbance in the medium is called wave.

Characteristics: -
1. Amplitude 4. Wave length
2. Time Period 5. Phase
3. Frequency 6. Intensity

78
Particle: -
If a certain amount of quantity occupies a certain space

Characteristics: -
1. Mass 4. Momentum
2. Velocity 5. Energy

Properties of Matter Waves.

1. Lighter is the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.

2. Smaller is the velocity of the particle, greater is the wavelength.
3. The motion of the particle generates matter waves
4. The fact is that matter waves are not electromagnetic waves.
5. The wavelength of matter waves depends on the velocity of matter particles

Debroglie’s Hypothesis of matter waves: -

According to Debroglie’s
1. The entire universe is filled with matter and radiation.
2. As the radiation has dual nature, the matter should also exhibit dual nature.
i.e., wave nature and particle nature.
3. The moving particle associated with wave is known as “Debroglie’s wave
(or) Matter wave”.
Derivation: -
According to Plank’s quantum theory of radiation, the energy of the
particle
Where C is the velocity of light
E  h λ is the wave length
hc
 ...........(1)


According to Einstein mass energy relation E = mc2 ……… (2)

From equation (1) and (2)
hc
 mc 2

h
 ...........(3) (wave nature)
mc

79
 If we have a particle of mass (m) travelling with a velocity (ν) and has a
momentum (mν), then Debroglie’s wavelength associated with that particle
h
 ...........(4) (particle nature)
m

 K .E  1/ 2mv 2   h  plank ' s cons tan t  6.625 X 1034 j / sec 

h h 12.26    
   A ev  1/ 2mV 2   m  mass of electron  9.1X 1031 kg 
m 2meV V   e  ch arg e of electron  1.602 X 1019 coulomb 
 mv  2meV   

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:

In 1927, Heisenberg proposed a very interesting principle know as
uncertainty principle, which states that “it is impossible to determine the both
position and momentum of the moving particle at the same time”. In general, Δx
denotes the error in measurement of the position of the particle and Δp represents
the error in the measurement of momentum, then

(Δx).(Δp)=h

Where h is a planks constant. The above relation represents the uncertainty

involved in the measurement of both the position and momentum of the particle.
When one defines (Δx) and (Δp) as rms deviation and assumes the optimum
measurement procedure. Then the above equation can be written as
h
 x  .  p  
2
The above equation is one form of the uncertainty principle first obtained
by Heisenberg in 1927. It states that the product of uncertainty (Δx) in the position
of a particle at some instant and the uncertainty (Δp) its momentum at the same
instant, is at best equal to Planks constant. We cannot measure simultaneously
both position and momentum with perfect accuracy. Another form of uncertainty
concerns energy and time is
h
 E  .  t  
2
This gives uncertainty in the measurement of energy and time if a process.

80
Schrodinger Time Independent Wave Equation: -
The Schrodinger’s wave equation is the mathematical formulation of
matter waves. This is being given by Schrodinger in the year 1930. This is also
known as a fundamental wave equation of quantum mechanics. According to him
matter wave can be given with a function known as ψ(x).

The wave function on its own has no significance and represented the
probability amplitude of the particle. But  ( x ) 2 has a physical significance and
this represents the probability density.

Consider a material particle of mass “m” moving with a velocity “v” in the
space. The general wave equation with particle can be given as
 2 x 
 ( x)  A sin   .............(1)
  
Where A is the amplitude

X is the position

λ is the wave length

Differentiating twice of equation (1) w.r.to “x”

 2 2 x
 A. . cos
x  

2
4 2
2 x
  2 A. sin
x 2
 

2
4 2
  2  ( x)...........(2)
x 2

But the Debroglie’s wavelength associated with the material particle which
is travelling with the velocity.
h
 .............(3)
m
1 
2m  m 2 
1 m 2 2
 2  ............(4)
 2 
2 h h2

81
But the kinetic energy associated with the material particle, can be given as
1 2 E  K .E  P.E
K .E  mv K .E  E  V
2
 E  V ..........(5)

Substituting equation (5) in equation (4)

1 2m
  E  V  .......(6)
 2
h2
Substituting equation (6) in equation (2)
 2  2m 
 4 2  2  E  V   ( x)............(7)
x 2
 h 
(Or )
 2 8 2 m
   E  V  ( x)............(8)
x 2 h2
This equation (7) and (8) is known as Schrodinger’s wave equation.

 2 2m ℏ 
h
  E  V   0............(9) 2
x 2 ℏ2

The three-dimensional motion of the particles can be given from

Schrodinger’s equations of the form
2m
 2   E  V   0..........(10)
ℏ2
Where ∆=Laplacian operator
2 2 2
2   
x 2 y 2 z 2
 2  2  2 8 2 m
 2  2  2  2  E  V   0
x y z h

Physical significance of a wave function ψ(x): -

1. The wave function ψ has no direct physical meaning. It is a complex

quantity represented the variation of matter wave. It connects the particle
nature and its associated wave nature.

2. It can tell the probability of the position of the particle at a time, but it
cannot predict the exact location of the particle at that time.

82
 3. The probability of finding a particle in a particular volume dτ is given by

Probability ( P )   * d   2 d where d =dx dy dz

4. When the particle presents in a particular volume, the total probability of

finding the particle where is unity.
2
i.e.  dx dy dz  1

Particle in a One-Dimensional Potential Box: -

Consider a particle of mass “m”, charge “e” and moving with a velocity
“V” in a one-dimensional potential box of infinite height in the positive x-
direction.

Let “v” be the potential energy of the particle.

 v=0 inside the Potential Box

 v=∞ outside the Potential Box

Boundary conditions:-

1. v = 0 at 0 ≤ x ≤ L

2. v = ∞ at L ≤ x ≤ 0

The motion of the particle inside the one-dimensional Box can be described
in terms of Schrodinger’s wave equation.

 2 8 2 m
 2  E   0.............(1) ∵ V=0 at o  x  L 
x 2 h
 2
 K 2  0.............(2)
x 2

8 2 m
 K2 =  E  ............ (3)
h2
The solution of the equation (2) can be given as  ( x)  A sin Kx  B cos Kx..........(4)

Where A, B are constants

K is a wave vector

In order to find the value of A and B, we make use of the boundary

conditions
i.e.(i ) ( x)  0 at x  0 
 ..............(5)
(ii) ( x)   at x  L 

83
Applying (1) boundary condition of equation (5) in equation (4), we get
0  0 B
B0
Applying (2) boundary condition of equation (5) in equation (4), we get
0  A sin KL  0
 A sin KL  0
KL   n
 n 
K    ...........(6)
 L 
K 2h2
E  2 ...........(7)
8 m
From equation (3)
n2h2
The energy “E” can be given as E ...........(8)
8mL2
Substituting the value of “K” of equation (6) in equation (7)

The equation (8) represents the total energy of the particle, which is moving
one dimensional potential box.

Where h - Plank’s constant, m – Mass, L - Width of the potential box

h2
If n  1, E1 
8 m L2
h2 h2 h2
E2   2 2
.  4.  4 E1
8 m L2 8 mL2 8 m L2
h2 h2 h2
E3  2
 32 2
 9.  9 E1
8m L 8m L 8 m L2

 Basing on equation (8), the energy of the particle never can be equal to “zero”

 The energy of the particle always gets quantized.

84
 The total probability of particle is somewhere in the box must be unity.
L 2

 
0
 (x) dx  1

n x
L
  dx  1
2 2
A s in
0
L
 2 n x 
L  1  c o s L 
  dx  1
2
A
0
2
L
A 2
 L 2 n x 
  x  2  n . s i n  d x  1
2 L 0

A2L
  1
2
2
 A2 
l
2
 A 
l

2 n x
The normalized wave function  n  sin
l L

85
 FREE ELECTRONIC THEORY
Introduction: -
The electron theory of metals deals with the structure and properties of
metals considering their electronic structure.

The electron theory of metals can be broadly understood in terms of two

important theories.

1. Classical free electronic theory

2. Quantum free electronic theory

Classical free electron theory (or) Free electron gas Model (or)
Drude-Lorentz theory of metals: -
This theory was given by Drude and Lorentz in the year 1900. This is also
known as “Drude-Lorentz theory of metals”.

 Here the free electrons obey classical laws and potential energy associated
with the free electrons will be taken as zero.

 These free electrons fallows Maxwell –Boltzmann statistics (MB-

statistics)

Postulates of classical free electron theory: -

 According to Drude metals consists of positive (+ ve) ion cores and

negative (- ve) free electrons.

 The free electrons move randomly about the positive ion (+ ve) cores

 We assume, the potential energy inside the metal being zero (v=0)

 The free electrons move freely without considering the structure of the
metal

 The free electron of the metals can be treated as gas molecules of gaseous
system. Hence we have the name free electron gas model

 The result displacement due to random motion electron is zero. i.e. we

came across “no currents” in the absence of external field

86
  In the presence of the applied electric field, the free electron travel with
velocity known as “Drift Velocity (Vd)”

 Drift Velocity is the “Average velocity acquired by the free electrons in

the presence of applied electric field”.

 The free electrons can also be given with Relaxation time (τ) and mean
free path (λ) respectively.

 Relaxation time is the “Average time taken by the free electron to come to
equilibrium state”.

τ=λ/c

Where c is the Root mean square velocity

 Mean free path is “The average distance travelled by free electron to come
to equilibrium state in the presence of applied field”.

λ=c.τ

Merits of Classical free electron theory: -

The classical free electron theory is quite successful in explaining the

following points.

1. Ohm’s Law (I α v)

2. Widemann - Franz Law (σ / K = constant)

3. It explains the electrical and thermal conductors of metals and also optical
properties of metals.

Demerits: -

1. This phenomenon such as photo electric effect, Compton Effect, Black

Body Radiation cannot explain classical free electron theory.

2. Electrical conductivity of semiconductors (or) insulators could not explain.

3. Ferromagnetism cannot explain by this theory.

87
Electrical conductivity for classical free electron theory:
Let us now derive the expression for electrical conductivity in terms of
number of free electrons and their mobility.

If ‘n’ is the number of conduction electrons per unit volume. Then change
per unit volume is ‘–ne’.
The amount of charge crossing a unit area per unit time is given by current
density J.
J   ne  d
 e 
   ne     E
 m
ne 2
 E
m
E Where  = conductivity
ne 2
 =
m
We find that with increase of electron concentration ‘n’ the conductivity
(σ) increases. As m increases, the motion of electrons becomes slow and hence
conductivity decreases. τ is the mean free life time.

Quantum free electron theory: -

This theory was proposed by Summerfield in the year 1920.

 The quantum theory, moving electron obeys quantum laws and they travel
with different velocities in the presence of the field.

 The free electrons in the metals obey quantum laws.

 These fallows Bose-Einstein statistics (BE- statistics)

 According to this theory only some of the electrons out of many takes part
in the conduction.

Assumptions of Quantum free electron theory: -

1. The potential energy for an electron inside the metal is constant”. So that
the force acting on the electron is zero.

88
 2. The potential energy of an electron which is at rest inside the metal, must
be lower than that of an electron outside the metal.

3. The allowed energy levels of all electrons are quantized.

4. The distribution of electrons in the various allowed energy levels occurs as

per the Pauli’s exclusive principle.

5. The distribution of energy among the free electron is according to Fermi-

Dirac statistics.

6. We get possible energy values of the electron; we solve the Schrodinger’s

time independent wave equation.

Fermi-Dirac Distribution: -
We know that in a metal, in the absence of a field, free electron moves at
random, similar to the behavior of the electron gas. Hence such an electron gas
obeys Fermi-Dirac statics (or) Distribution.

The Fermi Dirac distribution describes the

behavior of free electron gas taking into account, the
quantum theory and Pauli’s principle.

According to quantum theory, the electron will

have discrete energy states (or) levels and the
distribution of electrons among these energy levels
will be governed by Pauli’s exclusive Principle. “i.e. No more than two electrons
can occupy the same energy level”.

 At absolute zero temperature, two electrons occupy the ground state and
two each state of next higher energy levels.

 The highest energy level occupied by electrons at absolute zero is known

as “Fermi energy levels” (or) which divide (or) separate the occupied state
from the unoccupied states.

 The energy of Fermi level is denoted by EF

The probability of the occupation of an energy level “E” by an electron at

temperature “T” is given by

89
 1
F (E) 
 E  EF 
1  exp  
 K BT 

Where F (E) = Fermi Dirac distribution function

KB = Boltzmann constant
T = absolute temperature
EF = Fermi energy
E = Initial temperature
Depending on the values of the values of the Fermi-Dirac distribution F(E),
one can understood, whether the variation of energy levels of the metals is being
occupied (or) Unoccupied (or) Partially occupied.

Following are the different cases: -

1. Probability of occupation for E < EF at T=0K is

1 1
F (E)  
 1
1 e 1 0
F (E) = 1, Indicates the energy levels below Fermi level (EF) are completely filled.

2. Probability of occupation for E > EF at T=0K is

1 1
F (E)  
 0
1 e 
F (E) = 0, Indicates the energy levels above Fermi level (EF) are unoccupied.

3. Probability of occupation for E = EF

1 1 1
F (E )   
 E  EF 
  11 2
1 e  KT 

F (E) = 1/2, Indicates the energy levels above Fermi level (EF) are Partially filled.

The Fermi-Dirac distribution function F (E) depends on temperature.

Variation of F (E) with “T”: -

 At 0˚ K temperature all the energy levels

below Fermi level will get occupied and F
(E) =1.
 As we increasing the temperature, the energy
of Fermi level electrons also increases.

90
 The maximum energy that the free electrons can accept is “KBT”. The
variation of F (E) with “T” can be given from the above graphical representation.
This way the Fermi Dirac distribution helps us to understand the distribution
of electron to the various energy levels basing on the individual energies.
Fermi Energy: -
According to Pauli’s exclusive Principle only two electrons of opposite
spins can occupy any state. Let us consider a gas of “N” electrons cooled to 0˚K.
Two electrons will go into the ground state, two into each of the next higher
energy and so on, until all the electrons are allocated to state of lowest possible
energy. If N is even, the first N/2 levels are filled and the remaining is empty. In
this case N/2th level is called Fermi level and corresponding energy is called
“Fermi energy” denoted by EF.

The Fermi energy is concept in quantum mechanics usually referring to the

energy of the highest occupied quantum state in a system at absolute zero
temperature.

The temperature at which electrons possess energy equal to Fermi energy

is called Fermi temperature TF. It can be obtained as

K TF = EF (or) TF=EF / K where K is Boltzmann constant

The velocity of an electron having energy equal to Fermi energy is called

Fermi velocity. This can be obtained as
1 2 EF
mVF 2  EF (or ) VF 
2 m
(Or)

The energy of the state at which the probability occupation of electrons is

half at any temperature other than 0º K is called Fermi energy. The Fermi energy
can be evaluated by 2/3 2
3 h
2  
2/3
EF    n
  8m

Where h, m and n are constants, substituting these constants and then Fermi
energy
EF  3.62 X 1019 X n 2 / 3ev

The typical value of Fermi energy in metals is about 5 eV.

91
 UNIT-IV

Short answer questions QUANTUM MACHANICS

1. Explain the concept of matter waves.

The matter wave is also called as de Broglie wave. The matter-wave
describes the relationship between momentum and wavelength. The
wavelength is inversely proportional to the momentum (mass and velocity)
of the particle. The smaller the wavelength of the matter wave, the faster
the particle moves

2. What are matter waves and list out their properties?

Wave: -
A wave is nothing but spreading of disturbance in a medium. (or)
propagation of energy by creating the disturbance in the medium is called
wave.

Characteristics: -
4. Amplitude 4. Wave length
5. Time Period 5. Phase
6. Frequency 6. Intensity
Particle: -
If a certain amount of quantity occupies a certain space

Characteristics: -
3. Mass 4. Momentum
4. Velocity 5. Energy

Properties of Matter Waves.

6. Lighter is the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.

7. Smaller is the velocity of the particle, greater is the wavelength.
8. The motion of the particle generates matter waves
9. The fact is that matter waves are not electromagnetic waves.
10. The wavelength of matter waves depends on the velocity of matter
particles

92
3. Write short notes on Heisenberg uncertainty principle?
In 1927, Heisenberg proposed a very interesting principle know as
uncertainty principle, which states that “It is impossible to determine the
both position and momentum of the moving particle at the same time”. In
general, Δx denotes the error in measurement of the position of the particle
and Δp represents the error in the measurement of momentum

4. What is the physical significance of wave function?

1. The wave function ψ has no direct physical meaning. It is a complex
quantity represented the variation of matter wave. It connects the
particle nature and its associated wave nature.
2. It can tell the probability of the position of the particle at a time, but
it cannot predict the exact location of the particle at that time.
3. The probability of finding a particle in a particular volume dτ is
given by
Probability ( P )   * d   2 d where d =dx dy dz

4. When the particle presents in a particular volume, the total

probability of finding the particle where is unity.
2
i.e.  dx dy dz  1

5. Calculate the energy of a particle in 1-D box at first and second

excited states.

h2
If n  1, E1 
8 mL2
h2 h2 h2
E2   2 2
.  4.  4 E1
8 mL2 8 mL2 8 mL2
h2 h2 h2
E3   3 2
 9.  9 E1
8 mL2 8 mL2 8 mL2

93
 Short answer questions ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS

1. What are the Postulates of the classical free electron theory of metals
 According to Drude metals consists of positive (+ ve) ion cores and
negative (- ve) free electrons.
 The free electrons move randomly about the positive ion (+ ve) cores
 We assume, the potential energy inside the metal being zero (v=0)
 The free electrons move freely without considering the structure of the
metal.
 The free electron of the metals can be treated as gas molecules of
gaseous system. Hence, we have the name free electron gas model

2. Write any three failures of Classical and Quantum free electron

theory
Failures of Classical free electron theory
 The phenomenon such as photo electric effect, Compton Effect, Black
Body Radiation cannot explain classical free electron theory.
 Electrical conductivity of semiconductors (or) insulators could not
explain.
 Ferromagnetism cannot explain by this theory

Failures of d Quantum free electron theory

 The potential energy for an electron inside the metal is constant”. So that
the force acting on the electron is zero.
 The potential energy of an electron which is at rest inside the metal, must
be lower than that of an electron outside the metal.
 The distribution of electrons in the various allowed energy levels occurs
as per the Pauli’s exclusive principle.
 The distribution of energy among the free electron is according to Fermi-
Dirac statistics.

94
3. What is Fermi level and write an equation for Fermi-Dirac
distribution.
The highest energy level occupied by electrons at absolute zero is
known as “Fermi energy levels” (or) which divide (or) separate the
occupied state from the unoccupied states
The equation for Fermi Dirac Distribution
1
F (E) 
 E  EF 
1  exp  
 K BT 

4. What is Fermi Energy

According to Pauli’s exclusive Principle only two electrons of
opposite spins can occupy any state. Let us consider a gas of “N” electrons
cooled to 0˚K. Two electrons will go into the ground state, two into each
of the next higher energy and so on, until all the electrons are allocated to
state of lowest possible energy. If N is even, the first N/2 levels are filled
and the remaining is empty. In this case N/2th level is called Fermi level
and corresponding energy is called “Fermi energy” denoted by EF

95
 Problems on Quantum Mechanics

1. Calculate the wavelength associated with an electron with energy 2000 eV.
Sol: Given that

The energy of an electron E=2000 eV

The expression for wavelength of an electron in terms of energy is

h

2mE
Where h is a Plank’s Constant = 6.626x10-34 J-S
M is the mass of the electron = 9.1x10-31 Kg
Substituting the values we get
6.626x1034
  0.2745x10 10 m  0.2745 A
31 19
2x9.1x10 x2000x1.6x10

The wavelength of an electron λ=0.2745Aᵒ

2. Calculate the wavelength associated with an electron raised to a potential of 54V.

Sol: Given that

The potential applied to an electron V=54 V

The expression for wavelength of an electron in terms of potential is

12.27 12.27
   0.167nm
V 54
The wavelength of an electron λ=0.167 nm

3. Calculate the De-Broglie wavelength associated with a neutron moving with a

velocity of 2000m/s. (mass of the neutron m= 1.67x10-27 Kg, Planck’s constant
h=6.626x10-34 J-S).
Sol: Given that

The velocity of neutron v=2000ms-1

The mass of the neutron m=1.67x10-27Kg

Planck’s constant h=6.626x10-34 J-S

h
The expression for Debroglies wavelength is 
mv

Substituting the values then we get

96
 6.626x1034
  1.984x1010  1.984 A
1.67x1027 x2000

The wavelength of the electron λ=1.984Aᵒ

4. An electron is bound in one dimensional infinite well of width 1x10-10m. Find the
energy value of an electron in the ground state and first two excited states.
Sol: Given that

Length of the potential box L=1x10-10

Quantum states n=1, 2 and 3.
In one dimensional potential box, the energy corresponding to the nth quantum state is
n 2h 2
En 
8mL2
For ground state n=1
h2
E1 
8mL2

E1 
 6.626x10 34 2

 0.603x1017 J
8x9.1x10  31x(1x1010 ) 2
0.063x10-17
= eV  37.68eV
1.6x10-19
4h 2
For first energy state n=2 E2   4 E1  4x37.68  150.75eV
8mL2

For Second energy state n=3 9h 2

E3   9 E1  9x37.68  339.12eV
8mL2

The values of the electron in the ground state and first excited states are E1=37.68 eV,
E2=150.75eV and E3=339.12eV.

5. Calculate the energy required to jump an electron from ground state to the second
excited in a metal.
Sol: Given that

In one dimensional potential box, the energy corresponding the nth quantum
state is
n 2h 2
En 
8mL2

h2
Ground state energy E1 
8 mL2
9h 2
Second excited state energy E 3 
8 mL2

The required energy E=E3-E1

97
 9h 2 h2 h2
E  
8mL2 8mL2 mL2

6. Calculate the energy (in eV) required to jump an electron from ground state to the
second excited state in a metal of length 10-10m.
Sol: Given that

The length of metal L=10-10 m

The planks constant h=6.626x10-34 J/S

Mass of the electron m=9.1x10-31Kg

n 2h 2
The expression for energy corresponding to nth quantum state En 
is 8mL2

9h 2
For second excited state n=3 E 3 
8 mL2

9  6.626x1034 
2

E3   5.427x10 17 J
8x9.1x1031 x(1010 )2

The energy required to jump the electron from ground state to second excited state is
E3=338.806 eV.

Problems on Free Electron Theory

1. Find the relaxation time of conduction electron in a metal of resistivity

1.54x10-8 ohm-m, if the metal has 5.8x1028 conduction electrons/m3.

Sol: Given that

The resistivity of metal ρ = 1.54x10-8 ohm-m
Number of conduction electrons, n= 5.8x1028 m-3
charge of an electron e= 1.6x10-19 C
mass of the electron, m=9.108x10-31 kg

ne2
we know that the expression per conductivity is  =
m

98
 m
The resistivity,  
ne 2
m 9.108 x10  31
= 2 
ne  5.8x10 x(1.602x1019 ) 2 x1.54x108
28

= 0.397x10-13 S= 3.97x10-14s

The relaxation time τ=3.97x10-14s

2. The mean free collision time of copper at 300K is equal to 2x10-24 sec.
determine its electrical conductivity. The number of conduction electrons
is 8.5x1028 m3.
Sol: Given that, the mean free collision time τ= 2x10-14 sec
Charge of the electron e=1.6x10-19 C
Mass of the electron, m=9.108x10-31 Kg
The number of conduction electron n=8.5x1028/m3

ne2
we know that the expression per conductivity is  =
m

8.5x1028 x(1.6x1019 ) 2 x2x1014

 = 31
=4.78x107 /ohm-m
9.108x10
The electrical conductivity σ=4.78x107ohm-m.

3. Find the drift velocity of free electrons in a copper wire of cross-sectional

area 10mm2, when the wire carries a current of 100 A. assume that each
copper atom contributes one electron to the electron gas. Density of copper
is 9.92 x103 Kh/m3, atomic weight of copper is 63.5 and Avogadro’s
number is 6.02x1026/K-mol.
Sol: Given that,
Cross sectional area of wire A= 10 mm2=10 x10-6 m2
Current passing through the wire , i=100A.
Number of free electrons per atom = 1
Density of copper d=8.92x103 kgm-3
Atomic weight = 63.5
Avogadro’s number NA=6.02x1026/k-mol

99
 We know that the current density

i 100
J= =  1x107 A / m 2
A 10x10-6
The number of electron per m3 ,
Number of free electron per atom x N A x d
n=
Atomic weight
1x6.02x1036 x8.92x103
=  8.456x1028 / m3
63.5
The relaxation between current density and drift velocity is J=nevd

J 1x107
 d = = 28 19
 0.0731x103 m / s
ne 8.456x10 x1.6x10
The drift velocity of electron Vd= 0.0731x10-3 m/s

4. Calculate the Fermi function for an energy KBT above Fermi energy

Sol: Given that

E-EF=KBT
We know that the fermi – Dirac distribution function

1
F (E) 
 E  EF 
1  exp  
 K BT 
1
=
K T
1  exp  B 
 K BT 
1 1
= 
1  exp 1 1  2.78
1
=  0.269
3.78

The Fermi function for an energy KBT above the fermi F(E) = 0.269

100
5. Use the fermi distribution function to obtain the value of F(E) for
E-EF=0.01 ev .

Sol: Given that

Energy difference, E-EF=0.01 eV= 0.01 x 1.6 X10-19 J

Temperature T= 200K

Boltzmann’s constant KB= 1.38x10-23 J/K

1
F (E) 
 E  EF 
1  exp  
 K BT 
1
=  0.355
 0.01x1.6x1019 
1  exp  23 
 1.38x10 x200 
6. Calculate the fermi energy in eV for silver at 0K. the number of
conduction electron in silver is 5.863x1028/m3.
Sol: Given that
The number of conduction electron, n= 5.863x1028/m3
we know that expression for fermi energy is
2/3 2
3 h
2  
2/3
EF    n

  8 m
EF  3.62x1019 x(n) 2/3 eV
EF  3.62x1019 x(5.863x1028) 2/3
= 5.463 eV

The Fermi energy EF=5.463eV

101
 UNIT – V
Chapter – I: Semiconductors

Chapter – II: Smart materials

Course Outcome:

CO 5: Identify the type of semiconductor ,Smart materials and their applications

 SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

Introduction:-
The materials whose conductivity lies between good conductors and
insulators are known as semiconductors.

 Semiconductors behaves as insulators at low

temperature (0˚K) and as conductors at high
temperature
 Semiconductors have two types of charge carriers
i.e., electrons and holes.
 In semiconductor the forbidden band is very small.

Formation of energy bands:

The atoms in solids are held together by inter atomic force (or) bond. When
the attractive force and repulsive force between any two atoms are equal, the two
atoms occupy a stable position with a minimum potential energy. The spacing
between the atoms is called equilibrium spacing.

The electrons of a single atom occupy

atomic orbitals, which forms a discrete set of
energy levels. If several atoms brought together
to form a molecule, their atomic orbitals are
splits due to the Pauli’s exclusive principle. This
produces a number of molecular orbitals
proportional to the number of atoms. When a
large number of atoms are brought together to form a solid, the number of orbitals
became excluding large with forbidden energy gap between them is illustrated in
the figure for sodium metal.

The Na atom contains (11) eleven electrons having the electronic

configuration 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S1 3P0 ……… at 0˚K, the lower band is partially filled
with one electron known as the valence band (VB). The upper band is empty and
known as conduction band (CB). The gap between the two is forbidden energy
gap ∆E, which distinguish the metals, semi-conductors and insulators.

101
Classification of Solids:
Conductors:-
Definition: - The material which passes electric current freely through them is
called as conductors.

 In case of conductors there is no forbidden band, the

valence band and conduction band overlap each
other. Hence plenty of free electrons are available
for electric conduction.

 The electrons from valence band enter in the

conduction band. Due to overlapping of valency
band and conduction band a slight potential difference across the conductor
causes the free electrons to constitute electric current.

 In metals the conductivities are of the order of 107 Ohm-m.

Semiconductor:-

Definition: - The material which can pass electric current

partially through them is called as semiconductors.

 In Semiconductor the forbidden band is very small.

 Semiconductor materials are one whose electric

property lies between insulators and good conductors.

 At 0˚K, the valence band is completely filled and there are no electrons in
conduction band. When a small amount of energy is supplied, the electrons
can easily jump from valency band to conduction band.

Insulators:-
Definition: - The material that does not allow any electric current to pass through
them is called as Insulators.

 In case of Insulators, the forbidden energy band is very

wide. Due to this electron cannot jump from valency
band to conduction band.

102
  For example, in case of materials like glass the valency band is completely
fill at 0˚K and the energy gap between valence band and conduction bands
is of the order of 10 eV.

 Even in the presence of high electric field, the electrons do not move from
valency band to conduction band.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductors:

Depending on the purity and impurity of semiconductor it can be

classified into two types.
1. Intrinsic semiconductor (or) Pure semiconductors
2. Extrinsic semiconductors (or) Impure semiconductors

Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types, they are

1. P –Type semiconductors
2. N – Type semiconductors

Intrinsic semiconductor:-
Intrinsic semiconductors are those in which impurities are not present and
are called as pure semiconductors (or) intrinsic semiconductors.

(Or)

Highly pure semiconductors are called intrinsic

semiconductors

Ex: - Germanium, Silicon.

Mechanism:-

To understand the electrical conduction in intrinsic

semiconductor, let us consider the case of silicon. The atomic number of silicon
is 14. It has 4 electrons in the outermost orbit. i.e. it is a Si atoms is shared by the
valence electrons of four adjacent Si atoms and make four electrons pairs as
shown in figure.

103
Extrinsic semiconductor:-
The Extrinsic semiconductors are those in which impurities of large
quantity are present.

 The impurities can be either III group element (or) V group elements.

 These are classified into two types

1. N – Type Semiconductors
2. P – Type Semiconductors
N – Type Semiconductors:-

When a pentavalent element is doped into an

intrinsic semiconductor then four valence electrons of
impurity atoms form four covalent bonds with four
intrinsic atoms and fifth electrons is left free.

 This electron is free to move anywhere in the

crystal and is known as conduction electron, which
is denoted by pentavalent impurity.
 Hence V group elements are known as donor impurity.
 The number of electrons is more than the number of holes in N-Type
semiconductor.
 Hence electrons are majority charge carriers.
P-Type Semiconductors:-
When a trivalent impurity is doped into an intrinsic
semiconductor then the three valency electrons of
impurity atoms make three covalent bonds with three
intrinsic atoms and in the fourth bond one position is
vacant as intrinsic atom is supposed to make fourth
covalent bond.

 Hence, trivalent impurities are known as accepter impurity.

 The number of holes is more than the number of electrons in the P-Type
semiconductor.
 Hence, holes are the majority charge carriers and electrons are the minority
charge carriers.

104
Drift current:-

When an electric field “E” is applied along the x-axis then holes are drifted
(forced to move) (or) under the influence of an external electric field, the charge
carriers are forced to move in a particular direction constituting electric current.

The holes drift current density.

J drift  eP  p E...........(1)

μp = Mobility of holes
P = number of holes
e = charge of hole
E = electric field
Diffusion current:-
Due to the hole concentration gradient, diffusion (charge carries move
from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration) of holes takes place
(or) charge carriers in a semiconductor due to the result of as non-uniform
concentration of gradient is called diffusion.

diffusion current density is given by

dp
J diffusion  eDp ...........(2)
dx
Dp→ Diffusion coefficient of holes
e → charge of holes
dp
→ Rate of change of holes
dx
Then total current density
J p  J drif t  J diffusion
dp
J p  eP p E  eD p ...........(3)
dx
Due to drift and diffusion of holes, the rate of change of hole concentration
per unit length is dp . Then the rate of increase of total number of holes in the
dx

volume element is 
dp 
 dx .
 dx 

Then  dp  dJ p
  dx  
 dx  e
dp 1 dJ p
i.e.   ..........(5)
dt e dx
105
Substituting the value of Jp in equation (5)
dp 1 d  dp 
   eP p E  eD p . 
dt e dx  dx 
dp d2p
  p E  Dp 2
dx dx

Considering the generation and recombination process

dp P0  P 1 dJ p
 
dt Jp e dx
dp P0  P  p Edp d2p
   Dp 2
dt Jp dx dx

The above equation is continuity equation for holes.

Similarly, the continuity equation for electron is

dn n0  n n Edn d 2n
   Dn 2
dt Jn dx dx
Einstein equation:-
Since drift and diffusion result similar statistical mechanisms, the
parameters μ and D for a semiconductor material are not independent. Hoe ever
semiconductor devices in general operate under non-equilibrium condition. For
example, when a bar of N-Type germanium acting as a photo detecting device is
illuminated with light of sufficient energy, excess charge carriers are produced in
the exposed region of the material. Hence, the semiconductor is no longer in
thermal equilibrium. This leads to a diffusion current creating an internal electric
field and drift current balancing the diffusion component.
d  n 
i.e.  n  eE e  eDn
dx
The force “F” on excess carriers restarting equilibrium is given by the
product of excess charge and electric field.

 eD  d  n 
F   n  eE   n 
 e  dx

106
 According to the kinetic theory of gases, if the molecular concentration of
a gas increases by ∆n, the gas pressure increases by ∆nKT. The force
corresponding to the pressure gradient is given by KT . d  n  . By making an
dx
analogy between the excess carriers in a semiconductors and gas molecules in a
gas container, Dn
 KT  e
e
KT
 Dn  e
e

! The relation between diffusion coefficient and mobility of charge carriers is

termed as equation of Einstein. This relation given for holes by
KT
Dp   h
e
Dn e
Hence 
Dp  h
Hall Effect:-
When a magnetic field is applied
perpendicular to the current carrying conductor,
then a voltage is developed in the material
perpendicular to both magnetic field and current in
the conductor. This effect is known as Hall Effect.
The voltage developed is known as hall voltage
(VH).

Hall Effect is useful to identify the nature of charge carriers in a material

and hence we can decide the material in N-Type (or) P-Type semiconductor.

To explain Hall Effect, consider a rectangular block of semiconductor in

which current is flowing along the positive (+ve) X-direction and magnetic field
“B” is applied along Z-direction as shown in figure.

As the charge carriers are moving in a magnetic field experience a force

called Lorentz force.
FL  BeV ..........(1)
Due to this Lorentz force, if the material is n-type semiconductor then
electron will be deposited at face-1 and if the material is P-Type semiconductor
then holes will be deposited at the face-2.

107
 A potential difference, force is developed across face (1) and face (2)
causing a field FH. This field gives rise to a force.
FH  eEH ..........(2)

At equilibrium
FH  FL
eEH  BeV
EH  BV .........(3)

If “J” is current density, then J  neV

Where n is the concentration of V  J .........(4) charge carriers.

ne
Substitute equation (4) in equation (3)
BJ
 EH  ..........(5)
ne

For a given semiconductor, the hall field EH is proportional to the current

density “J” and the intensity of magnetic field “B” in the material.
i.e EH  JB
 EH  RH JB..........(6)  RH  Hall coefficient 

Equation (5) and (6) we have

BJ
 RH JB
ne
1
RH  .............(7)
ne

Generally, for N-Type semiconductor, Hall Effect is developed in negative

direction, negative (-ve) sign is used

1
RH   .............(8)
ne

Similarly for P-Type semiconductor

1
RH  .............(9)
pe

108
Determination of Hall coefficient:-

If “d” is the width of sample across which Hall voltage VH is measured.

Then
VH
EH 
d
VH  d .EH
VH  RH BJd

If “t” is the thickness of the sample, then its cross section is d.t and current
density can be written as
I
J
d .t
R .B.I .d RH BI
VH  H 
d .t t
V t
 RH  H
IB
Applications of Hall Effect:-

1. The sign of charge carriers is determined.

2. The carrier’s concentration (number of charge carriers per unit volume)

can be determined.

3. The mobility of charge carriers is measured directly.

4. Electrical conductivity of the material can be determined.

109
 SMART MATERIALS
Introduction:-
The new and emerging field of smart materials has significantly grown in
these 10-15 years. Of well-known groups of materials, such as metals, ceramics
and polymers, recently developed smart materials becomes more attractive for
study and use because of their high technological applications. For their tunability
and flexibility, smart materials are used as the building blocks of the most
advanced hybrid devices around.

In this chapter, we focus on the introduction of different types of smart

materials and their potential applications in various fields. In addition to showing
their position and importance in the modern human society, some very recent
applications of smart materials.

Properties of smart materials:

1. Smart materials fall in the category of advanced materials that can sense
external signals and stimuli actuate themselves and perform pre-
determined task.
2. These are highly engineered materials that can react or respond smartly to
the environment.
3. These materials are adaptive and are used in sensors and actuators.
4. The main features of smart materials are Transiency, Immediacy, Self-
actuation, Selectivity and directness.
5. These smart materials can be categorized into two types
1. Active smart materials
2. Passive smart materials
Active smart materials: These active smart materials having the
characteristics to modify their shape or materials properties under applied
electric, thermal or magnetic fields there by gaining an inherent capacity to
transduce energy.
Ex: Piezo-electric materials, SMAs, electrorheological (ER) fluid and
magnetostrictive materials.
Passive smart materials: These passive smart materials that transfer
energy to perform a certain task.
Ex: Fiber-optic materials can transfer electromagnetic wave to provide
communication.

110
Types of smart materials:
On the basis of different responses to environment stimuli, smart materials
are classified into several types. Some of them are
1. Shape memory alloys
2. Piezo-electric materials
3. Magnetostrictive materials
4. Thermoelectric materials
5. Magneto rheological fluids
6. Electro rheological fluids
7. Chromic materials
Shape memory alloys (SMAs):
These are types of alloys that recover their normal or original shape, that
is when they deform, they come back to their original shape. Among the smart
materials, SMAs are relatively new compared with piezo-electric, electrostrictive
and magnetostrictive materials. These materials are of less weight and has solid
state option to habitual actuators. These SMAs are act as both actuators and
sensors, thus SMAs are called smart or intelligent materials. SMAs that are
commonly available are Cu-Al-Ni and NI-Ti alloys. Besides, they also made by
Zn, Cu, Ag, Fe etc. SMAs are exist in various forms having three different crystal
structures – austenite, twinned martensite and de-twinned martensite.

To illustrate the origin of this shape memory effect, we consider, first, the
effect of temperature-induced phase transformation. In the absence of an applied
stress, the material transforms from austenite to twinned martensite as the
material is cooled and returns to the austenite phase when reheated.
Applications:
1. The SMAs have applications in the field of engineering, healthcare and
R&D.
2. SMAs find applications in the field of robotics, active shape control of
large antenna reflector surfaces

111
 3. And also find in active vibration control of large flexible, structures and
also heat engines.
4. SMAs could be used in food packaging that automatically opens up on
heating.
5. SMAs are also used in vibration attenuation in civil structures
6. It is used in design for improved flight characteristics

Piezo-electric materials:
‘Piezo’ is a Greek word meaning ‘Pressure’. The phenomenon of Piezo-
electricity was discovered in 1880by Pierre and Paul-Jacques Curie. In the case
of an electric charge or fluctuation in voltage, a piezo-electric material will go
through some mechanical change and vice versa. Piezo-electric material that can
produce electric energy upon the application of mechanical energy. This
phenomenon is called the direct and converse effect. Conversely, they undergo
material deformation in response to an applied electric field. They denoted this
effect as the Piezo-electric effect. The piezo electric materials also exhibit the
reciprocal property, that mechanical strain was induced when an electric signal
was applied to the material. The need for better and better piezo-electric materials
caused the development of synthetic materials that exhibited piezo-electric and
thermal properties, which made it superior to quartz crystals.

Piezo-Electric Effect:
Certain crystals e.g., quartz, Rochelle salt and tourmaline become
electrically polarized when a stress is applied. This effect is an electromechanical
phenomenon. This phenomenon of Polaraisation of a solid on which forces are
acting is called piezo-electric effect.
For a reasonable force, the Polaraisation is proportional to the magnitude
of the applied force. If the external force is reserved in sign, the Polaraisation is
proportional to the magnitude of the applied force. If the external force is reversed
in sign, the Polaraisation also changes in sign, the relationship between P and F
for particularly simple geometries is
P= constant. F
Where P is polarization and F is the external force.
The piezo-electric effect has an inverse, i.e., a dimensional change
produced in a crystal when it is placed in an electric field called inverse piezo-
electric effect. Piezo-electric strains are very small and corresponding electric
fields are very large. Conversely small strains can produce large electric fields.

112
Thus, piezo-electricity is characterized by a one-to-one correspondence of direct
and inverse effect.
Direct Piezo-electric Effect:
When mechanical stress is applied on these materials, the geometry of the
atomic structure of the crystal changes due to net movement of positive and
negative ions with respect to each other, resulting electric dipole or Polaraisation.
Thus, the crystal changes from a di-electric to a charged material. The amount of
voltage generated is directly proportional to the amount of stress applied to the
crystal. The generation of electric field due to pressure is shown in below figure.

Inverse Piezo-electric Effect:

When electricity is applied to these crystals, electric dipoles appear,

forming the dipole movement that causes deformation of the crystal thus giving
rise to inverse piezo-electric effect which is shown in figure.

113
Applications of Piezo electric materials:

1. Piezo-electric materials can operate at any temperature conditions.

2. They have low carbon making them the best alternative to fossil fuel.
3. Characteristics of these materials make them the best energy harvesters.
4. Unused energy lost in the form of vibrations can be tapped to generate
green energy
5. Piezo-electric materials are used as ceramic filters for communication and
radio, as well as other applications etc.
6. These materials can be reused.

Magnetostrictive Material:
Magnetostriction is a characteristic of ferromagnetic materials, which
enables them to alter their shape or dimension under magnetization.
Magnetostrictive materials can convert magnetic energy to kinetic energy and
vice versa. Thus, they can be used to build actuators and sensors. If the magnetic
field is applied in the direction of an applied stress, the resultant magnetostriction
will be larger than that without stress. Fe, Ni and Co were the first three
magnetostrictive materials. Legvold and Clark discovered giant magnetostriction
in the rare earth elements Dysprosium and Terbium. Later alloys called
Terfenol-D (T-D) comprising of Terbium, Dysprosium and Fe presented the best
options between a greater magnetostriction and a lower magnetic field at normal
room temperature. Terfenol-D (T-D) is the most easily available material for use
in many fields. Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT) is a piezoceramic material that has
low cost, light weight, high energy density and is easy to use.

Thermoelectric materials:
To overcome the energy crisis and environmental deterioration, the search
for alternative energies is gaining increasing attention. Therefore, there is an
urgent need to seek for alternative energy sources or to apply sustainable
solutions to increase the energy efficiency of fossil fuels. Thermo-electrics, in
particular solid-state conversion of heat to electricity, is expected to be a key
energy- harvesting technology to power sensors and wearable devices in the
future.

114
 Fortunately, thermo-electric (TE) materials harvesting electricity from
waste heat offer us an appealing option. The schematic diagram of Thermo-
electric (TE) is shown in figure, in which both n and p-type thermo-electric
materials are needed and can be assembled with
electrodes, bonding materials and insulators to
form TE Generators (TEGs). Advantages of
using TEGs are that they can collect waste heat
covering a wide temperature range with no
noise, vibrations or gas emissions and TEGs do
not need refueling or maintenance over a long
period. As a consequence, TEGs can improve
the energy efficiency of fossil fuels and provide
power supply simultaneously. A limit of the
practical applications of TEGs is their relatively
low efficiency, which strongly depends on TE
performance of materials.

With the development of highly efficient TEs, TEGs are expected to

provide robust energy support in many fields and have important roles in reducing
the consumption of fossil fuels. The efficiency of a power generation device is
given as
Th  Tc 1  ZT  1
 .
Th T
1  ZT  c
Th

Where, Th is the average temperature of the hot-end temperature and Tc is

the cold-end temperature.

The efficiency of TE materials is governed by the unitless figure-of-merit

at their applications temperature ZT defined as
S 2 T S 2 T
ZT  
K  Ke  K L 
Where S is the Seebeck coefficient, is the electrical conductivity, T is the
absolute temperature and K is the thermal conductivity, which is separated into
the carrier transport (Ke) and Lattice thermal conductivity (KL).

115
Magnetorheological (MR) fluids:
Magnetorheological (MR) fluids are smart materials characterized by fast,
tuneable and reversible changes of their rheological properties under application
of magnetic fields. MR fluids consist of dispersions of micronized particles of
magnetizable materials dispersed in a liquid. Application of magnetic fields result
in the magnetization of the dispersed particles, which consequently experience
attractive forces, giving rise to the formation of particle structures that oppose to
the flow. These fluids are composed of soft, spherical, magnetic particles whose
diameters range from 0.01 to 20 µm dispersed in an organic liquid.
Magnetorheological effect and sedimentation stability are two important factors
that make a good MR fluid.

Electro-rheological (ER) fluids:

Electro-rheological (ER) fluids typically suspensions of micron-sized
particles in suitable hydrophobic carrier liquids. When subjected to electrostatic
potential, these types of liquids have ability to undergo an abrupt and reversible
change in viscosity. An example of vibration control using ER fluids used hallow
graphite epoxy cantilever beams filled with various ER fluids. By applying
voltage across the beam, internal damping could be increased and vibrations
could be suppressed.

Chromic Materials:
Chromic means “colour change” and the materials that show colour change
are known as chromic materials. The phenomenon of color change is known as
chromism. Such colour change in materials can be brought about as a result of
some external stimuli such as an electric field, temperature, pressure, solvent,
light, humidity, vapour etc. Accordingly, the phenomenon is known as
electrochromism (colour change due to application of electric field),
thermochromism (colour change due to change in temperature), piezochromism
(due to pressure), solvatochromism (due to solvent), photochromism ( due to
light), humidochromism ( due to humidity), vapochromism (due to vapours or
gas), bi-chromism and so on.

A variety of materials such as dyes and pigments, conjugated conducting

polymers, oxides, molecules etc., show chromic phenomena. There are multiple
applications of such chromic materials. Some of the applications are already
technologically developed and are commercialized successfully. Whereas some
116
are in the developmental stage. The most common examples is sunglasses.
Sunglasses usually transparent in the shadow and become (opaque) colored in the
presence of sunlight, thus protecting our eyes from intense sunlight. Sunglasses
use photochromic material that changes colour due to light. Other examples of
chromic material include sensors, photochromic windows, smart windows,
electrochromic displays, molecular switches, memories etc.

Engineering Applications of Smart Materials:

Smart materials find a wide range of applications due to their varied
response to external stimuli. The different areas of application in our day-to-day
life are aerospace, civil engineering applications and mechatronics etc. smart
materials and structures is that they encompass all fields of science and
engineering.

1. Smart materials are used in Sensors and Actuators

2. Smart materials are used in Healthcare and Biomedical sectors
3. Smart materials are used in Aircrafts and Space.
4. Structural health monitoring: embedding sensors within structures to
monitor stress and damage can reduce maintenance costs and increase
lifespan.
5. Self-repair: self-repair could be important in inaccessible environments
such as underwater or in space.
6. Smart materials have been developed to suppress vibrations and change
shape in helicopter rotor blades.
7. Nuclear industries: smart technology offers new opportunities in nuclear
industrial sector for safety enhancement, personal exposure reduction, life-
cycle cost reduction and performance improvement.
8. Structural Engineering: These materials also used to monitor civil
engineering structure to evaluate their durability.
9. Biomedical Applications: in the field of biomedicine and medical
diagnostics, still investigations are being carried out for uses of smart
materials.
10.Reducing food waste: manufacturers are now looking for ways to extend
product life with packaging utilizing the smart materials.

117
 UNIT-V

Short answer questions SEMICONDUCTORS

1. Write a Note on Intrinsic Semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductor: -
Intrinsic semiconductors are those in which
impurities are not present and are called as pure
semiconductors (or) intrinsic semiconductors.
(Or)
Highly pure semiconductors are called intrinsic
semiconductors
Ex: - Germanium, Silicon.

2. Write a Note on Extrinsic Semiconductor

The Extrinsic semiconductors are those in which impurities of large
quantity are present.

 The impurities can be either III group element (or) V group elements.

 These are classified into two types

3. N – Type Semiconductors
4. P – Type Semiconductors

3. Explain about N-Type semiconductor

When a pentavalent element is doped into an
intrinsic semiconductor then four valence electrons
of impurity atoms form four covalent bonds with
four intrinsic atoms and fifth electrons is left free.

Hence V group elements are known as donor

impurity.
The number of electrons is more than the number
of holes in N-Type semiconductor.

118
4. Explain about P-Type semiconductor
When a trivalent impurity is doped into
an intrinsic semiconductor then the three
valency electrons of impurity atoms make three
covalent bonds with three intrinsic atoms and in
the fourth bond one position is vacant as
intrinsic atom is supposed to make fourth
covalent bond.

Hence, holes are the majority charge carriers and electrons are the minority
charge carriers.

5. Briefly explain about conductor, semiconductor and insulator.

Conductors: - The material which passes electric current freely through

them is called as conductors.

Semiconductor: -The material which can pass electric current partially

through them is called as semiconductors.

Insulators: -The material that does not allow any electric current to pass

through them is called as Insulators.

6. State Hall effect.

When a magnetic field is applied
perpendicular to the current carrying conductor,
then a voltage is developed in the material
perpendicular to both magnetic field and current
in the conductor. This effect is known as Hall
Effect.

119
 SMART MATERIALS

1. Explain two properties of smart materials

 Smart materials fall in the category of advanced materials that can

sense external signals and stimuli actuate themselves and perform pre-
determined task.
 These are highly engineered materials that can react or respond
smartly to the environment.
 These materials are adaptive and are used in sensors and actuators.
 The main features of smart materials are Transiency, Immediacy,
Self-actuation, Selectivity and directness.

2. Write a short note on Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs)

Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) are types of alloys that recover

their normal or original shape, that is when they deform, they come back
to their original shape.

3. Explain about applications of Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs)

 The SMAs have applications in the field of engineering, healthcare and

R&D.
 SMAs find applications in the field of robotics, active shape control of
large antenna reflector surfaces
 SMAs could be used in food packaging that automatically opens up on
heating.
 SMAs are also used in vibration attenuation in civil structures

4. Explain about applications of Piezo electric materials

 Piezo-electric materials can operate at any temperature conditions.

 Unused energy lost in the form of vibrations can be tapped to generate
green energy
 Piezo-electric materials are used as ceramic filters for communication
and radio, as well as other applications etc.
 These materials can be reused.

120
5. Write a short note on Magnetorheological (MR) fluids
Magnetorheological (MR) fluids are smart materials characterized by
fast, tuneable and reversible changes of their rheological properties under
application of magnetic fields.

6. Write a short note on Electro-rheological (ER) fluids

Electro-rheological (ER) fluids typically suspensions of micron-sized

particles in suitable hydrophobic carrier liquids.

7. Write a short note on Chromic Materials.

Chromic means “colour change” and the materials that show colour
change are known as chromic materials. The phenomenon of color
change is known as chromism.

8. Write a short note on applications of smart materials in the field of

Engineering

 Smart materials are used in Sensors and Actuators

 Smart materials are used in Healthcare and Biomedical sectors
 Smart materials are used in Aircrafts and Space.
 Structural health monitoring: embedding sensors within structures to
monitor stress and damage can reduce maintenance costs and increase
lifespan.
 Self-repair: self-repair could be important in inaccessible environments
such as underwater or in space.

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