4.

5 Concept of memories
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instruction. Computer
memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions
required for processing are stored.
The memory is divided into large number of small parts. Each part is called a cell. Each
location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory size minus one.
For example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536
memory location. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of two types
· Internal Memory − cache memory and primary/main memory
· External Memory − magnetic disk / optical disk etc.
RAM
A RAM constitutes the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and program
result. It is read/write memory. It is called random access memory (RAM).
Since access time in RAM is independent of the address to the word that is, each storage
location inside the memory is as easy to reach as other location & takes the same amount of
time. We can reach into the memory at random & extremely fast but can also be quite
expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure. Hence, a backup uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used with
computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can
hold.
RAM is of two types

· Static RAM (SRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power remains
applied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips
use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent
leakage, so SRAM need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher.
Static RAM is used as cache memory needs to be very fast and small.

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order for it to maintain the data. This
is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred
times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All
DRAMs are made up of memory cells. These cells are composed of one capacitor and one
transistor.
ROM
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot
write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture.
A ROM, stores such instruction as are required to start computer when electricity is first
turned on, this operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chip are not only used in the
computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
Following are the various types of ROM −

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data
or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs. It is inexpensive ROM.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM programmer. Inside the PROM chip
there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only
once and is not erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of upto 40 minutes.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming an electrical charge
is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than ten years because
the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through
a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During
normal use the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed
about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms
(millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed.
EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the
process of re-programming is flexible but slow.
4.6 Programmable Logic Devices (PLD)
Programmable Logic Devices are the integrated circuits. They contain an array of AND gates
& another array of OR gates. There are two types of PLDs based on the type of array, which
has programmable feature.
· Programmable Array Logic (PAL)
· Programmable Logic Array (PLA)
The process of entering the information into these devices is known as programming.
Basically, users can program these devices or ICs electrically in order to implement the
Boolean functions based on the requirement. Here, the term programming refers to hardware
programming but not software programming.
Programmable Array Logic (PAL)
PAL is a programmable logic device that has Programmable AND array & fixed OR array.
The advantage of PAL is that we can generate only the required product terms of Boolean
function instead of generating all the min terms by using programmable AND gates.
The block diagram of PAL is shown in the following figure.

Here, the inputs of AND gates are programmable. That means each AND gate has both
normal and complemented inputs of variables. So, based on the requirement, we can
program any of those inputs. So, we can generate only the required product terms by using
these AND gates.
Here, the inputs of OR gates are not of programmable type. So, the number of inputs to each
OR gate will be of fixed type. Hence, apply those required product terms to each OR gate as
inputs. Therefore, the outputs of PAL will be in the form of sum of products form.

Example

Let us implement the following Boolean functions using PAL.

A=XY+XZ′
B=XY′+YZ′
The given two functions are in sum of products form. There are two product terms present in
each Boolean function. So, we require four programmable AND gates & two fixed OR gates
for producing those two functions. The corresponding PAL is shown in the following figure.
The programmable AND gates have the access of both normal and complemented inputs
of variables. In the above figure, the inputs X, X′, Y, Y′, Z & Z′, are available at the inputs of
each AND gate. So, program only the required literals in order to generate one product term
by each AND gate. The symbol ‘X’ is used for programmable connections.
Here, the inputs of OR gates are of fixed type. So, the necessary product terms are connected
to inputs of each OR gate. So that the OR gates produce the respective Boolean functions.
The symbol ‘.’ is used for fixed connections.
Programmable Logic Array (PLA)
PLA is a programmable logic device that has both Programmable AND array &
Programmable OR array. Hence, it is the most flexible PLD. The block diagram of PLA is
shown in the following figure.

Here, the inputs of AND gates are programmable. That means each AND gate has both
normal and complemented inputs of variables. So, based on the requirement, we can
program any of those inputs. So, we can generate only the required product terms by using
these AND gates.
Here, the inputs of OR gates are also programmable. So, we can program any number of
required product terms, since all the outputs of AND gates are applied as inputs to each OR
gate. Therefore, the outputs of PAL will be in the form of sum of products form.

Example

Let us implement the following Boolean functions using PLA.

The programmable AND gates have the access of both normal and complemented inputs
of variables. In the above figure, the inputs X, X′, Y, Y′, Z & Z′, are available at the inputs of
each AND gate. So, program only the required literals in order to generate one product term
by each AND gate.
All these product terms are available at the inputs of each programmable OR gate. But, only
program the required product terms in order to produce the respective Boolean functions by
each OR gate. The symbol ‘X’ is used for programmable connections.