284 Chapter 5 Integration

5.1 antiderivatives and Indefinite Integration

Write the general solution of a differential equation and use indefinite integral
notation for antiderivatives.
Use basic integration rules to find antiderivatives.
Find a particular solution of a differential equation.

Antiderivatives
To find a function F whose derivative is f (x) = 3x2, you might use your knowledge of
Exploration derivatives to conclude that
Finding Antiderivatives d 3
For each derivative, describe F(x) = x3 because [x ] = 3x2.
dx
the original function F.
The function F is an antiderivative of f.
a. F′(x) = 2x
b. F′(x) = x
c. F′(x) = x2 Definition of antiderivative
1 A function F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I when F′(x) = f (x) for
d. F′(x) = 2 all x in I.
x
1
e. F′(x) = 3
x Note that F is called an antiderivative of f rather than the antiderivative of f. To
f. F′(x) = cos x see why, observe that
What strategy did you use to F1(x) = x 3, F2(x) = x 3 − 5, and F3(x) = x 3 + 97
find F?
are all antiderivatives of f (x) = 3x2. In fact, for any constant C, the function
F(x) = x 3 + C is an antiderivative of f.

thEorEm 5.1 representation of antiderivatives

If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I, then G is an
antiderivative of f on the interval I if and only if G is of the
form G(x) = F(x) + C for all x in I, where C is a constant.

Proof The proof of Theorem 5.1 in one direction is straightforward. That is, if
G(x) = F(x) + C, F′(x) = f (x), and C is a constant, then
d
G′(x) = [F(x) + C] = F′(x) + 0 = f (x).
dx
To prove this theorem in the other direction, assume that G is an antiderivative of f.
Define a function H such that
H(x) = G(x) − F(x).
For any two points a and b (a < b) in the interval, H is continuous on [a, b] and
differentiable on (a, b). By the Mean Value Theorem,
H(b) − H(a)
H′(c) =
b−a
for some c in (a, b). However, H′(c) = 0, so H(a) = H(b). Because a and b are
arbitrary points in the interval, you know that H is a constant function C. So,
G(x) − F(x) = C and it follows that G(x) = F(x) + C.
 5.1 Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integration 285

Using Theorem 5.1, you can represent the entire family of antiderivatives of a
function by adding a constant to a known antiderivative. For example, knowing that
Dx [x2] = 2x
you can represent the family of all antiderivatives of f (x) = 2x by
G(x) = x2 + C Family of all antiderivatives of f (x) = 2x

where C is a constant. The constant C is called the constant of integration. The

f­amily of functions represented by G is the general antiderivative of f, and
G(x) = x2 + C is the general solution of the differential equation
G′(x) = 2x. Differential equation

A differential equation in x and y is an equation that involves x, y, and derivatives

of y. For instance,
y′ = 3x and y′ = x2 + 1
y are examples of differential equations.

2
C=0 Solving a Differential Equation
C=2 1 Find the general solution of the differential equation dydx = 2.
C = −1
x
Solution To begin, you need to find a function whose derivative is 2. One such
−2 1 2 function is
−1 y = 2x. 2x is an antiderivative of 2.

Now, you can use Theorem 5.1 to conclude that the general solution of the differential
equation is
y = 2x + C. General solution
Functions of the form y = 2x + C
Figure 5.1 The graphs of several functions of the form y = 2x + C are shown in Figure 5.1.

When solving a differential equation of the form

dy
= f (x)
dx
it is convenient to write it in the equivalent differential form
dy = f (x) dx.
The operation of finding all solutions of this equation is called antidifferentiation (or
indefinite integration) and is denoted by an integral sign ∫. The general solution is
denoted by

Variable of Constant of
integration integration

y= ∫ f (x) dx = F(x) + C.
remark In this text, the
notation ∫ f (x) dx = F(x) + C Integrand An antiderivative
means that F is an antiderivative of f (x)
of f on an interval.

The expression ∫ f (x) dx is read as the antiderivative of f with respect to x. So, the
differential dx serves to identify x as the variable of integration. The term indefinite
integral is a synonym for antiderivative.
286 Chapter 5 Integration

Basic Integration Rules

The inverse nature of integration and differentiation can be verified by substituting
F′(x) for f (x) in the indefinite integration definition to obtain

∫ F′(x) dx = F(x) + C. Integration is the “inverse” of differentiation.

Moreover, if ∫ f (x) dx = F(x) + C, then

[ ∫ f (x) dx] = f (x).

rEmark The Power Rule for d
Integration has the restriction that Differentiation is the “inverse” of integration.
−1
dx
n ≠ −1. To evaluate ∫ x dx, you
must use the natural log rule. (See
Exercise 77.) These two equations allow you to obtain integration formulas directly from
differentiation formulas, as shown in the following summary.

Basic Integration rules

Differentiation Formula Integration Formula
d
dx
[C] = 0 ∫ 0 dx = C

d
dx
[kx] = k ∫ k dx = kx + C

d
dx
[kf (x)] = kf ′(x) ∫ ∫
kf (x) dx = k f (x) dx

d
dx
[ f (x) ± g(x)] = f′(x) ± g′(x) ∫ [ f (x) ± g(x)] dx = ∫ f (x) dx ± ∫ g(x) dx

d n
dx
[x ] = nx n−1 ∫ x n dx =
x n+1
n+1
+ C, n ≠ −1 Power Rule

d
dx
[sin x] = cos x ∫ cos x dx = sin x + C

d
dx
[cos x] = −sin x ∫ sin x dx = −cos x + C

d
dx
[tan x] = sec2 x ∫ sec2 x dx = tan x + C

d
dx
[sec x] = sec x tan x ∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x + C

d
dx
[cot x] = −csc2 x ∫ csc2 x dx = −cot x + C

d
dx
[csc x] = −csc x cot x ∫ csc x cot x dx = −csc x + C

d x
dx
[e ] = e x ∫ e x dx = e x + C

d x
dx
[a ] = (ln a)a x ∫ a x dx = (ln1a)a x +C

d
dx
1
[ln x] = ,
x
x > 0 ∫ 1
x ∣∣
dx = ln x + C
 5.1 Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integration 287

Describing Antiderivatives

∫ ∫
remark In Example 2,
note that the general pattern of 3x dx = 3 x dx Constant Multiple Rule
integration is similar to that of
differentiation.
∫
= 3 x1 dx Rewrite x as x1.

Original integral
(x2 ) + C
2
=3 Power Rule (n = 1)

3
Rewrite = x2 + C Simplify.
2
The antiderivatives of 3x are of the form 32 x 2 + C, where C is any constant.
Integrate
When finding indefinite integrals, a strict application of the basic integration rules
tends to produce complicated constants of integration. For instance, in Example 2, the
solution could have been written as
Simplify
∫ ∫
3x dx = 3 x dx = 3 (x2 + C) = 32 x
2
2 + 3C.

Because C represents any constant, it is both cumbersome and unnecessary to write

3C as the constant of integration. So, 32 x 2 + 3C is written in the simpler form 32 x 2 + C.

 Rewriting Before Integrating

See LarsonCalculus.com for an interactive version of this type of example.

remark The properties Original Integral Rewrite Integrate Simplify

of logarithms presented on
page 56 can be used to rewrite
a. ∫
1
x3
dx ∫ x−3 dx
x−2
−2
+C
1
− 2+C
2x
antiderivatives in different
forms. For instance, the b. ∫ √x dx ∫ x12 dx
x32
32
+C
2 32
3
x +C

∫ ∫
antiderivative in Example 3(d)
can be rewritten as c. 2 sin x dx 2 sin x dx 2(−cos x) + C −2 cos x + C
∣∣ ∣∣
∫ ∫
3 ln x + C = ln x 3 + C.
3 1
d.
x
dx 3
x
dx ∣∣
3(ln x ) + C ∣∣
3 ln x + C

Integrating Polynomial Functions

∫ ∫
remark The basic
integration rules allow you a. dx = 1 dx Integrand is understood to be 1.
to integrate any polynomial
function. =x+C Integrate.

b. ∫ (x + 2) dx = ∫ x dx + ∫ 2 dx

x2
=
+ C1 + 2x + C2 Integrate.
2
x2
= + 2x + C C = C1 + C2
2
The second line in the solution is usually omitted.

∫
c. (3x 4 − 5x2 + x) dx = 3
x5
5
−5 ( )
x3
3
x2
( ) 3 5 1
+ + C = x5 − x3 + x2 + C
2 5 3 2
288 Chapter 5 Integration

 Rewriting Before Integrating

remark Before you begin
the exercise set, be sure you ∫ x+1
√x
dx = ∫( x
√x
+
1
√x ) dx Rewrite as two fractions.

∫
realize that one of the most
important steps in integration = (x12 + x−12) dx Rewrite with fractional exponents.
is rewriting the integrand in
a form that fits one of the x32 x12
basic integration rules. = + +C Integrate.
32 12
2
= x 32 + 2x12 + C Simplify.
3
2
= √x (x + 3) + C
3

When integrating quotients, do not integrate the numerator and denominator

separately. This is no more valid in integration than it is in differentiation. For instance,
in Example 5, be sure you understand that

∫ x+1
√x
2
dx = √x (x + 3) + C
3
is not the same as
1
∫ (x + 1) dx 2 x2 + x + C1
= 2 .
∫ √x dx 3 x√x + C2

 Rewriting Before Integrating

∫ sin x
cos2 x
dx = ∫( 1
cos x )(cos x)
sin x
dx Rewrite as a product.

= ∫sec x tan x dx Rewrite using trigonometric identities.

= sec x + C Integrate.

technology Some  Rewriting Before Integrating

software programs, such as
Maple and Mathematica, Original Integral Rewrite Integrate Simplify
are capable of performing
integration symbolically. If
you have access to such a
a. ∫ 2
√x
dx ∫
2 x−12 dx 2
x12
12
+C ( ) 4x12 + C

symbolic integration utility,

try using it to evaluate the
∫
b. (t 2 + 1)2 dt ∫
(t 4 + 2t 2 + 1) dt
t5
5
+2
t3
3
+t+C () 1 5 2 3
5
t + t +t+C
3
indefinite integrals in Example 7.
c. ∫x3 + 3
x2 dx ∫
(x + 3x−2) dx
x2
2
+3
x−1
−1
+C ( ) 1 2 3
2
x − +C
x

d. ∫
3 x (x − 4) dx
√ ∫ (x 43 − 4x13) dx
73
x
73
− 4(
43 )
x 43
+C
3 73
7
x − 3x 43 + C

As you do the exercises, note that you can check your answer to an
antidifferentiation problem by differentiating. For instance, in Example 7(a), you can
check that 4x12 + C is the correct antiderivative by differentiating the answer to obtain

Dx [4x12 + C] = 4 (12)x −12 =

√x
2
. Use differentiation to check antiderivative.
 5.1 Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integration 289
y
Initial Conditions and Particular Solutions
4
(2, 4) You have already seen that the equation y = ∫ f (x) dx has many solutions (each differing
C=4
from the others by a constant). This means that the graphs of any two antiderivatives of
3
f are vertical translations of each other. For example, Figure 5.2 shows the graphs of
several antiderivatives of the form

∫
C=3
2
y= (3x 2 − 1) dx = x3 − x + C General solution
C=2
1
for various integer values of C. Each of these antiderivatives is a solution of the
C=1 differential equation
x
−2 1 2 dy
C=0 = 3x 2 − 1.
dx
−1

C = −1 In many applications of integration, you are given enough information to ­determine

−2 a particular solution. To do this, you need only know the value of y = F(x) for one
value of x. This information is called an initial condition. For example, in Figure 5.2,
C = −2
only one curve passes through the point (2, 4). To find this curve, you can use the
−3
general solution
C = −3
−4 F(x) = x3 − x + C General solution
C = −4
and the initial condition
F(x) = x 3 − x + C
F(2) = 4. Initial condition
The particular solution that satisfies
the initial condition F(2) = 4 is By using the initial condition in the general solution, you can determine that
F(x) = x 3 − x − 2.
F(2) = 8 − 2 + C = 4
Figure 5.2
which implies that C = −2. So, you obtain
F(x) = x 3 − x − 2. Particular solution

Finding a Particular Solution

Find the general solution of
F′(x) = e x Differential equation

and find the particular solution that satisfies the initial condition
F(0) = 3. Initial condition
y
Solution To find the general solution, integrate to obtain

∫
8
7
F(x) = e x dx
6
5
(0, 3) = e x + C. General solution
C=3
Using the initial condition F(0) = 3, you can solve for C as follows.
C=2
C=1 F(0) = e0 + C
C=0
x
3=1+C
C = −1 2 2=C
C = −2
C = −3 So, the particular solution is
The particular solution that satisfies F(x) = e x + 2 Particular solution
the initial condition F(0) = 3 is
F(x) = e x + 2. as shown in Figure 5.3. Note that Figure 5.3 also shows the solution curves that correspond
Figure 5.3 to C = −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, and 3.
290 Chapter 5 Integration

So far in this section, you have been using x as the variable of integration. In
a­ pplications, it is often convenient to use a different variable. For instance, in the next
example, involving time, the variable of integration is t.

Solving a Vertical Motion Problem

A ball is thrown upward with an initial velocity of 64 feet per second from an initial
height of 80 feet. [Assume the acceleration is a(t) = −32 feet per second per second.]
a. Find the position function giving the height s as a function of the time t.
b. When does the ball hit the ground?
Solution
a. Let t = 0 represent the initial time. The two given initial conditions can be written
as follows.
s(t) = −16t 2 + 64t + 80
s s(0) = 80 Initial height is 80 feet.
150 t=2 s′(0) = 64 Initial velocity is 64 feet per second.
140
130 t=3 Recall that a(t) = s ″(t). So, you can write
120 t=1
s″(t) = −32

∫ ∫
110
100
s′(t) = s″(t) dt = −32 dt = −32t + C1.
Height (in feet)

90
80 t=4
t=0
70 Using the initial velocity, you obtain s′(0) = 64 = −32(0) + C1, which implies
60 that C1 = 64. Next, by integrating s′(t), you obtain

∫ ∫
50
40
30
s(t) = s′(t) dt = (−32t + 64) dt = −16t 2 + 64t + C2.
20
10 t=5 Using the initial height, you obtain
t
1 2 3 4 5 s(0) = 80 = −16(02) + 64(0) + C2
Time (in seconds)
which implies that C2 = 80. So, the position function is
Height of a ball at time t
Figure 5.4 s(t) = −16t 2 + 64t + 80. See Figure 5.4.

b. Using the position function found in part (a), you can find the time at which the ball
hits the ground by solving the equation s(t) = 0.
−16t 2 + 64t + 80 = 0
−16(t + 1)(t − 5) = 0
t = −1, 5
Because t must be positive, you can conclude that the ball hits the ground 5 seconds
after it was thrown.

In Example 9, note that the position function has the form

1
s(t) = − gt 2 + v0 t + s0
2
where g is the acceleration due to gravity, v0 is the initial velocity, and s0 is the initial
height, as presented in Section 3.2.
Example 9 shows how to use calculus to analyze vertical motion problems in which
the acceleration is determined by a gravitational force. You can use a similar strategy to
analyze other linear motion problems (vertical or horizontal) in which the acceleration
(or deceleration) is the result of some other force, as you will see in Exercises 65–72.
 5.1 Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integration 291

5.1 Exercises See CalcChat.com for tutorial help and worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

Concept Check 21. ∫1

x5
dx 22. ∫( 2−
3
x10)dx
1. Antiderivative What does it mean for a function F to
be an antiderivative of a function f on an interval I? 23. ∫x+6
√x
dx 24. ∫ x 4 − 3x2 + 5
x4
dx
2. Antiderivatives Can two different functions both be
antiderivatives of the same function? Explain. 25. ∫(5 cos x + 4 sin x) dx 26. ∫ (sin x − 6 cos x) dx
3. Particular Solution What is a particular solution of
a differential equation? 27. ∫(sec2 θ − sin θ ) dθ 28. ∫ (sec y)(tan y − sec y) dy
4. General and Particular Solutions Describe the
difference between the general solution and a particular 29. ∫(tan2 y + 1) dy 30. ∫ (4x − csc2 x) dx

∫ ∫
solution of a differential equation.
31. (2 sin x − 5e x) dx 32. (e x − x) dx
Integration and Differentiation In Exercises 5 and 6,
verify the statement by showing that the derivative of the right 33. ∫(2x − 4 x) dx 34. ∫ (cos x + 3x) dx

∫( ∫(
side equals the integrand on the left side.
5
) 4
)
5. ∫( 6
) 2
− 4 dx = 3 + C
x x
35. x−
x
dx 36.
x
+ sec2 x dx

6. ∫( 8x 3 +
1
)
2x 2
dx = 2x 4 −
1
2x
+C
Finding a Particular Solution In Exercises

37–44, find the particular solution of the differential
equation that satisfies the initial condition(s).
Solving a Differential Equation In Exercises
37. f ′(x) = 6x, f (0) = 8 38. g′(x) = 4x 2, g(−1) = 3
7– 10, find the general solution of the differential
equation and check the result by differentiation. 39. f ″(x) = 2, f ′(2) = 5, f (2) = 10

dy dy 40. f ″(x) = 3x2, f ′(−1) = −2, f (2) = 3

7. = 9t2  
8. =5
dt dt 41. f ″(x) = x−32, f ′(4) = 2, f (0) = 0
dy dy 42. f ″(x) = sin x, f ′(0) = 1, f (0) = 6
9. = x 32 10. = 2x−3
dx dx 43. f ″(x) = e x, f ′(0) = 2, f (0) = 5
Rewriting Before Integrating In Exercises 2
44. f ″(x) = , f ′(1) = 4, f (1) = 3
11–14, complete the table to find the indefinite x2
integral. Slope Field In Exercises 45 and 46, a differential equation, a
point, and a slope field are given. A slope field (or direction field)
Original Integral  Rewrite  Integrate  Simplify

∫
consists of line segments with slopes given by the differential
11. 3 x dx
√ equation. These line segments give a visual perspective of the
slopes of the solutions of the differential equation. (a) Sketch two

12. ∫ 1
4x2
dx
approximate solutions of the differential equation on the slope
field, one of which passes through the indicated point. (To print

∫
an enlarged copy of the graph, go to MathGraphs.com.) (b) Use
1
13. dx integration and the given point to find the particular solution
x√x of the differential equation and use a graphing utility to graph
14. ∫ 1
(3x)2
dx the solution. Compare the result with the sketch in part (a) that
passes through the given point.

Finding an Indefinite Integral In Exercises

 45. dydx = x2 − 1, (−1, 3) 46. dydx = −1x2, (1, 3)
y y
15–36, find the indefinite integral and check the
result by differentiation. 3 4

∫ ∫
3
15. (x + 7) dx 16. (x 5 + 1) dx 2
1

17. ∫ (x 32 + 2x + 1) dx 18. ∫(√x +

1
2√x
dx ) −3 3
x
−1 7
x

∫ ∫
−2
19. (x + 1)(3x − 2) dx 20. (4t 2 + 3)2 dt −3
−3 −4
292 Chapter 5 Integration

Slope Field In Exercises 47 and 48, (a) use a graphing 54. Sketching graphs The graphs of f and f ′ each pass
utility to graph a slope field for the differential equation, through the origin. Use the graph of f ″ shown in the figure to
(b) use integration and the given point to find the particular sketch the graphs of f and f ′. To print an enlarged copy of the
solution of the differential equation, and (c) graph the particular graph, go to MathGraphs.com.
solution and the slope field in the same viewing window. y

dy 4
47. = 2x, (−2, −2)
dx
2 f″
dy
48. = 2√x, (4, 12)
dx x
−4 −2 2 4
−2
eXpLoRInG ConCeptS
Sketching a graph In Exercises 49 and 50, the graph −4
of the derivative of a function is given. Sketch the graphs
of two functions that have the given derivative. (There is 55. tree growth An evergreen nursery usually sells a certain
more than one correct answer.) To print an enlarged copy type of shrub after 6 years of growth and shaping. The growth
of the graph, go to MathGraphs.com. rate during those 6 years is approximated by dhdt = 1.5t + 5,
where t is the time in years and h is the height in centimeters.
49. y 50. y
The seedlings are 12 centimeters tall when planted (t = 0).
6 2 (a) Find the height after t years.
f′ f′
1 (b) How tall are the shrubs when they are sold?
2 x
−2 −1 1 2
56. Population growth The rate of growth dPdt of a
x population of bacteria is proportional to the square root of
−4 −2 2 4 t, where P is the population size and t is the time in days
−2 −2
(0 ≤ t ≤ 10). That is,
51. Comparing Functions Consider f (x) = tan2 x and dP
= k√t.
g(x) = sec2 x. What do you notice about the derivatives dt
of f and g? What can you conclude about the relationship
between f and g? The initial size of the population is 500. After 1 day, the
population has grown to 600. Estimate the population after
7 days.

Vertical motion In Exercises 57–59, assume the

52. hoW Do yoU SEE It? Use the graph of acceleration of the object is a(t) = −32 feet per second per
f ′ shown in the figure to answer the following. second. (Neglect air resistance.)
y
57. A ball is thrown vertically upward from a height of 6 feet with an
5 initial velocity of 60 feet per second. How high will the ball go?
4
3 f′
58. With what initial velocity must an object be thrown upward
2
(from ground level) to reach the top of the Washington
x Monument (approximately 550 feet)?
−2 1 2 3 5 7 8
59. A balloon, rising vertically with a velocity of 16 feet per
second, releases a sandbag at the instant it is 64 feet above the
ground.

(a) Approximate the slope of f at x = 4. Explain. (a) How many seconds after its release will the bag strike the
ground?
(b) Is f (5) − f (4) > 0? Explain.
(b) At what velocity will the bag hit the ground?
(c) Approximate the value of x where f is maximum.
Explain.
Vertical motion In Exercises 60– 62, assume the
(d) Approximate any open intervals on which the acceleration of the object is a(t) = −9.8 meters per second per
graph of f is concave upward and any open second. (Neglect air resistance.)
intervals on which it is concave downward.
Approximate the x-coordinates of any points 60. A baseball is thrown upward from a height of 2 meters with
of inflection. an initial velocity of 10 meters per second. Determine its
maximum height.
61. With what initial velocity must an object be thrown upward
53. horizontal tangent Find a function f such that the
(from a height of 2 meters) to reach a maximum height of
graph of f has a horizontal tangent at (2, 0) and f ″(x) = 2x.
200 meters?
 5.1 Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integration 293

62. grand Canyon 70. Deceleration A car traveling at 45 miles per hour is
The Grand Canyon is brought to a stop, at constant deceleration, 132 feet from
1800 meters deep at where the brakes are applied.
its deepest point. A (a) How far has the car moved when its speed has been
rock is dropped from reduced to 30 miles per hour?
the rim above this (b) How far has the car moved when its speed has been
point. How long will it reduced to 15 miles per hour?
take the rock to hit the
canyon floor? (c) Draw the real number line from 0 to 132. Plot the points
found in parts (a) and (b). What can you conclude?
71. acceleration At the instant the traffic light turns green,
63. lunar gravity On the moon, the acceleration of a a car that has been waiting at an intersection starts with a
free-falling object is a(t) = −1.6 meters per second per constant acceleration of 6 feet per second per second. At the
second. A stone is dropped from a cliff on the moon and hits same instant, a truck traveling with a constant velocity of
the surface of the moon 20 seconds later. How far did it fall? 30 feet per second passes the car.
What was its velocity at impact? (a) How far beyond its starting point will the car pass the
64. Escape Velocity The minimum velocity required for an truck?
object to escape Earth’s gravitational pull is obtained from the (b) How fast will the car be traveling when it passes the truck?
solution of the equation
72. acceleration Assume that a fully loaded plane starting

∫ 1
v dv = −GM 2 dy
y ∫ from rest has a constant acceleration while moving down a
runway. The plane requires 0.7 mile of runway and a speed
of 160 miles per hour in order to lift off. What is the plane’s
where v is the velocity of the object projected from Earth, y
acceleration?
is the distance from the center of Earth, G is the gravitational
constant, and M is the mass of Earth. Show that v and y are true or False? In Exercises 73 and 74, determine whether
related by the equation the statement is true or false. If it is false, explain why or give
an example that shows it is false.
1
v 2 = v02 + 2GM −
y
1
R ( )
73. The antiderivative of f (x) is unique.
where v0 is the initial velocity of the object and R is the radius
74. Each antiderivative of an nth-degree polynomial function is an
of Earth.
(n + 1)th-degree polynomial function.
rectilinear motion In Exercises 65– 68, consider a particle
moving along the x-axis, where x(t) is the position of the 75. Proof Let s(x) and c(x) be two functions satisfying
particle at time t, x′(t) is its velocity, and x″(t) is its acceleration. s′(x) = c(x) and c′(x) = −s(x) for all x. If s(0) = 0 and
c(0) = 1, prove that [s(x)]2 + [c(x)]2 = 1.
65. x(t) = t 3 − 6t 2 + 9t − 2, 0 ≤ t ≤ 5 76. think about It Find the general solution of
(a) Find the velocity and acceleration of the particle.
f ′(x) = −2x sin x2.
(b) Find the open t-intervals on which the particle is moving
to the right.
(c) Find the velocity of the particle when the acceleration is 0.
77. Verification Verify the natural log rule ∫ 1
x ∣∣
dx = ln x + C

66. Repeat Exercise 65 for the position function ∣∣

by showing that the derivative of ln x + C is 1x.
x(t) = (t − 1)(t − 3)2, 0 ≤ t ≤ 5.
67. A particle moves along the x-axis at a velocity of v(t) = 1√t,
78. Verification Verify the natural log rule ∫ 1
x ∣ ∣
dx = ln Cx ,

t > 0. At time t = 1, its position is x = 4. Find the acceleration ∣ ∣

C ≠ 0, by showing that the derivative of ln Cx is 1x.
and position functions for the particle.
68. A particle, initially at rest, moves along the x-axis such that pUtnAM eXAM ChALLenGe
its acceleration at time t > 0 is given by a(t) = cos t. At time
79. Suppose f and g are non-constant, differentiable, real-
t = 0, its position is x = 3.
valued functions defined on (− ∞, ∞). Furthermore,
(a) Find the velocity and position functions for the particle. suppose that for each pair of real numbers x and y,
(b) Find the values of t for which the particle is at rest.
f (x + y) = f (x) f ( y) − g(x)g( y) and
69. acceleration The maker of an automobile advertises that g(x + y) = f (x)g( y) + g(x) f ( y).
it takes 13 seconds to accelerate from 25 kilometers per hour If f ′(0) = 0, prove that ( f (x))2 + ( g(x))2 = 1 for all x.
to 80 kilometers per hour. Assume the acceleration is constant. This problem was composed by the Committee on the Putnam Prize Competition.
(a) Find the acceleration in meters per second per second. © The Mathematical Association of America. All rights reserved.

(b) Find the distance the car travels during the 13 seconds.
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