Constructivism Theory

A. Background of Constructivism Theory

The exact origin of Constructivism as a theory is unclear. No single individual or movement has been
definitively credited with the development or establishment of its foundations in modern times.
However, the roots of the constructivist approach can be traced to the works of Vico, Goodman,
Rousseau, Kant, Dewey, and Vygotsky. Later, Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, along with Jerome S. Bruner
and Ernst von Glasersfeld, significantly shaped and formalized the constructivist framework.

Constructivism is a complex theory, intersecting with disciplines such as philosophy, psychology,

sociology, science, and education. In the field of education, Constructivism formally emerged as a theory
of knowledge and learning in the 1980s through the influential works of Bruner and von Glasersfeld.
Their contributions gained widespread attention among educators during the 1990s.

According to Coburn and Derry, as cited by Isjoni, Constructivism is a branch of Cognitivism. Cognitivist
theories, in turn, are grounded in the ideas of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Piaget is associated with
Cognitive Constructivism, while Vygotsky is known for Social Constructivism.

Piaget's theory posits that individuals, through interaction with their environment, experience socio-
cognitive conflict, which leads to a state of disequilibrium and subsequently triggers cognitive
development. Vygotsky, on the other hand, asserts that knowledge is constructed through group
interaction and problem-solving. These two foundational perspectives provide the basis for
understanding Constructivist learning theory.

As a theory of knowledge, Constructivism is based on the idea that knowledge does not exist
independently in an objective external world. Instead, knowledge is actively constructed by individuals.
In this sense, Constructivism stands in contrast to Objectivism, which views knowledge as a reflection of
external reality. From the Constructivist perspective, knowledge can be both individually and socially
constructed.

Constructivist learning theory was developed primarily through the work of Piaget, Vygotsky, and
Bruner. Piaget emphasized that individuals construct meaning through internal processes, whereas
Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction in the construction of meaning.

B. Understanding Constructivism Theory

Constructivism is an epistemological view of knowledge acquisition that emphasizes the formation of

knowledge over its transmission or storage. In the constructivist view, learners are seen as active
constructors and transformers of knowledge. The process of knowledge construction in this framework
includes three main types:

1. Exogenous Constructivism
This type aligns with the philosophy of realism. It assumes that knowledge originates from an
external reality, which is reconstructed in the mind. Mental structures develop to reflect this
 external reality. In cognitive psychology, this process emphasizes how knowledge structures
(schemata and networks) are shaped by experience with the external world.

2. Endogenous Constructivism
Also known as Cognitive Constructivism, this approach focuses on internal cognitive processes.
Rooted in Piaget's theory, it posits that knowledge is built through the resolution of internal
cognitive conflicts. Learners—whether children or adults—must reconcile new experiences or
phenomena with their existing mental schemas. In education, this implies that students actively
create their own knowledge by adapting and restructuring their existing cognitive frameworks.

3. Dialectical Constructivism
Also known as Social Constructivism, this approach views knowledge construction as a result of
social interactions, including information exchange, comparisons, and debates among learners
and educators. Through intensive social interaction, a learning environment is formed that
enables learners to independently construct their understanding. This approach is rooted in
Vygotsky’s sociocultural learning theory, which emphasizes guided instruction by teachers to
help students acquire complex skills and competencies. Pure Social Constructivism argues that
learning occurs through cultural and linguistic interactions.

C. Characteristics of Constructivist Learning

Constructivist theory identifies several key features of learning:

a. Learning is constructed independently by the student.

b. New understanding is connected to prior knowledge.
c. Social interaction follows clear norms and rules.
d. Authentic learning experiences are necessary to foster meaningful learning.

Constructivism views students as active agents who build their own knowledge or concepts based on
prior experience and existing knowledge. This process involves testing ideas, applying prior knowledge
to new situations, and integrating new insights with ongoing intellectual development.

In education, Constructivism informs both knowledge acquisition and learning theory. These theories
suggest that knowledge is not passively received from external sources but is actively constructed. For
example, knowledge is not simply stored in books; it is created through the act of reading and
interpreting.

D. Principles of Constructivist Learning

The following are core principles of learning in Constructivism:

a. Learning is the process of searching for meaning. Learners construct meaning based on what they see,
hear, feel, and experience.
b. Meaning construction is an ongoing and continuous process.
c. Learning is not about memorizing facts, but about developing thinking through the creation of new
understanding. It is both the result and the process of development.
d. Learning outcomes are influenced by the learner’s experiences with their physical and social
environments.
e. Learning is shaped by what the learner already knows, as well as their goals and motivations during
interaction with the learning material.

2. Constructivist Approach to Learning

An approach refers to our starting point or perspective on the learning process. The strategies and
methods used in learning are often derived from or dependent on a specific approach. Roy Killen, for
instance, identified two major learning approaches: teacher-centered and student-centered. The
teacher-centered approach typically employs direct instruction, deductive learning, or expository
teaching. In contrast, the student-centered approach emphasizes discovery learning, inquiry-based
strategies, and inductive learning.

Constructivism, as a learning approach, is defined as one in which students individually discover and
transform complex information, compare it with existing knowledge, and revise their understanding as
needed. Constructivism sees students as arriving at school with pre-existing mental and cognitive
frameworks. This means that students already have initial concepts about the material they are going to
learn, drawn from independent exploration or experiences in their daily lives. In this context, the
teacher acts as a facilitator and a resource person.

The foundation of constructivist thinking differs significantly from the objectivist view, which prioritizes
learning outcomes. In contrast, constructivism places greater emphasis on the process of acquiring
strategies rather than how much knowledge students retain. Therefore, the teacher's role is to facilitate
this process by:

a. Making knowledge meaningful and relevant for students;

b. Giving students the opportunity to discover and apply their own ideas; and
c. Encouraging students to use their own strategies in learning.

In the constructivist perspective, students are active learners who build their knowledge independently.
The constructivist approach suggests that knowledge is not delivered in a finished form; rather, students
construct their understanding through interaction with their environment via processes of assimilation
and accommodation. Thus, learning based on the constructivist approach is student-centered.

Knowledge evolves through experience. Understanding becomes deeper and stronger when
continuously tested through new experiences. According to Piaget, the human brain contains structures
like "boxes," each holding different pieces of meaningful information. The same experience can be
interpreted differently by different individuals and stored in various mental "boxes." New experiences
connect to existing knowledge in two ways: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation occurs when
new knowledge is built upon existing cognitive structures. Accommodation happens when existing
structures are adjusted to incorporate new experiences.

Constructivism defines learning as a purposeful, intentional, and collaborative effort. It does not require
a specific set of activities or thinking processes for students to achieve understanding. A constructivist
learning environment is designed to support the construction of knowledge.
Teaching with a constructivist approach involves the following steps:

a. Formulating a central focus, challenge, case, or problem;

b. Preparing tasks for students to complete;
c. Designing specific learning objectives that students must achieve;
d. Identifying appropriate strategies and tools that match the level of difficulty;
e. Collaborating in the learning process between teachers and students.

While constructivism is essentially a theory of learning rather than teaching, it still offers insights for
instructional practices. There are six indicators that define constructivism as both a learning theory and
a guide for teaching:

a. Students are encouraged to ask questions, formulate hypotheses, and assess their abilities;
b. Students face challenges through ideas and experiences that create cognitive conflict or
disequilibrium;
c. Students are given ample time to reflect, write, and discuss;
d. Dialogue is encouraged, and the classroom becomes a community of conversation, reflection, and
collaboration;
e. Students are encouraged to communicate and defend their ideas with peers;
f. Students must discover principles, formulate their own ideas, and generalize their experiences.

Honebein developed a set of goals to guide constructivist learning design:

a. Designing learning experiences that activate the process of knowledge construction;

b. Providing meaningful rewards in the learning process;
c. Creating relevant and realistic learning contexts;
d. Fostering a dynamic and active learning environment;
e. Incorporating social experiences into learning;
f. Using a variety of illustrations, symbols, statements, and representations;
g. Developing students' self-awareness about how knowledge is formed.

The constructivist perspective holds that students should be given the opportunity to utilize their own
learning models. The teacher's responsibility is to guide students toward higher levels of understanding.
Students must construct knowledge within their own minds.

Driver and Bell, as cited by Isjoni, outline key principles of constructivism in learning:

a. Learning outcomes depend not only on classroom experiences but also on prior knowledge;
b. Learning involves constructing concepts;
c. The construction of concepts is an active internal process;
d. Constructed concepts are evaluated and either accepted or rejected;
e. Students are ultimately responsible for their learning processes and outcomes;
f. There are identifiable patterns in the concepts that students construct within their cognitive
structures.

3. Learning Models in Constructivist Theory

The term learning model has four distinct characteristics that are not typically found in specific
strategies or procedures. These characteristics are:

1. A logical theoretical rationale developed by the model's creator;

2. A conceptual foundation for understanding what and how students learn (the learning
objectives to be achieved);

3. Specific teaching behaviors required for successful implementation; and

4. A supportive learning environment needed to achieve the learning goals.

Many modern constructivist ideas are based on Vygotsky’s theory, which supports teaching methods
that emphasize cooperative learning, activity-based learning, and discovery learning. To help students
build understanding, cooperative learning can serve as an effective model. This model is a direct
derivation of constructivist theory.

One of the key principles of constructivism is the emphasis on the social nature of learning. Through this
principle, students can learn by interacting with adults or more capable peers. Based on this theory,
cooperative learning has been developed, making it easier for students to discover and understand
difficult concepts through peer discussion.

According to constructivist theory, classrooms that adopt cooperative learning models should be
dynamic. This means the learning environment does not always have to be systematic, quiet, or easy to
manage. In fact, such conditions may not be ideal for cooperative learning. One key requirement of this
model is active student participation in constructing knowledge—without the teacher losing control
over the classroom environment.

There are several theories underlying cooperative learning. Among the most influential are the theories
of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, both of whom adopt a constructivist approach.

According to Piaget, individuals progress through the following stages of intellectual development:

• Sensorimotor (0–2 years)

• Preoperational (2–7 years)

• Concrete Operational (7–11 years)

• Formal Operational (11 years and older)

In the context of learning, Piaget’s theory suggests that learning activities must involve active student
participation. Knowledge is not merely transmitted verbally but must be constructed by learners
themselves. Therefore, in practice, students must be actively involved in learning activities. Cooperative
learning is an example of an active and participatory learning model.

Vygotsky described learning as a process of developing understanding. He distinguished between two

types of understanding: spontaneous and scientific. Spontaneous understanding is gained from everyday
experiences, while scientific understanding is acquired through formal education.

A major contribution of Vygotsky's theory is its focus on the sociocultural aspects of learning.
1) Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's theory proposes that students learn best when the content lies within their Zone of Proximal
Development—the range of tasks that a learner can perform with guidance but not yet independently.
This zone lies just above the learner’s current level of development, which refers to the prerequisite
knowledge they already possess. Meaningful learning is most likely to occur in this zone. However, if
learning becomes purely rote, repetitive, and uninspiring, it may result in decreased student motivation
and engagement over time.

According to Vygotsky, meaningful learning occurs when children operate within their ZPD—the gap
between what they can do alone (actual development) and what they can achieve with assistance
(potential development).

Zone of Proximal Development

Potential Abilities

(Zone of Proximal Development)

Actual Abilities

2) Scaffolding

Another important idea from Vygotsky is scaffolding, which refers to providing temporary support to
learners during the initial stages of learning. This support is gradually reduced as students gain
independence and mastery. Scaffolding can take the form of instructions, cues, encouragement,
problem explanations, examples, or any assistance that helps learners grow independently.

Vygotsky's theory also emphasizes the connection between cognitive development and the sociocultural
context. Cognitive skills develop in the classroom through collaborative activities between students and
more capable peers, under the guidance of adults—particularly teachers.

From a constructivist perspective, learning requires meaningful interaction among students. Teachers
should avoid dominating classroom discussions with closed questions that imply only one correct
answer. Instead, they should encourage students to pose their own questions and find answers
collaboratively.

There are two core elements in the cooperative learning model:

1. The process of inquiry and knowledge construction, and

 2. The process of problem solving.

Learning occurs when students attempt to connect prior knowledge with new experiences. Teachers can
facilitate this by forming small groups for face-to-face cooperative learning activities. When these two
elements are present, students are more likely to take intellectual risks, explore new ideas, and engage
deeply in inquiry. Constructivism emphasizes that teachers should not only observe what students can
recall but also assess what they can generate, demonstrate, and display.

Cooperative learning is a widely used model that supports student-centered learning, particularly in
activating student participation. It is proven effective across subjects and age groups.

Some key characteristics of cooperative learning include:

a) Each group member has a specific role;
b) There is direct interaction among students;
c) Each student is responsible for both their own learning and that of their peers;
d) Teachers help students develop interpersonal skills;
e) Teachers intervene only when necessary.

In essence, the cooperative learning model is designed to achieve at least three important educational
goals:
a) Improved academic outcomes;
b) Greater acceptance of individual differences;
c) Enhanced development of social skills.

Each learning model includes a syntax—a structured sequence of steps that guides the flow of teaching
and learning activities. The learning syntax clearly outlines the activities teachers and students must
carry out, their order, and the specific tasks involved.

The general syntax of the cooperative learning model is as follows:

Table 1. Cooperative Learning Syntax

Phase Teacher Behavior

Phase 1: Conveying Goals and Motivating The teacher communicates the learning
Students objectives of the lesson and motivates students
to engage in the learning process.
Phase 2: Presenting Information The teacher presents information to students
through demonstrations or assigned reading
materials.
Phase 3: Organizing Students into Study Groups The teacher explains how to form study groups
and facilitates a smooth transition into group
work.
Phase 4: Guiding Group Work and Study The teacher supervises and supports study
groups as they work on their assignments.
Phase 5: Evaluation The teacher evaluates learning outcomes based
on the material studied, or each group presents
the results of their work.
 Phase 6: Providing Rewards The teacher seeks appropriate ways to reward
both individual and group efforts and learning
outcomes.

4. Implications of Constructivist Theory in Islamic Religious Education Learning

Constructivism is the view that students actively construct their own knowledge or concepts based on
prior knowledge and experience. This implies that the teacher's role shifts to that of a facilitator in the
learning process. Teachers are not always required to deliver a concept or principle in its entirety.
Instead, they can guide students—either individually or in groups—to discover and develop concepts or
principles independently.

According to Piaget’s theory, students at the SMP/MTs level (approximately 12–14/15 years old) are in
the formal operational stage. At this stage, children can use concrete operations to form more complex,
abstract operations. A key development during this period is that students no longer need to rely on
concrete objects or events to think critically. They are capable of abstract reasoning, making cooperative
learning suitable for implementation at the junior high school (SMP/MTs) level.

By applying constructivist theory, Islamic Religious Education (IRE) teachers at the SMP/MTs level do not
face significant challenges when teaching conceptual material. For example, in a lesson titled Faith in the
Last Day, it is not too difficult for IRE teachers to teach the concept to students. The topic requires
abstract thinking, a skill that students at this educational level are beginning to develop. Therefore, the
cooperative learning model—as part of constructivist theory—can effectively help students build
knowledge related to this subject matter.

Teachers can guide students in forming study groups. In line with the cooperative learning syntax, the
teacher functions as a facilitator. With this kind of learning model, students can interact with one
another to construct their understanding of the presented material.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sardiman, M. Teaching and Learning Interaction and Motivation. Jakarta: Rajawali Press, 2009.

RI Department of Religion. Islamic Religious Education Guidelines for Public Schools. Jakarta: Director
General of Islamic Religious Institutions, 2004.

Directorate of Educational Personnel, Directorate General for Improving the Quality of Educators and
Educational Personnel, Department of National Education. Learning Strategies and Their
Selection. 2008.

Hamalik, Oemar. Curriculum and Learning. Jakarta: Bumi Aksara, 2008.

Honebein, P. "Seven Goals for the Design of Constructivist Learning Environments" in B. Wilson (Ed.),
Constructivist Learning Environments. New Jersey: Educational Technology Publication, 1996.