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DC Chopper or DC to DC Converter – Working

Principle & Applications

Many domestic, industrial, automobile, lighting, traction, and space

applications require power from dc voltage sources. For better
performance and smooth control over the process, the equipment must
be fed from a variable dc voltage source i.e., conversion of dc voltage to
different levels is required.

Thus there is a need for a dc-to-dc converter by which an adjustable dc

voltage source can be obtained from a fixed dc voltage source.
Generally, the conversion of a fixed dc voltage to an adjustable dc
voltage can be carried out .

DC Chopper :
A dc chopper is a semiconductor switch (ON-OFF switch) that connects
and disconnects the dc supply to the load at a rapid rate to obtain
variable dc voltage from a fixed dc voltage source.
Compared to ac link choppers, dc-to-dc conversion is directly done in dc
choppers without any multiple stages. Thus a dc chopper can be
considered as a dc equivalent of an ac transformer that can either step up
or step down a fixed dc voltage source.

As dc choppers involve single-stage conversion they are more efficient,

low in cost, have faster response, lower maintenance, and are smaller in

Oxford College of Engineering and Management [By: Er. Gaurav Regmi for 5th& 6th
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size. Therefore dc choppers are widely used in most applications where

there is a requirement for variable dc voltage supply.
The power semiconductor switches used in dc choppers are power BJT,
power MOSFET, IGBT, GTO, or force-commutated thyristor. For low
and medium power applications power MOSFET, IGBT or BJTs are
used as the switches. Thyristor-based dc choppers are used in high-
power applications, also this type of chopper circuit requires an
additional commutation circuit. However, thyristors are not preferred
nowadays due to the complexity of the circuit configuration.

Step Up Chopper – Circuit and Working

Principle
In most of the industrial and domestic applications, there is a
requirement for a variable dc supply which in turn leads to need for a
device that can convert a fixed dc supply to a variable dc supply. A dc
chopper is a dc to dc converter that converts fixed dc supply to variable
dc supply. In simple dc chopper is similar to an autotransformer in ac
circuits and can be used as a step-up or step-down of the dc input
voltage.

Though there are different methods to obtain variable dc supply like

converting fixed dc supply to ac by using an inverter which is then
converted into variable dc supply by a controlled rectifier or by using a
step-up or step-down transformer after inverter which is then converted
into variable dc supply by an uncontrolled rectifier.

However, a dc chopper is a single-stage dc to dc converter unlike more

than one stage i.e. converting dc to ac and then ac to dc. Thus a dc
chopper is more efficient, smaller in size, and low in cost due to which it
is mostly used in many applications.

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Step Up Chopper :
A step-up chopper is similar to a step-up transformer whose output
voltage is greater than the input supply voltage. The below shows the
circuit configuration of the step-up chopper.

When chopper CH is ON, the supply current flows the path,

Vs → L → CH → Vs
The inductor L stores energy in this state. The inductor chosen
for this circuit is supposed to have a higher value of inductance
L so as to reduce the ripples in the output voltage and also to
obtain the continuous current.
Now when the chopper CH is turned OFF the inductor current is forced
to flow through the series combination of diode and load. This is
because of the property of the inductor, i.e., the inductor current cannot
fall to zero instantaneously. Since stored energy in the inductor is
negative it adds to the supply voltage and thus the voltage across the
load is given by,

Vo = Vs + L di/dt

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Therefore the output voltage exceeds the input source voltage. During
the ON period of the chopper, the voltage across the inductor is equal to
the supply voltage (neglecting the voltage drop in SCR). The energy
stored in the inductor during the chopper ON period is given by,

Wi = Voltage across inductor × Average current

through inductor × Ton
Wi = Vs Is Ton
Now when the chopper is in the OFF state the voltage across the
inductor will be difference of the average output voltage and supply
voltage. The energy stored by the inductor is delivered to the load is,

Oxford College of Engineering and Management [By: Er. Gaurav Regmi for 5th& 6th
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Wo = Voltage across inductor × Average current through

inductor × Toff
Wo = (Vo – Vs) Is Toff
Considering the system to be lossless, under steady state condition, we
have,

Hence, by varying the duty cycle (δ) the output voltage can be varied. If
the duty cycle becomes zero, the output voltage Vo = Vs and if duty
cycle (δ) = 1 then Vo = ∞. Here, we can observe that the output voltage
Vo is greater than or equal to the input voltage Vs. Hence the circuit is
called a step-up chopper.

A step-up chopper is used in regulated dc power supplies and

regenerative braking of dc motors. A capacitor is used in parallel with
the load to ensure constant and continuous output voltage.

Oxford College of Engineering and Management [By: Er. Gaurav Regmi for 5th& 6th
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Working of Step Down Chopper – with R and

RL Load
A Step-down chopper is basically a high-speed semiconductor switch.
The switch can either be a power BJT, power MOSFET, transistor, or
SCR depending upon the voltage, current and switching rate required.
With the help of the switch (i.e., chopper) the dc supply is connected and
disconnected to the load very rapidly such that the average dc load
voltage from the chopper will be less than the source voltage i.e., the
output voltage of the chopper is stepped down.

Working of Step Down Chopper With R Load :

The below shows the circuit configuration of a step-down chopper
connected to an R-load. A chopper is connected between the resistive
load and the source. The chopper is fed from a fixed dc supply and
stepped-down dc output from the chopper is given to the resistive load.

 When the chopper is switched ON, the load is connected in the

circuit and the load voltage VL follows the source voltage Vdc i.e.,
VL = Vdc.
 When the chopper is turned OFF, the load is disconnected from the
circuit, due to which the load voltage and load current become zero.
Since the load is purely resistive, the load current will be same as
that of load voltage but with a lesser magnitude.

Oxford College of Engineering and Management [By: Er. Gaurav Regmi for 5th& 6th
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The voltage and current waveforms when the chopper is connected to a

resistive load are shown below.

In the above waveform, from time period t = 0 to δT, the chopper is

turned ON. Thus from t = 0 to δT load voltage VL will be equal to source
voltage Vdc and load current IL will follow the load voltage VL. At t =
δT chopper is turned OFF and hence load voltage and the current become
zero. Again the chopper is turned ON at t = T and the same process
repeats.

Oxford College of Engineering and Management [By: Er. Gaurav Regmi for 5th& 6th
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Working of Step Down Chopper With RL

Load :
The circuit configuration for a step-down chopper with RL-load is
shown in the below figure.

Generally, choppers are used to drive separately excited dc motors. The

armature in the dc motor is represented by a combination of resistance
and inductance. Hence, motors are considered as RL-load. For a step-
down chopper, with RL-load, two modes are possible for the load
current. They are,

 Continuous load current, and

 Discontinuous load current.

Continuous Load Current :

If the value of the load inductance is very high, then the continuous load
current is obtained. When the chopper is turned on for a period of 0 to
δT, the RL load is connected in the circuit, load voltage VL follows
source voltage Vdc the load current rises from its lower limit and reaches
the maximum value at t = δT.
When the chopper is turned OFF for a period of δT to T, the load voltage
becomes zero but the load current does not become zero due to the
presence of load inductance. This is because an inductor doesn’t allow a
sudden change in the current.

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When the chopper is turned OFF for a period of δ T to T, the load voltage
becomes zero but the load current does not become zero due to the
presence of load inductance. This is because an inductor doesn’t allow a
sudden change in the current.

Thus once the chopper is turned OFF, the stored current in the load
inductance free-wheels through the free-wheeling diode Df as shown
above. Then after the load current decreases gradually and reaches its
lower limit as shown in the below waveforms.

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Discontinuous Load Current :

If the value of load inductance is small then a discontinuous load current
is obtained. During the chopper OFF period, load voltage becomes zero,
and load current decreases. Then after the load current becomes zero at a
certain instant of time and it remains zero until the chopper is turned ON
again i.e., until t = T. Hence, in this way discontinuous current appears
in the load. Below shows the waveform for the discontinuous load
current.

Derivation of Average Output Voltage :

From the waveforms, we can see that the load voltage flows only during
the turn ON period (TON) of the chopper.

Where δ = TON/(TON + TOFF) = TON/T is known as duty cycle. Thus by

varying the duty cycle (δ) from 0 to 1, we can obtain load voltage from 0
to Vdc. Hence the load voltage will be always less than the input voltage,
thereby calling it a Step-Down Chopper.

Oxford College of Engineering and Management [By: Er. Gaurav Regmi for 5th& 6th
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The average output voltage is given by,

Types of DC Choppers :
DC choppers are classified based on the value of output voltage, the
direction of output voltage and current, and the commutation method
used. The various types of dc chopper circuits are listed below.

1. Based On Output Voltage,

 Step-up chopper
 Step-down chopper
2. Based On Direction of Output Voltage and Current,
 Class A (type-A) chopper
 Class B (type-B) chopper
 Class C (type-C) chopper
 Class D (type-D) chopper
 Class E (type-E) chopper
3. Based On Commutation Method,
 Voltage commutated chopper
 Current commutated chopper
 Load commutated chopper.

Oxford College of Engineering and Management [By: Er. Gaurav Regmi for 5th& 6th
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Class-A Chopper :
A class-A chopper is a type of chopper that operates in the first
quadrant. The term first quadrant means the output voltage and current
of the circuit will occur only in the first quadrant of the output voltage
and current graph. In class-A chopper power always flows from source
to load and it is also known as the first quadrant or type-A chopper.

During the ON period of the switch, the load is connected across

the source, and during the OFF period of the switch, the load current
flows through the freewheeling diode in the same direction. Thus
average output voltage and current remain positive and power always
flows from source to load during the whole operation.

The output voltage of the class-A chopper circuit is always less than the
input voltage, thus a class-A chopper is a step-down chopper. This type
of chopper circuit will be used to control dc motors.

Class-B Chopper :
A class-B chopper is a chopper that operates in the second quadrant. The
term second quadrant means the output voltage and current occur only in
the second quadrant of the output voltage and current graph. In a class-B

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chopper, power flows from load to source and it is also known as the
second quadrant or type-B chopper.

When the switch is ON, the load gets short-circuited through the switch,
and thus load EMF stores energy in the inductor. When the switch is
OFF, the charged inductor will start discharging in the reverse direction
due to which the output voltage will be the sum of inductor voltage and
load EMF. Thus diode gets forward biased and power flows from load to
source.

Therefore, the average load voltage will be positive, and the average
load current will be negative. Since the power flow is from high voltage
i.e., load, to low voltage i.e., source, this circuit is also called a step-up
chopper. The class-B chopper circuit is used in the regenerative braking
of dc motors.

Class-C Chopper :
A class-C chopper is formed by combining class-A and class-B choppers
in parallel. It can operate in the first quadrant (where output voltage and
current are positive) as well as in the second quadrant (where the output
voltage is positive and output current is negative). A class-C chopper is
also known as Two-Quadrant Type-A Chopper.

Oxford College of Engineering and Management [By: Er. Gaurav Regmi for 5th& 6th
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In order to operate a class-C chopper in the first quadrant, switch S1 and

diode D1 will be in operation. For the second quadrant operation, switch
S2 and diode D2 perform the functions. In this chopper power can either
flow from source to load or load to source.

Class-D Chopper :
A class-D chopper is also a two-quadrant chopper that can operate in the
first and fourth quadrants of the output voltage and current diagram. In
this chopper, the load voltage can be either positive or negative but the
load current is always positive. The below shows the circuit topology of
a class-D chopper.

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In the above figure, when switches S1 and S2 are in function, the circuit
will operate in the third quadrant, and when diodes D1 and D2 are in
function, the circuit will operate in the fourth quadrant. Similar to the
class-C chopper, power can either flow from source to load or load to
source in a class-D chopper.

Class-E Chopper :
A class-E chopper is a four-quadrant chopper made by the parallel
combination of two class-C choppers. The below shows the circuit
configuration of a class-E chopper in which S1, S2, D1, and D2 form one
class-C chopper circuit and S3, S4, D3, and D4 form another class-C
chopper circuit.

In this chopper, both load current and voltage can be either positive or
negative. A four-quadrant chopper can control the power flow and speed
of a dc motor in either direction.

Voltage Commutated Chopper :

A voltage-commutated chopper is a type of chopper in which the
thyristor which is used as a switching device is commutated by applying
a reverse voltage with help of a capacitor. So that the thyristor is
momentarily reverse-biased and gets turned OFF.

The below shows the circuit of voltage commutated chopper where

auxiliary thyristor TA, diode D, inductor L, and capacitor C form the

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commutation circuit. A voltage-commutated chopper is also called as

Impulse Commutated Chopper.

Current Commutated Chopper :

In a current commutated chopper, a reverse current is applied through
the conducting thyristor so that the net current flowing through it
becomes zero and gets turned OFF. The below shows the circuit diagram
where thyristor TA, diodes D1 and D2, inductor L, and capacitor C form
the commutation circuit.

Similar to voltage-commutated choppers, in current-commutated

choppers also a capacitor is used to apply a reverse current through the

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thyristor. The reverse current applied to turn OFF the main thyristor
must be greater than the load current.
A current-commutated chopper circuit is also called resonant-pulse
commutated chopper.

Load Commutated Chopper :

In load-commutated choppers commutation of the thyristor is done by
reducing the load current to zero. The below shows the circuit which
consists of four thyristors and one commutating capacitor. In the below
circuit thyristors T1 and T2 form one pair and T3 and T4 forms another
pair which conducts load current alternatively.

Buck-Boost Converter – Circuit Diagram,

Working & Applications

A buck-boost converter is a combination of a buck converter and a boost

converter i.e., it is a cascade combination of a buck converter circuit and
a boost converter circuit. A buck-boost converter is a dc-to-dc converter
by which we can obtain an output voltage greater or lesser than the input

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voltage. The polarity of the output voltage is opposite to that of the input
voltage.

We know that a buck converter is a step-down chopper that gives output

voltage below the input voltage. Whereas a boost converter is a step-up
chopper that gives output voltage greater than the input voltage. A buck-
boost converter circuit is formed by utilizing the strong points of this
both converters.

Construction of Buck-Boost Converter :

The circuit diagram of a typical buck-boost converter is shown in the
below figure. The circuit consists of a solid-state device (power
MOSFET is used in this converter) connected in series with the supply
source similar to a buck converter.

An inductor will be connected in parallel with the output terminals and

a diode is connected similarly to that as seen in the boost converter. The
solid-state device which is basically a semiconductor device will act as
the switching device.

The switching device is turned ON and OFF by controlling the gate

terminal using Pulse Width Modulation(PWM). The circuit will operate
as the step-down or step-up chopper by controlling the duty cycle thus
obtaining an output more or less than the input supply.

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Working of Buck-Boost Converter :

When the switch (MOSFET) is turned ON, the supply current starts
flowing through the switch, inductor, and back to the supply as shown
below. The diode (D) will be reverse biased and acts as the open switch
due to which load will be isolated from the supply current.

The supply source will provide energy to the inductor and the inductor
will start charging with the polarity shown above. No energy is supplied
to the load by the supply source during this interval. During the ON
period of the switch, the current through the inductor can be given by
applying KVL to the above circuit.

Vin = VL
Vin = L diL/dt
Vin/L = diL/dt
We know that duty cycle D = TON/T since the switch is closed for period
TON = DT, we can say that dt = DT.

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When the switch is turned OFF, the decrease in inductor current

generates a negative voltage across the inductor i.e., with reverse
polarity. Now the stored energy is large enough to forward bias the
diode, and this energy in the inductor will be transferred to the load.

The current which was flowing through the switch and inductor in the
previous interval will now flow through the inductor, capacitor, load,
diode and back to the inductor as shown above. The inductor will go on
discharging and the inductor current will fall until the MOSFET is
switched ON again in the next cycle. During the OFF period of the
switch, the current through the inductor can be given using KVL,

V L = Vo
VL = L diL/dt = Vo
diL/dt = Vo/L
The turn-OFF period of the switch is given as, TOFF = T – TON = T – DT = (1 – D)T,
thus we can say that dt = (1 – D)T.

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From the above operation, we have seen that when the switch is ON
inductor will be charged and when the switch is OFF inductor will be
discharged. Therefore the net change in inductor current over any one
complete cycle is zero.

Therefore, from the above equation output voltage will depend upon the
duty cycle. If duty cycle (D) is below 0.5, the circuit will operate as
the buck converter or step-down dc-to-dc converter i.e., the output will
be smaller than the input. If duty cycle (D) is above 0.5, the circuit will
operate as the boost converter or step-up dc-to-dc converter i.e., the
output will be greater than the input.

Both input and output current is discontinuous, but inductor current can
be continuous or discontinuous and output voltage remains constant due
to the large value of the capacitor. The below shows the waveforms for
voltage and current of the buck-boost converter.

Applications of Buck-Boost Converter :

 Battery-powered systems.
 It is used in self-regulating power supplies.
 In power amplifiers.
 Consumer electronics.

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For 5th Semester Only

Boost Converter – Circuit Diagram, Working &
Waveforms
What is Boost Converter?
A boost converter is basically a step-up chopper or step-up dc-to-dc
converter by which we can obtain an output voltage greater than the
input voltage. In other words, boost converters are regulator circuits that

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generate a voltage at the output side whose magnitude will be greater

than or equal to the input applied voltage.

In many domestic and industrial applications, there is a requirement for

conversion of DC voltage source to different levels. Thus there is a need
for a dc-to-dc converter that converts a fixed-voltage dc source into a
variable-voltage dc source.

A DC chopper is a static device by which we can obtain variable dc

voltage from a source of constant dc voltage. It is similar to a function of
an AC transformer used to step up or step down the dc voltage source.
Besides saving in power, the dc chopper offers various advantages like
high efficiency, fast response, compact in size, easy and smooth control,
low maintenance, low cost, etc.

Circuit Diagram of Boost Converter :

The circuit diagram of the boost converter using power MOSFET as a
switching device is shown in the below figure. It consists of an inductor
connected in series after which a power MOSFET is connected in
parallel with the positive and negative terminals.

A diode is connected in series with the load after the power MOSFET
which also acts as the switch by automatically forward biasing and
reverse biasing. A capacitor in parallel is placed at the load side for
removing ripples in the output signal.

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The high-speed ON/OFF semiconductor switch (power MOSFET) will

alternatively connect and disconnect the load from the supply at a rapid
rate so that a voltage of higher magnitude than the input voltage will
appear at the output side. The semiconductor switch (power MOSFET)
is turned ON and OFF by controlling the gate terminal using Pulse
Width Modulation(PWM).

Working of Boost Converter :

By using a boost converter we can obtain an output signal greater than
the input signal. Initially, the power MOSFET is turned ON by applying
a signal at the gate terminal. Now the supply current (Iin) starts flowing
through the inductor (L) and power MOSFET as shown below.

Once the power MOSFET is switched ON, the inductor current (IL)
starts increasing and it will charge with a polarity according to the
direction of the flow of supply current as shown above. The inductor
current rises linearly from minimum to maximum value.

The diode is reverse biased due to stored energy in the capacitor which
appears across the cathode (anode is at zero potential due to the
conducting power MOSFET). Thus the reverse biased diode will isolate
the load from the supply. If the capacitance is very high, the capacitor
supplies a constant load current.

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Now when the power MOSFET is switched OFF, the supply current
which was flowing through the inductor, and power MOSFET will now
flow through the inductor, diode, capacitor, and load as shown below.

When the power MOSFET is switched OFF, the charged inductor

will start discharging with reversed polarity due to which the diode gets
forward biased. The load now receives a voltage from the supply along
with the inductor voltage (i.e., Vin + VL) and the capacitor will be
charged.

The inductor current will fall linearly until the power MOSFET is turned
ON again. Therefore we can observe that the load receives a voltage
(average value) greater than the input voltage, hence the name boost.
The associated voltage and current waveforms for the operation of the
boost converter are shown below.

In the above waveforms, there are two periods TON and TOFF. TON is the
period for which the power MOSFET is turned ON and TOFF for which
power MOSFET is turned OFF. We can see that during the TON period
of MOSFET, output voltage Vo will be zero, IL will increase from imin to
imax, and current at the diode ID will be zero.

In TOFF period of MOSFET, output voltage Vo will be due to supply and

inductor. Once MOSFET is OFF, IL will start falling to imin, and ID will
be equal to IL.

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On applying KVL to the circuit when MOSFET is in OFF state, we will

get,

VL – Vo + Vin = 0
VL = Vo – Vin
The energy supplied to the inductor during the ON period of
MOSFET is given as,

WON = Voltage across inductor × Average current through the

inductor × TON
WON = Vin (imin + imax/2) TON

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Also, the energy supplied by the inductor during the OFF period of MOSFET is
given as,

WOFF = Voltage across inductor × Average current through the

inductor × TOFF
WOFF = Vo – Vin (imin + imax/2) TOFF
For a lossless circuit WON = WOFF,

We know that T = TON + TOFF,

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From the above equation, it is clear that the average output voltage can
be controlled by controlling the duty ratio. For α = 0 to 1, the output
voltage will be equal to or greater than the input voltage i.e., Vo ≥ Vin,
thus stepping up the voltage.

Due to the use of a single power MOSFET, the boost converter has high
efficiency. However, the power transistor has to sustain high peak
currents.

Applications of Boost Converter :

The applications of boost converter are,

 Consumer electronics,
 Regenerative braking of dc motor,
 DC motor drives,
 Communication applications operated by batteries,
 Battery power systems.

Buck Converter – Circuit, Working, and

Waveforms
What is Buck Converter?
A buck converter is a dc-to-dc step-down converter or step-down
chopper that lower the magnitude of the applied dc input signal at the
output side. Basically, a buck converter is similar to a step-down
transformer that converts the applied dc input signal to the desired value
at the output side which is less than the input signal.

Generally in electronic circuits, there is a requirement for a wide variety

of regulated dc power supplies. The chopper circuits are the simple and
most efficient way to obtain desired dc supply from a fixed or non-
regulated dc supply. The regulation of dc supply is achieved by
switching devices normally a power transistor (BJT, MOSFET,

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or IGBT) and an LC filter is connected to the switch to reduce current

and voltage ripples.

Circuit Diagram of Buck Converter :

The circuit configuration of the buck converter is shown in the below
figure. It consists of a power semiconductor device (e.g.
MOSFET, IGBT, BJT, etc.) that acts as the switch. Along with the
semiconductor device, a diode is connected across the load which also
acts as the switch.

The two switches are connected to the load through a low-pass LC filter
in order to reduce current or voltage ripples. The inductor is connected
in series with the load which stores energy during the ON period of the
switch.

The switch (power transistor) which connects and disconnects the load
to get desired output is controlled by using Pulse Width
Modulation(PWM). The dc-to-dc converters normally use a time-based
PWM control signal that provides a duty cycle by which accurate and
desired output voltage is obtained.

Operation of Buck Converter :

By using a buck converter the output voltage can be controlled from
zero to the input voltage level. The operation of a buck converter is
divided into two modes.

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When Switch is ON :
In mode-I, the switch is closed at t = 0. When the switch is turned ON
diode becomes reverse biased and thus it will be in the non-conducting
state. The supply current starts flowing through filter components
inductor (L) and capacitor (C), and through the load, as shown below.

Now when the switch has closed the inductor in the current flow
path stores energy and the capacitor stores the charge. The
voltage across the capacitor will appear across the load. On
applying KVL to the above circuit, the voltage across the
inductor will be the difference of the supply voltage (VS) and
output voltage (VO).

We know that the duty cycle is written as,

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D = TON/T (where T = TON + OFF)

During the ON period of the switch, TON = DT thus Δt = DT. Therefore,
the above equation can be written as,

When Switch is OFF :

The mode-II starts when the switch is opened, in this condition the
supply is disconnected from the load and the inductor will start acting as
the source.

The stored energy by the inductor in the previous mode will start
releasing with reversed polarity due to which the diode gets forward-
biased and the inductor current flows through the capacitor, load, and
diode as shown below.

Oxford College of Engineering and Management [By: Er. Gaurav Regmi for 5th& 6th
Semester]
32

The current will continue to flow through the load till the current
in the inductor falls to zero value. Once the inductor is
discharged completely, the diode gets reverse bias and the
switch is closed again thereby repeating the cycle. On applying
KVL to the above circuit,
0 = VL + Vo
VL = L diL/dt = -Vo …(1)
We know that,

T = TON + TOFF
T = DT + TOFF
TOFF = (1 – D)T
TOFF = Δt = (1 – D)T
Substituting above Δt in equation 1, we get,

The above equation gives the rate of change in current through the
inductor when the switch is open. The net change of current through the
inductor in one cycle of supply will be zero. Thus,

Oxford College of Engineering and Management [By: Er. Gaurav Regmi for 5th& 6th
Semester]
33

The below shows the waveforms of voltage and current for two modes
of operation.

If suppose the switch is closed again before the inductor current reaches
zero then a continuous load current operation is obtained. If the switch is
closed after complete discharge of the inductor then the load current will
be discontinuous.

Oxford College of Engineering and Management [By: Er. Gaurav Regmi for 5th& 6th
Semester]
34

By changing the switching frequency, the voltage regulation is

controlled. If TOFF is increased the average output voltage is lowered, if
TOFF is decreased, the average output voltage is increased.

Since the output voltage obtained is less than the input voltage the
circuit is called a step-down converter. Due to the requirement of only
one semiconductor device, buck converters are very simple and highly
efficient. The applications of buck converters are dc motor speed control
and regulated dc power supplies.

Oxford College of Engineering and Management [By: Er. Gaurav Regmi for 5th& 6th
Semester]