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20 May 2025 23:04

✍ Q1. What is the difference between ac ve and passive

transducer? What are the uses of strain gauge and thermistor
in biomedical applica on?
✅ Active vs Passive Transducer:
Feature Active Transducer Passive Transducer
Power Source Doesn’t need external power Needs external power to work
Working Generates output signal itself Modifies external signal
Example Thermocouple, piezoelectric crystal Strain gauge, thermistor, LVDT

✅ Uses in Biomedical Applications:

1. Strain Gauge:
○ Measures force or pressure by sensing deformation.
○ Used in:
 Measuring blood pressure
 Respiratory monitoring (chest movement)
 Prosthetic limb sensing
2. Thermistor:
○ A temperature-sensitive resistor (resistance changes with temperature).
○ Used in:
 Measuring body temperature
 Skin and tissue temperature sensing
 Fever monitoring devices

✍ Q2. Explain the genera on of ac on poten al waveform.

✅ Answer:
An action potential is the electrical signal generated in neurons or muscles when they are stimulated.
🔹 Phases of Action Potential:
1. Resting State (-70 mV):
○ Cell is at rest.
○ Inside is negative compared to outside.
○ Na⁺ (sodium) is outside, K⁺ (potassium) inside.
2. Depolarization:
○ Stimulus opens Na⁺ channels.
○ Na⁺ rushes into the cell.
○ Membrane potential becomes positive (~+30 mV)
3. Repolarization:
○ Na⁺ channels close, K⁺ channels open.
○ K⁺ flows out of the cell.
○ Voltage returns to negative.
4. Hyperpolarization:

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 4. Hyperpolarization:
○ K⁺ leaks out slightly more.
○ Membrane becomes more negative than resting.
5. Return to Resting State:
○ Na⁺/K⁺ pump restores original ion balance.
📉 The graph of action potential is a spike-shaped waveform.

✍ Q3. Explain the characteris cs of res ng poten al with

reference to Nernst equa on.
✅ Answer:
🔹 Resting Potential:
• When a cell (neuron or muscle) is not active, it has a stable voltage difference across its
membrane — this is called resting potential.
• Usually around –70 mV.
• Caused by more K⁺ inside and more Na⁺ outside the cell.

🔹 Nernst Equation:
It calculates the equilibrium potential (resting voltage) for an ion across the membrane:
E=RTzFln ([Ion]outside[Ion]inside)E = \frac{RT}{zF} \ln \left( \frac{[Ion]_\text{outside}}{[Ion]_
\text{inside}} \right)
Where:
• E = equilibrium potential (in volts)
• R = universal gas constant
• T = temperature in Kelvin
• z = charge of ion (e.g., +1 for K⁺)
• F = Faraday’s constant
• [Ion]outside[Ion]_\text{outside}, [Ion]inside[Ion]_\text{inside} = ion concentrations
🔸 Significance:
• Helps explain why the inside of the cell is negative at rest.
• Predicts which ion will move in or out when the membrane is disturbed.

✍ Q4. What is ac ve and passive transducer? Where is

micropipe e used?
(You’ve already asked active/passive above — here's the extra part)
✅ Micropipette:
A micropipette is a very fine, glass or plastic tube used to inject or extract tiny volumes of fluid (in
microliters or nanoliters).
🔹 Uses in Biomedical Field:
• Intracellular recording of electrical signals in neurons
• Injecting DNA, RNA, or drugs into cells
• Microinjection in IVF and cell research

✍ Q5. Is human nervous system comparable to a servo

mechanism control system?
✅

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✅ Answer:
Yes, the human nervous system is often compared to a servo control system in engineering.
🔹 Similarities:
Component (Human) Servo Equivalent Function
Receptor (Eye, Skin) Sensor Detect input (stimuli)
Brain/Spinal Cord Controller/Processor Make decision or adjustment
Muscles/Glands Actuator Perform action
Feedback Loops Feedback in servo Adjust based on output
🧠 Like a servo system, the body:
• Takes input (stimulus),
• Processes it in the brain,
• Sends output (response),
• And uses feedback to fine-tune the action.

✍ Q6. What are Bio-poten als?

✅ Answer:
Bio-potentials are the electrical signals generated by living tissues, especially nerves and muscles.
🔹 Key Features:
• Generated due to ion movement across cell membranes
• Can be measured using electrodes
🔹 Types of Bio-potentials:
Type Full Form Where It Comes From
ECG Electrocardiogram Heart
EEG Electroencephalogram Brain
EMG Electromyogram Muscles
EOG Electrooculogram Eyes

🔹 Applications:
• Medical diagnostics
• Patient monitoring
• Biomedical device design (like pacemakers)

✍ Q1. Define noise pollu on and L10(18 hours) index.

Express the measuring unit of sound intensity level in
mathema cal form.
✅ Noise Pollution:
Noise pollution is the presence of unwanted or harmful sound in the environment that can affect
human health, comfort, and communication.
• Common sources: Traffic, industries, construction, loudspeakers.

✅
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✅ L10 (18-hour) Index:
• L10 is the sound level exceeded for 10% of the measurement time.
• L10 (18 hours) means the average maximum noise level during 18 hours of a day, typically from 6
AM to 12 midnight.
• Used in urban and traffic noise monitoring.

✅ Measuring Unit of Sound Intensity Level (SIL):

• Unit: Decibel (dB)
• Formula:
L=10⋅log 10(II0)L = 10 \cdot \log_{10} \left( \frac{I}{I_0} \right)
Where:
• LL = sound level in dB
• II = actual sound intensity
• I0I_0 = reference sound intensity (10⁻¹² W/m²)

✍ Q2. Give the classifica ons of biomedical instruments.

✅ Answer:
Biomedical instruments are classified based on function, application, and type of signal.
🔹 1. Based on Function:
• Diagnostic instruments: ECG, EEG, X-ray machine
• Therapeutic instruments: Pacemaker, defibrillator
• Monitoring instruments: Blood pressure monitor, pulse oximeter
• Surgical instruments: Laser scalpel, endoscope

🔹 2. Based on Measurand (What they measure):

• Electrical activity: ECG, EMG, EEG
• Pressure: Sphygmomanometer
• Flow: Blood flow meter
• Temperature: Digital thermometer, thermistor
• Imaging: Ultrasound, CT scan, MRI

🔹 3. Based on Signal Type:

• Bioelectric: ECG, EMG
• Biomechanical: Force, displacement sensors
• Biochemical: Blood glucose, pH meters
• Thermal: Thermometers

✍ Q3. How the PQRST wave is generated from the heart?

✅ Answer:
The PQRST wave is part of an ECG (electrocardiogram) and represents the electrical activity of the
heart during one cardiac cycle.

🔹 Wave Components:
Wave Event in Heart
P wave Atrial depolarization (atria contract)
QRS complex Ventricular depolarization (ventricles contract)

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T wave Ventricular repolarization (ventricles relax)
The SA node starts the electrical signal → travels through atria → AV node → Bundle of His →
Purkinje fibers → ventricles
This sequence generates the ECG waveform, which doctors use to assess heart rhythm and function.

✍ Q4. What are the different types of ECG lead

configura on?
✅ Answer:
ECG leads are used to detect the electrical activity of the heart from different angles.

🔹 Types of ECG Leads:

1. Bipolar Limb Leads (Standard Leads):
○ Lead I: Right arm (–) to Left arm (+)
○ Lead II: Right arm (–) to Left leg (+)
○ Lead III: Left arm (–) to Left leg (+)
2. Unipolar Limb Leads:
○ aVR (right arm), aVL (left arm), aVF (left leg)
3. Unipolar Chest (Precordial) Leads:
○ V1 to V6 placed across the chest to view horizontal heart plane
Each lead records the heart’s electrical activity from a different direction, giving a complete picture.

✍ Q5. What is a chopper amplifier? What are the types of

chopper amplifier?
✅ Answer:
A chopper amplifier is a special type of amplifier used to amplify very low DC signals (like bio-
potentials) by converting them into AC signals, amplifying them, and converting them back to DC.

🔹 Why use a chopper amplifier?

• To reduce drift, offset, and noise in low-level signals
• Commonly used in ECG, EEG, and precision instruments

🔹 Types of Chopper Amplifiers:

1. Mechanical Chopper Amplifier:
○ Uses rotating disks to modulate signal
○ Obsolete now
2. Electronic Chopper Amplifier:
○ Uses transistors or electronic switches
○ More accurate and widely used
3. Capacitive Chopper Amplifier:
○ Uses capacitors for signal modulation
○ Used in advanced sensor systems

✍ Q6. Define NMR.

✅ Answer:
NMR = Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
It is a technique that studies the behavior of atomic nuclei in a magnetic field.

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It is a technique that studies the behavior of atomic nuclei in a magnetic field.

🔹 How it Works:
• Certain nuclei (like hydrogen) absorb and re-emit radio waves when placed in a strong magnetic
field.
• These signals help determine structure, composition, or environment of tissues or molecules.

🔹 Biomedical Use:
• MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) is based on NMR.
• Gives high-resolution images of organs, tissues, brain, joints, etc.

✍ Q7. Discuss the transducers for blood pressure

measurement.
✅ Answer:
Blood pressure transducers convert arterial pressure into an electrical signal that can be displayed or
recorded.

🔹 Types of Transducers:
1. Strain Gauge Transducer:
○ Measures pressure through deformation of a diaphragm
○ Commonly used in electronic BP monitors
2. Capacitive Transducer:
○ Measures pressure based on change in capacitance
○ Sensitive to small pressure changes
3. Piezoelectric Transducer:
○ Converts pressure into electric charge
○ Used for pulse and dynamic pressure measurement
4. Oscillometric Method (Cuff-Based):
○ Measures pressure based on cuff inflation and vibration detection
○ Used in digital sphygmomanometers

You've got it, Sandipan! Here's a complete, detailed yet simple set of answers for your next batch of
important Biomedical Engineering theory questions. These are structured for 5 to 10 mark answers,
ready for your exams.

✍ Q1. How many types of electrodes are there in biomedical

instrumenta on? Discuss them in detail.
✅ Answer:
In biomedical instrumentation, electrodes are used to detect electrical signals from the body (bio-
potentials).

🔹 Main Types of Electrodes:

1. Surface Electrodes:
○ Placed on the skin.
○ Non-invasive.
○ Used in: ECG, EEG, EMG
Example: Silver-silver chloride (Ag-AgCl) electrodes

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 ○ Example: Silver-silver chloride (Ag-AgCl) electrodes
2. Needle Electrodes:
○ Inserted into the tissue or muscle.
○ Invasive.
○ Used in: EMG to measure deep muscle signals.
3. Microelectrodes:
○ Very thin electrodes used to record signals from single cells or neurons.
○ Used in neuroscience research.
4. Suction Electrodes:
○ Use suction to attach to skin.
○ Often used for ECG chest leads.
5. Floating Electrodes:
○ Used with electrolyte gel to reduce movement artifacts.
6. Implantable Electrodes:
○ Surgically implanted inside the body.
○ Used in pacemakers, neural prosthetics, brain stimulation.

✍ Q2. How can the noise of bio-poten al measurement be

eliminated?
✅ Answer:
Noise in bio-potential measurement can corrupt the actual signal. Here’s how it can be minimized:

🔹 Common Noise Sources:

• Power line interference (50/60 Hz)
• Electrode movement
• Muscle artifacts
• Electromagnetic interference (EMI)

🔹 Noise Elimination Techniques:

1. Use of Differential Amplifiers:
○ Cancels out common noise signals (common-mode rejection).
2. Shielded Cables & Grounding:
○ Prevents pickup of external electromagnetic noise.
3. Use of Filters:
○ Low-pass filter: Removes high-frequency noise
○ Notch filter: Removes 50/60 Hz power line interference
4. Proper Skin Preparation:
○ Clean and lightly abrade skin to reduce contact resistance.
5. High-Quality Electrodes and Gels:
○ Ensure better signal transmission and lower noise.
6. Signal Averaging (in EEG/EP):
○ Reduces random noise by averaging repeated signals.

✍ Q3. What is threshold of hearing? Define sound intensity

level. Name five primary and five secondary risk factors of
hearing loss. Draw block diagram of a sound level meter and
explain its working principle.
✅
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✅ Threshold of Hearing:
• The lowest sound intensity a normal human ear can hear.
• Around 0 dB (or 10⁻¹² W/m²) at 1000 Hz.

✅ Sound Intensity Level (SIL):

L=10⋅log 10(II0)L = 10 \cdot \log_{10} \left( \frac{I}{I_0} \right)
Where:
• LL = sound level in dB
• II = actual sound intensity
• I0I_0 = reference intensity (10⁻¹² W/m²)

✅ Risk Factors of Hearing Loss:

🔹 Primary (Direct causes):
1. Exposure to loud noise
2. Aging
3. Ear infections
4. Genetic disorders
5. Ototoxic drugs (e.g., chemotherapy)
🔹 Secondary (Indirect contributors):
1. Poor hygiene
2. Smoking
3. Uncontrolled diabetes
4. Head trauma
5. Nutritional deficiency

✅ Block Diagram of Sound Level Meter:

[Microphone] → [Amplifier] → [Weigh ng Filter (A/B/C)] → [Detector] → [Display]

✅ Working Principle:
• Microphone picks up sound pressure.
• Signal is amplified and passed through a filter (A-weighting mimics human ear).
• Detector calculates sound level (in dB).
• Display shows final reading.

✍ Q4. What are the different types of electrodes used in

ECG, EEG, and EMG measurement? What are the safety
considera ons for in vivo electrical systems?
✅ Electrodes Used:
Modality Type of Electrodes Use
ECG Surface (Ag-AgCl) electrodes Chest and limb positions
EEG Scalp electrodes Record brain signals
EMG Needle (intramuscular) & surface electrodes Measure muscle activity

✅ Safety Considerations for In Vivo Use:

1. Electrical Isolation:

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 1. Electrical Isolation:
○ Prevents current leakage into the body.
2. Grounding and Shielding:
○ Avoids electric shocks and interference.
3. Use of Battery-Powered Devices:
○ Reduces risk of mains current exposure.
4. Low Leakage Current:
○ Devices must follow safety standards (IEC 60601).
5. Proper Electrode Contact:
○ Prevents skin burns and artifacts.
6. Monitoring During Procedures:
○ Use of alarms and supervision during in vivo tests.

✍ Q5. Describe the non-invasive method of blood pressure

measurement.
✅ Answer:
The most common non-invasive method is the Auscultatory method using a sphygmomanometer and
stethoscope.

🔹 Steps:
1. Cuff is wrapped around the upper arm and inflated to stop blood flow.
2. Slowly deflate the cuff while listening to Korotkoff sounds using a stethoscope:
○ First sound (systolic pressure): Blood just starts to flow.
○ Disappearance of sound (diastolic pressure): Blood flows freely.

🔹 Alternative Method – Oscillometric:

• Used in digital BP monitors.
• Cuff detects pulsations in pressure and calculates BP electronically.

🔹 Advantages of Non-Invasive Method:

• Safe
• Painless
• Easily repeatable
• No risk of infection

You're on fire, Sandipan! 🔥 Here's a detailed but simple explanation of each of your latest
questions — perfect for exam answers in Biomedical Engineering.

✍ Q1. What is a silver-silver chloride electrode? How is it

prepared? How is the effect of the epidermis reduced?
✅ Silver-Silver Chloride (Ag/AgCl) Electrode:
• A reference electrode commonly used in biomedical applications like ECG, EEG, EMG.
• Provides a stable and low-noise contact with the body.
• Has low electrode-skin impedance and good biocompatibility.

🔹 How It Is Prepared:
1. A pure silver rod or plate is taken.

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 1. A pure silver rod or plate is taken.
2. It's coated with silver chloride either by:
○ Electrochemical process (anodizing in NaCl solution), or
○ Chemical dipping (in ferric chloride solution).
3. The result is a grayish layer of AgCl on the surface.

🔹 Reducing Epidermis Effect:

• The epidermis (outer skin) resists electrical signals and introduces noise.
• To reduce this:
1. Clean the skin with alcohol.
2. Use abrasive gel to remove dead cells.
3. Apply electrode gel to improve conductivity.
4. Use high-quality Ag/AgCl electrodes to minimize artifacts.

✍ Q2. Explain the configura on of a 12-lead ECG system.

✅ Answer:
A 12-lead ECG system provides a comprehensive view of heart activity from multiple angles using only
10 electrodes.

🔹 Lead Types:
1. 3 Bipolar Limb Leads (Standard):
○ Lead I: RA – LA
○ Lead II: RA – LL
○ Lead III: LA – LL
2. 3 Augmented Unipolar Limb Leads:
○ aVR: RA to (LA + LL)
○ aVL: LA to (RA + LL)
○ aVF: LL to (RA + LA)
3. 6 Unipolar Chest Leads:
○ V1 to V6 placed on the chest from right to left

✅ Total = 12 Leads (views), but only 10 electrodes are placed:

• RA, LA, RL, LL (4 limb electrodes)
• V1–V6 (6 chest electrodes)
🧠 This configuration gives a 3D view of the heart: front, side, and bottom.

✍ Q3. Explain how strain gauge can be used in biomedical

instrumenta on. Explain piezoelectric effect in biomedical
instrumenta on.
✅ Strain Gauge in Biomedical Use:
• A strain gauge measures force, pressure, or deformation.
• It changes resistance when stretched or compressed.

🔹 Applications in Biomed:
• Blood pressure sensors (attached to diaphragms)
• Chest movement sensors (in respiration belts)
• Prosthetics to measure muscle force or weight

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 • Prosthetics to measure muscle force or weight

✅ Piezoelectric Effect in Biomedical Use:

• Certain materials (like quartz, PZT) generate an electric charge when pressure is applied.
• Reverse also works: voltage causes shape change.

🔹 Applications:
• Ultrasound transducers: Generate and receive sound waves for imaging.
• Pulse sensors
• Heart sound sensors
• Dental instruments (scalers)

✍ Q4. Give a simplified block diagram of an ECG machine

and briefly discuss each block.
✅ Block Diagram of ECG Machine:
[Electrodes] → [Pre-Amplifier] → [Filters] → [Main Amplifier] → [ADC (if digital)] → [Display / Recorder]

🔹 Block Functions:
1. Electrodes: Pick up electrical signals from the body (ECG signals).
2. Pre-Amplifier: Boosts the very weak bio-potential signals.
3. Filters: Remove noise like 50 Hz power line interference and motion artifacts.
4. Main Amplifier: Further increases the signal strength.
5. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC): Converts signal for digital systems.
6. Display / Recorder: Shows ECG waveform on monitor or prints it.

✍ Q5. Describe basic Pulse Echo apparatus in medical

ultrasound.
✅ Pulse-Echo Method:
This is the working principle of medical ultrasound imaging.

🔹 How It Works:
1. A transducer sends short pulses of ultrasonic waves into the body.
2. These waves travel through tissues and bounce back (echo) when they hit different structures
(like organs).
3. The same transducer receives the echoes.
4. A processor calculates the time delay and creates an image based on depth and intensity of
echoes.

✅ Block Diagram:
[Pulse Generator] → [Transducer] → [Body Tissue] → [Echo Signal] → [Receiver Amplifier] → [Display]

🔹 Applications:
• Pregnancy (fetal imaging)
• Liver, kidney, heart examinations

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 • Liver, kidney, heart examinations
• Detecting cysts, tumors, fluid collection

✍ Q (i): Applica ons of Telemetry in Biomedical Field

✅ Telemetry in biomedical engineering means transmitting
physiological data (like ECG, BP, temperature) from the patient to a
remote location for monitoring or diagnosis.

🔹 Applications:
1. Patient Monitoring in ICU:
○ Heart rate, BP, oxygen saturation, and temperature can be transmitted wirelessly to
nurses/doctors.
2. Ambulance to Hospital Data Transfer:
○ Real-time ECG and vital signs are sent ahead so treatment can start upon arrival.
3. Home Monitoring of Chronic Patients:
○ Used for elderly or cardiac patients at home to alert doctors in emergencies.
4. Wireless Pacemaker Checks:
○ Pacemaker status can be transmitted for remote diagnostics without hospital visit.
5. Telemedicine and Rural Healthcare:
○ Helps doctors monitor patients in remote areas without physical presence.

✅ Advantages:
• Continuous real-time data
• Improves response time
• Reduces need for hospital stays
• Ideal for mobile and rural healthcare

✍ Q (ii): Sensors and Electrodes

✅ Sensors:
• Devices that detect physical, chemical, or biological changes and convert them into measurable
signals (often electrical).
🔹 Examples in Biomedical:
Sensor Type Measures Example Use
Thermistor Temperature Body/skin temperature monitoring
Strain Gauge Force/Pressure Blood pressure transducers
Piezoelectric Sound/Pressure Ultrasound transducers
Optical Sensor Light changes Pulse oximeters

✅ Electrodes:
• Used to pick up bioelectric signals from the body (e.g., ECG, EEG, EMG).
• They form the interface between the body and the instrument.
🔹 Types of Electrodes:
1. Surface Electrodes – For non-invasive signal pickup (e.g., ECG, EEG)

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 1. Surface Electrodes – For non-invasive signal pickup (e.g., ECG, EEG)
2. Needle Electrodes – Invasive, used in EMG
3. Microelectrodes – For single-cell or neuron recordings
4. Ag/AgCl Electrodes – Standard for most bio-signal applications

✅ Key Features of Electrodes:

• Should have low impedance
• Biocompatible and non-toxic
• Provide stable and noise-free signal

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