QUALITY

Quality is conformance to requirement or specifications. Quality is defined as the

fitness for use

Quality Control (QC) may be defined as a system that is used to maintain a desired
level of quality in a product or service. It is a systematic control of various factors
that affect the quality of the product. It depends on materials, tools, machines, type
of labour, working conditions etc. It integrating the

Quality development
Quality maintenance
Quality improvement

Objectives of Quality Control

 To setup standard of quality acceptable to customer

 To locate and identify the process faults so as to control defectives . Scrap
and waste
 To increase company’s profit
 To ensure customer satisfaction
 To take necessary corrective measures so as to maintain the quality of the
products

Quality Cost
Quality cost means cost of poor quality goods and services. Following are the main
quality associated costs

 Failure Costs
 Appraisal Costs
 Prevention Costs

Failure Costs
It includes internal cost arise due to internal failures and external failure cost arise
from the rejection of products services by the customers due to poor quality

Internal Failure Costs

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Costs associated with scrap and rejects

Costs of repair and rework

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Cost of design changes
Cost of trouble shooting or defect failure analysis
Cost of reinspection and retesting
Cost of downtime
External failure costs
Cost of processing complaints from customers
Cost of replacing the defective items
Cost of guarantee and warranty claims
Cost of lost goodwill of customer
Cost of loss of future sales

Appraisal Costs
Appraisal costs relate to testing, execution and examination to assess whether
specified quality is being maintained. It includes
Cost of receiving test and inspection
Cost of equipment calibration and maintenance
Cost of test equipment and commissioning
Cost of evaluation of customer satisfaction
Cost of analysis of reporting of tests and inspection results

Prevention Costs
Prevention costs are the costs that are incurred on preventing a quality problem from
arising. It includes
Cost of quality planning
Cost of documenting
Cost of training
Cost of quality awareness programme
Cost of review of new products

Statistical Quality Control

This is a quality control system employing the statistical techniques to production
process for quality assurance. Statistics is a science of systematic analysis of material
data. It is based on theory of probability. SQC is a technique of estimating the
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quality of whole from the quality of samples.

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Advantages of Statistical Quality Control
1. Reduction in cost
2. Greater efficiency
3. Accurate prediction
4. Can be used where inspection needs destruction of items
5. Indication of assignable causes

The variations in the process are classified as

Chance variation
Assignable cause variation

Chance Variation
This is also known as usual variation. The chance variation occur in random way.
The operator has no control over them.
Assignable Cause Variation
This is known as unusual variation.it is the amount of deviation greater than specified
specification limits. The variation due to assignable causes possess grater magnitude
and the causes can be traced.

The statistical data can be divided into two categories

Variable data or continuous data
Attribute data or discrete data

Variable Data or Continuous Data

The data obtained by actual measurement is known as continuous data. The
variability may be due to assignable causes of variation likely to occur because of
men, materials and machines.
Examples:
A dimension of a part measured
Temperature during heat treatment process
Weight in kgs

Attribute Data or Discrete Data

The data obtained by counting are discrete or attribute data. The products are
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inspected using Go and NO- Go gauges. If a product confirms to specification it is

accepted otherwise rejected. The dimension of the defect is not important

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Examples:
The number of defective parts found in a sample
Surface finish of furniture
Monthly number of machines/tools rejected

Techniques of SQC
Frequency distribution charts
Control charts
Acceptance sampling
Special methods such as analysis of tolerance, correlation analysis of variance

Frequency & Frequency distribution

It is the number of times a particular measured value repeats itself in a set of
measurements. Frequency distribution may be defined as the pictorial representation of
variations. It is a tabulation of data obtained from measurement, arranged in
ascending or descending order according to size.

A frequency plot and tally sheet can easily explained from the following description.
The measurement of outside diameter of 50 shafts are given in following table.

Frequency Plot and Tally Sheet

Fig shows the frequency distribution and the tally sheet which are grouped in a
meaningful format. The frequency distribution and tally sheet tells where most of the
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data are grouped and how much variation is there in the data.

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Frequency plot-Bar Chart

In frequency plot measured values are marked on horizontal axis and the frequencies
on the vertical axis. The heights of the vertical lines are proportional to the
frequencies in the respective cells.

Histogram

A histogram is a bar chart showing a distribution of variable quantities or

characteristics.

Let us construct a histogram for the frequency distribution of the following data. The
data gives the inventory turnover in 30 production shops. The above data is divided
into equal groups or classes or cells. Each class has a width of 4. Using a suitable
scale, now plot the values on the horizontal axis and the frequency on the vertical
axis. Construct rectangles as shown in fig. The base of the rectangle represents the
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class value. The heights of the rectangles represent the corresponding frequencies.

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Frequency Polygon

A frequency polygon is obtained by plotting midpoints of the classes against the

class frequencies and then joining these plotted points by a straight line. The
midpoints of top sides of rectangles of histogram are joined by straight line.

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Frequency curve

A frequency curve is obtained by drawing a smooth freehand curve through the

points of frequency polygon.

Cumulative Frequency Curves (Ogives)

Cumulative frequency of a given variable or class represents the total frequency of

all previous variables including the variables of the class. When cumulative frequency
is plotted on a graph, then the curve obtained is called Ogive or cumulative
frequency curve.

Less than Ogive curve is obtained by plotting upper class limits against the less
than cumulative frequencies

More than Ogive is obtained by plotting more than cumulative frequencies against the
lower class limits.

Ex:
The following data gives the distribution of monthly income of 50 randomly selected
persons from different small scale industries of Kerala
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We take income on X axis and cumulative frequencies on Y axis. Less than Ogive
is obtained by plotting less than cumulative frequencies against the upper limits of
the classes, whereas the more than Ogive is obtained by plotting the more than
frequencies against the lower limits as shown in fig.

Normal Curve

The normal curve is also called probability curve, Gauusian curve or Laplacian
curve. It observes normal law. This represents frequency distribution when the
observations are large in number. Its shape is like that a bell symmetrical about Y
axis and extends from minus infinity to plus infinity. The area under the curve is
very useful in SQC to determine whether the manufacturing process is with in control
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or not. Area under this curve depicts normal distribution of variation pattern.

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Theoretically Normal curve extends from -∞ to +∞. But for practical purpose we can
consider normal curve as extending only 3 to the left and 3 values to the right of
the mean X + Ϭ.

INSPECTION

It is an art of comparing raw material or finished products with the established

standards. In other words, inspection means checking the acceptability of manufactured
components.

Objectives
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1. To find out & remove faculty material before it is machined

2. To ensure adequate quality of products

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 3. To collect information regarding the performance of product
4. To buildup reputation of company
5. To locate defect in design
6. To ensure safe working of product

Inspection of incoming materials

Incoming material like raw material, tools, equipment etc. are to be inspected in order
to see that material received are physically and chemically in accordance with
specifications. This is done to eliminate loss of labour and machining time on
defective materials.

Manufacturing Inspection

This is done to see that product is passing through the correct process and
procedures. At the end of each process, the product is checked by the worker or by
the inspector. This prevents wastage of time and money on defective items on further
processing.

Methods of Inspection
100% Inspection
The full inspection of each and every product is called hundred percent inspection.
This method is costly and takes more time. It is suitable only when a small number
of pieces are there or a very high degree of quality is required.
Example: Jet engines, aircraft, medical and scientific equipment.

Sampling Inspection
In this inspection certain percentage sample from a lot at random and inspected.
This type is used where it is not possible to inspect whole of the lot of production
or where destructive tests like breaking strength are to be carried out.in such cases
samples are to be taken and tested. Acceptance of the lot is based on statistical
quality method. It is based on the theory of probability.

Types of inspection

 First piece inspection

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 Operation inspection

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  Functional inspection
 Key operation inspection
 Pilot Piece Inspection
 Floor or patrolling inspection
 Centralised inspection

First Piece Inspection

This inspection is mainly used for products made in automatic & semi-automatic
machines. In automatic machines first 3 or 4 products are inspected carefully in all
respects and found to be satisfactory it is assumed that products manufactured
afterwords will also be satisfactory.

Operation Inspection
Operation inspection is carried out when more than one process is required to
produce the product. Inspection is done after every stage.

Functional Inspection
This inspection is carried out after completion of assembly to check the accuracy of
assembly. This inspection helps to know whether the assembled product functions as
required.

Key Operation Inspection

There are certain operations which are quite costly or difficulty. The operators usually
have tendency to do mistake at such places. Such operations are known as key
operation. Inspection done prior to and immediately after the completion of each of
these operations.

Pilot Piece Inspection

This is done immediately new design of product is developed. The product is
manufactured in a pilot plant if it disturbs normal production in the production shop.

Floor or Patrolling Inspection

In this system, the inspection is performed at the place of production. It suggests the
checking of materials in process at the machine or in the production time by
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patrolling inspectors. These inspectors move from machine to machine and from one

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to the other work centers. Inspectors have to be highly skilled. This method of
inspection minimize the material handling, does not disrupt the line layout of
machinery and quickly locate the defect and readily offers field and correction.

Centralised Inspection

Inspection is carried in a central place with all testing equipment; sensitive equipment
is housed in air-conditioned area. Samples are brought to the inspection floor for
checking. Centralised inspection may locate in one or more places in the
manufacturing industry.

Sample Mean

The sample mean is the average and is computed as the sum of all the observed
outcomes from the sample divided by the total number of events. We use x as
the symbol for the sample mean. In math terms,

If X1, X2, X3, Xn are n values of the variate X in the sample. Their mean is given
by
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If X1 occurs f1 times, X2 occurs f2 times etc. and lastly Xn occurs fn times, there
being n observations altogether

n = f1+ f2+ f3+………..+ fn

For example the arithmetic mean of 10, 20, 24, 34 is

(10+12+24+34) / 4 = 80/4 = 20

Mode
Mode is that value of the variate which occurs with the greatest frequency. Mode is
the value that occurs most frequently.
For example, the recorded observations are
3,5,7,6,5,2,4,5,7,6,5
Here 5 occur more frequently, that is four times. Hence mode is 5
Median
The median is a middle score in a set of scores. When all the observations are
arranged in ascending or descending order, then the median is the magnitude of the
middle case. It has half the observations above it and half below it. If n is even
then the median is taken as the average of n/2th and (n/2) +1)th value.
Example time taken to complete a job be 4.7, 4.2, 5.1, 6.0, 4.8, 4.3 and 5.0
minutes by seven workers.
Let us arrange the data in ascending order as follows
4.2, 4.3, 4.7, 4.8, 5.0 5.1, 6.1
Median is 4th term ie 4.8
Range
Range which is defined as the difference between the highest and the lowest values
in a group
For example
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A cricketer’s core in5 matches are 10, 0, 25, 30, 100

Range = 100 – 0 = 100

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Variance
It is the sum of the squares of the deviations from the arithmetic mean divided by
the number of observations. Variance is defined as the square of the standard
deviation

Standard Deviation
It gives at the best measure of dispersion. It is denoted by the symbol sigma

The standard deviation as the square root of the average squared deviation from the
mean.

CONTROL CHART

A control chart is a graph that displaces data taken over time and the variations of
this data.

Objectives

 It is used to check whether the process is controlled statically or not

 With the help of a control chart one can find out the natural capability of a
production process.
 It is used to evaluate process stability and to decide when to adjust the
process
 To estimate or reduce assignable causes
 To find out causes of variation and to take corrective action

Advantages

 A control chart indicates when something may be wrong, so that corrective

action can be taken
 The patterns of the plot on a control chart diagnosis possible cause and
hence indicate possible remedial actions
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 It can estimate the process capability of process

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  It provides useful information regarding actions to take for quality improvement.

Control Charts for Variables

As the name indicates, these charts will use variable data of a process. X chart
given an idea of the central tendency of the observations. These charts will reveal
the variations between sample observations. R chart gives an idea about the spread
(dispersion) of the observations. This chart shows the variations within the samples.

X-Chart and R-Chart:

Procedures to construct X-chart and R-chart

1. Identify the process to be controlled
2. Select the variable of interest.
3. Decide a suitable sample size (n) and number of samples to be collected (k).
4. Collect the specified number of samples over a given time interval.
5. Find the measurement of interest for each piece within the sample.
6. Obtain mean (X) of each sample.
7. Establish control limits for X and R-charts.

For X-Chart
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X = central line of the chart and the average of past sample mean’s
A2 = constant to provide three-sigma limits for the process mean.
R = average of several past R values and is the central line of the control chart
D3, D4 = constants that provide three standard deviation (three-sigma) limits for a
given sample size

Example-1

The results of inspection of 10 samples with its average and range are tabulated in
the following table. Compute the control limit for the X and R-chart and draw the
control chart for the data.

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Example-2

In a production process a lot of 250 products have been manufactured in ad day.five

samples have been collected at random in that day as a SQC measure. Each
sample size is 5. Five samples A,B,C,D,E have been as shown in table for a
particular dimension of the product.

Calculate the control limits and plot X and R chart. Take a2for control limits of X
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as 0.577 and D3 and D4 for control limits of R as 2.11 and 0 respectively.

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Solution

For X chart

It is obvious that all the points are within control limits and this indicates that
production process is within the limit
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For R chart

Control Charts for Attributes

Inspection of variables with the help of X and R chart is not economical and
sometimes not possible. Under this conditions the inspection results are based
upon either conforming or non-conforming to specifications. Therefore these
products are inspected with go and no go gauges to tell whether the product
confirms or does not confirm to specified values. This is known as inspection
by attributes. That means the products are classified as good or bad,
acceptable or not acceptable without actually measuring the dimensions.

The various control charts for attributes are

P chart or fraction defective chart
nP chart or number of defective chart
100P chart or percent defective chart
C chart
U chart

P Charts –
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This is the control chart for fraction defectives. This chart is based on
binomial distribution

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Fraction defective is always expressed as a decimal fraction

Steps for fraction defective charts

1. Record the data for each subgroup of number inspected and number of
defectives
2. Compute fraction defective for each subgroups
Fraction defective=P

3. Compute p - the average fraction defective. This represents the center line
of the chart)

4. Compute the upper, lower control limits for each sub groups.

4. Plot each point in control chart

5. The process is said to be in control if the fraction defective values fall
within the control limits.
6. Points which are falling outside the control limits are to be identified if
any. Investigations are necessary to know the causes as the process is out
of control.

Applications of p chart
1. To find the average fraction defective for the articles submitted for
inspection over a period of time
2. Average quality level of the manufactured products can be brought to
the notice of the management
3. To investigate and identify the reasons for the production of bad quality
products
4. To inspect large lots of purchased articles by sampling inspection.
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100 p chart
The features and characteristics of a 100 P chart are same as that of a P
chart. Instead of decimal values, we get percentage figures and chart will
have distinct numbers. Control limits are computed as follows

Standard deviation

Control limits

Example-1
The daily production in a machine shop is 100 components. These
components are inspected by Go and No Go gauges. A sample of 100 is
inspected daily for continuously ten days. The samples are taken at random.
Compute the control limits for P chart.
Date 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Rejections 2 10 6 20 18 14 15 12 8 6

Solution

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From the chart all the points are within the control limits. Therefore the
process exhibits statistical control.

Example-2

The screws from an automatic screw cutting machine are under inspection.
These are inspected in samples of 200 each. Even a single defect in the
thread of the screws makes it un acceptable. The observations for 20 days
are recorded below. Draw p-chart and 100 p chart sate your conclusions

Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
No
No of 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 3 2 3 2 2 1 3 3 2 3 1
defectives
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Solution

P chart
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C Charts
It measures the number of defects/unit.
This chart is used in situations where the opportunity for defects is large
while the actual occurrence tends to be small. The control limits on c chart
are based on Poisson distribution.

Applications of c chart
1. The number of defect observed in a galvanized sheet or painted plated
or enameled surface of given data.
2. Number of defective rivets in a an aircraft wing
3. Number of rivets observed in a roll of paper, bale of cloth, sheet of
photographic film
4. Number of small air holes in a glass bottles
5. Number of defects observed in a casting or welded piece such as blow
holes, cracks, under cuts etc.

Advantages of C chart
1. it is very easy to learn and apply
2. It requires less computation work
3. This chart serves to keep management and production supervisors
informed about quality level and eliminate out of control points
4. It improves quality where defects/unit area are found out and corrected.
So better customer relations
5. It suggest the lack of definite inspection standards

Difference between defects and defectives

Any item is said to be defective if it contain atleast one defect. For example
when a casting is inspected, it contains blow holes, cracks, hard spots etc.
The casting is said to be defective and the blow holes, cracks, hard spots
etc. are called the defects.
Control limits for c chart
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Example-1

Ten pieces of cloth out of different rolls of equal length contained the
following number of defects. Draw the control chart for the defects and state
whether the process is in a state of statistical control

Roll 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No
No of 1 3 5 0 6 0 9 4 4 3
defects

Solution

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From the above graph it is observed that all the points are laying within the
control limits. Therefore the process is in a state of statistical control.

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Example-2

The following table gives the number of missing rivets noted at aircraft final
inspection. Find C, compute the control limits and plot control chart C.
What values of C would you suggest for the subsequent period.

Solution

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From the graph it is observed that the number of missing rivets of aircraft
No-24 is 28 which fall above the upper control limit. Therefore to suggest
new value of c for subsequent period, the control limits are to be revised by
deleting this reading

Now all the points are within control limits. Therefore the value of c
suggested for subsequent period is c=12.956

Comparison between Variable charts and Attribute charts

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 Previous year Questions

(Oct-2016)

1. What is variance?
2. What are the advantages of centralized inspection
3. Find the measure of central tendencies for the children ages given below in years are 3,6,5,8,7,6
and 9?
4. Ten samples of size five where subjected to variable inspection. Sample mean and sample range are
given below
Sample No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sample Range 3 5 2 4 3 3 4 5 4 2

Sample Mean 11 11.3 11.2 11.6 11.8 10.6 10.8 11.4 11.2 11.1

Draw the X and R chart. Take A2=0.58,D3=0 and D4=2.11

5. What are the applications of quality control program?
6. The following data refers to the inspection of 10samples of size 100. Construct p chart and comment
on the state of control of process
Sample No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No of 5 3 3 6 5 6 8 10 10 4
defectives
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7. Write the comparison between floor and centralized inspection

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 (March-2015)

1. Differentiate between estimation and costing

2. Find Mean, Median, Mode, Range and standard deviation for the following data
50.35,60,75,45,40,60,85
3. Explain the main function of estimation
4. Explain the main characteristics of Normal distribution curve
5. Explain the characteristics of centralized inspection. Give its advantages and disadvantages
compared to floor inspection
6. Following table given number of missing rivets noted in a newly fabricated vehicle
Vehicle 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No
Missing 11 13 14 26 20 9 25 15 14 13
Rivets
Construct C chart and comment on control
7. Explain the different measures of central tendency and dispersion
8. Given are the mean and range for 12 samples with a sample size of 5. Construct X and R chart and
comment on the state of control (A2=0.58, D3=0,D4=2.11 )
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
No
Mean 49 43 44 37 37 51 43 46 47 45 44 46
Range 6 5 5 6 7 7 4 8 4 6 8 4

(March-2014)

1. Interpret 95.46% of total area of normal curve

2. What is cycle time in production
3. Explain the procedure for constructing a P chart and application
4. Define and Explain Mean, Mode, Median
5. What are the objectives of quality control
6. What are the inspection methods follow in industries to ensure quality control. Explain first piece
inspection and key point inspection
7. Draw and explain normal distribution curve and mention its characteristics
8. 10 castings were inspected in order to locate defects in them. Every casting was found to certain
number of defects as give below. Construct a C chart, draw the conclusions and make your comment
Castings 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
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Defects 2 4 1 5 5 6 3 4 0 7

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 (March-2013)

1. What do you mean by measure of dispersion

2. Name the elements of prime cost write the difference between variables and attributes with
examples
3. Explain the three measures of central tendency
4. Briefly explain floor inspection and centralized inspection
5. The following table shows the number of point defects on the surface of a bus body on a particular
day. Construct a C-chart and comment

Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number
Number of 2 4 7 5 5 6 8 14 2 9
Defects
6. What are the objectives of Quality control
7. Ten samples of size 5 were subjected to variable inspection. Sample mean and sample range are as
given below

Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No
Sample 3 5 2 4 3 3 4 5 4 2
Range
Sample 11.0 11.3 11.2 11.6 11.8 10.6 10.8 11.4 11.2 11.1
mean
Draw the X chart and R chart and comment. For sample size of 5 ,Take A2=0.58,D3=0,D4=2.11

(March-2012)

1. Name some non-measurable qualities and sensory qualities

2. T=L/FN is the equation form Machining time. Name all parameters and define feed.
3. Explain centralized inspection with suitable example of industry where it used
4. Explain the term chance cause and assignable cause with respect to production variations
5. Find the measures of central tendency and standard deviationfor7 children whose ages in years
3,5,6,8,7,6,9
6. In a factory , producing spark plugs, the number of defectives found in the inspection of 10 lots of
100 each is given. Construct an appropriate control chart and make your comment
Lot No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No of 2 3 1 4 4 0 2 1 4 2
Defect
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