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SCALARS & VECTORS

❖ Scalar:
Physical quantities having only magnitude are called Scalars.
Ex: Length, time, volume, density, temperature, mass, work, energy, electric charge,
electric current, potential, resistance, capacity, etc.
Description of scalar quantity:
To describe a scalar quantity, we require
→ The specific unit of that quantity
→ The number of times that unit is contained in that quantity.
Ex: A bag contains 100 kg of sugar.
100 kg → mass
kg → unit
100 → No of times that unit is contained in that quantity.

❖ Vector:
Physical quantities having both magnitude and direction and that obeys laws of vector
addition are called Vectors.
Ex: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, Intensity of electric field,
etc.
Description of vector quantity:
To describe a vector quantity, we require
→ The specific unit of that quantity.
→ The number of times that unit is contained in that quantity.
→ The orientation of that quantity.
Ex: A plane is flying from west to east with a velocity of 50 ms-1.
Velocity = 50 ms-1, from west to east
ms-1 → unit
50 → The number of times that unit is contained in that quantity.
West to East → direction

Note:
A physical quantity having magnitude and direction but not obeying laws of vector
addition is treated as a scalar.
Ex: Electric current, Velocity of light, velocity of sound.
Electric current is always associated with direction, but it is not a vector quantity. It
does not obey law of vector addition for its addition.

❖ Representation of vector:
Graphical representation:

→ Graphically, a vector is represented by an arrow.

→ The tail is the starting point.

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→ Head is the ending point.

→ The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector.
→ The tip of the arrowhead represents the direction.
Mathematical representation:
A vector is represented by a capital letter with an arrow over it, as 𝐴⃗, 𝐵
⃗⃗, 𝐶⃗
The magnitude of a vector ⃗A⃗ is represented by |A⃗⃗| or 𝐴.
Ex:
Car A is running with velocity of 10 m/s towards east.
Car B is running with velocity of 20 m/s towards north-east.

❖ Types of vectors:
Polar vectors:
Vectors that have some initial point or a point of application are called polar vectors
or real vectors.
Ex: Force, momentum, acceleration, etc.
Axial vectors:
Axial vectors describe rotational motion, and act along the axis of rotation (according
to the right-hand screw rule which will be discussed in upcoming chapters).
Ex: angular velocity, angular acceleration, etc.
Parallel vectors or like vectors:
The vectors which have the same direction are known as parallel vectors.
Angle between two parallel vectors is always 00.

antiparallel or unlike or vectors:

Vectors which have the opposite direction with respect to each other are called as
unlike vectors.
Angle between two anti-parallel vectors is always 1800.

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Equal vectors: Vectors having equal magnitude and same direction are called equal
vectors.

Co-initial vectors: Vectors having same initial point are called co-initial vectors.

Coplanar vectors: Vectors which always lie in the same plane.

Collinear vectors:
➢ Vectors which lie along the same line or parallel lines are known as collinear vectors.
➢ Angle between them can be 00 or 1800.
Zero vector:
➢ A vector whose magnitude is equal to zero is called a null vector or zero vector.
➢ If the starting and finishing point of a vector coincide with each other, then it is
known as a zero vector or null vector.
➢ Null vector does not have any direction.
Negative vector:
A vector having the same magnitude and opposite in direction to that of a given
vector is called negative vector of the given vector.

Unit vector:
A vector whose magnitude is equal to one is called a unit vector.
→ A unit vector has no units and dimensions.
→ The purpose of unit vector is to specify the direction of given vector.
→ It is represented by 𝐴̂ (𝐴 cap or 𝐴 hat).
Vector 𝐴⃗
The unit vector in the direction of 𝐴⃗ is 𝐴̂ = Magnitude of Vector = |𝐴⃗|

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Orthogonal unit vectors or base vectors:

𝑖̂, 𝑗̂, 𝑘̂ are called orthogonal unit vectors.
𝑖̂, 𝑗̂, 𝑘̂ are unit vectors along 𝑥 − axis, 𝑦 − axis and 𝑧 − axis
respectively.
𝑖̂, 𝑗̂, 𝑘̂ are mutually perpendicular to each other.
|𝑖̂| = |𝑗̂| = |𝑘̂| = 1

Examples:
1. A vector of 3 unit along x axis is 𝑥⃗ = 3𝑖̂.
2. A vector of magnitude 6 along −𝑥 axis is
𝑥⃗ = 6(−𝑖̂) = −6𝑖̂.
3. A vector of magnitude 5 along −𝑧 axis is
𝑥⃗ = 6(−𝑘̂) = −6𝑘̂.
4. (2, 3) → 2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂
5. (−5, −1) → −5𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂

❖ Angle between the two vectors:

The angle between two vectors is represented by the smaller of the two angles
between the vectors when they are placed tail to tail.
The angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ is correctly represented in the following figures.

If the angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵

⃗⃗ is 𝜃, then the angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐾𝐵
⃗⃗ is also 𝜃, where 𝐾 is
a positive constant.

If the angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵

⃗⃗ is 𝜃, then the angle between 𝐴⃗ and −𝐾𝐵
⃗⃗ is 180 − 𝜃. Where
𝐾 is a positive constant.

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Angle between collinear vectors is always zero or 1800.

Examples:
1. Three vectors 𝐴⃗, 𝐵 ⃗⃗, 𝐶⃗ are shown in the figure. Find angle between (i) 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ (ii) 𝐵
⃗⃗ and
𝐶⃗ (iii) 𝐴⃗ and 𝐶⃗.

2. If 𝐴⃗, 𝐵
⃗⃗, 𝐶⃗ represents the three sides of an equilateral triangle taken in the same order then
find the angle between (i) 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗⃗ (ii) 𝐵
⃗⃗ and 𝐶⃗ (iii) 𝐴⃗ and 𝐶⃗.
3. A man walks towards east with certain velocity. A car is travelling along a road which is
300 west of north. While a bus is travelling in another road which is 600 south of west.
Find the angle between velocity vector of
(i) man and car (ii) car and bus (iii) bus and man.
4. A vector 𝐴⃗ makes an angle 300 with the y – axis in anticlockwise direction. Another
⃗⃗ makes an angle 300 with the x – axis in clockwise direction. Find angle between
vector 𝐵
vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗.

❖ Addition of vectors (Geometrical method):

→ To add two vectors geometrically represent the vectors by arrow headlines
→ Join the initial point of the second vector with the final point of the first vector by
moving parallel to itself.
→ Now, draw an arrow from the initial point of the first vector to the final point of the
second vector. This arrow represents the resultant of the two vectors.
Case 1:
When two vectors are acting in the same direction.

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Case 2:
When two vectors are acting at some angle.

Properties of vector addition:

• Vector addition obeys commutative law, 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵 ⃗⃗ = 𝐵
⃗⃗ + 𝐴⃗
• Vector addition obeys associative law, 𝐴⃗ + (𝐵
⃗⃗ + 𝐶⃗) = (𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ ) + 𝐶⃗

❖ Subtraction of vectors:
The vector subtraction of two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗⃗ is represented by 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵 ⃗⃗ and it is
⃗⃗ to the vector 𝐴⃗. i.e., 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
nothing but adding the negative of vector 𝐵 ⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + (−𝐵 ⃗⃗ )

Properties of vector addition:

• Vector subtraction does not follow commutative law, 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵 ⃗⃗ ≠ 𝐵
⃗⃗ − 𝐴⃗
• Vector subtraction does not follow associative law, 𝐴⃗ − (𝐵
⃗⃗ − 𝐶⃗) ≠ (𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ ) − 𝐶⃗

❖ Addition of vectors (Analytical method):

❖ Triangle law of vector addition:
If two non-zero vectors are represented by the two sides of a triangle taken in same
order then the resultant is given by the closing side of triangle in opposite order. i.e.,
𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗

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Magnitude of resultant vector, 𝑅 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 2𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Direction of resultant vector, tan 𝛼 = 𝐴+𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

❖ Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition:

If two non-zero vectors are represented by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram
then the resultant (sum of two vectors) is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram
passing through the point of intersection of the two vectors.
Magnitude of Resultant Vector:
In ΔABN,
𝐴𝑁
cos θ = ⇒ 𝐴𝑁 = 𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝐵
𝑅𝑁
sin θ = ⇒ 𝐵𝑁 = 𝐵 sin 𝜃
𝐵
In ΔOBN, we have
𝑂𝐵 2 = 𝑂𝑁 2 + 𝐵𝑁 2
𝑅 2 = (𝐴 + 𝐵 cos 𝜃)2 + (𝐵 sin 𝜃 )2
𝑅 2 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 θ + 2𝐴𝐵 cos θ +
𝐵 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 θ
𝑅 2 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 θ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 θ) + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝑅 2 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝑅 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
Direction of resultant vector:
If 𝜃 is the angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗, then |𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ | = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
If the resultant 𝑅⃗⃗ , makes an angle 𝛼 with 𝐴⃗, then in ΔOBN,
𝐵𝑁 𝐵𝑁
tan 𝛼 = 𝑂𝑁 = 𝑂𝐴+𝐴𝑁
𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
tan 𝛼 = 𝐴+𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Special cases:
Case 1:
When 𝜃 = 00 ; cos 0 = 1 and sin 0 = 0
Magnitude of resultant:
𝑅 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 2𝐴𝐵(1)
𝑅 = √(𝐴 + 𝐵)2 = 𝐴 + 𝐵
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴 + 𝐵
Direction of resultant:

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𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝐵×0
tan 𝛼 = 𝐴+𝐵 cos 𝜃 = 𝐴+𝐵(1)
tan 𝛼 = 0 ⇒ 𝛼 = 00
Case 2:
When 𝜃 = 1800 ; cos 180 = −1 and sin 180 = 0
Magnitude of resultant:
𝑅 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 2𝐴𝐵(−1)
𝑅 = √(𝐴 − 𝐵)2 = 𝐴 − 𝐵
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴 − 𝐵
Direction of resultant:
𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝐵×0
tan 𝛼 = 𝐴+𝐵 cos 𝜃 = 𝐴+𝐵(1) = 0
tan 𝛼 = 0 ⇒ 𝛼 = 00 or 1800
Case 3:
When 𝜃 = 900 ; cos 90 = 0 and sin 90 = 1
𝑅 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 2𝐴𝐵(0)
𝑅 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2
Direction of resultant:
𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝐵×1 𝐵
tan 𝛼 = 𝐴+𝐵 cos 𝜃 = 𝐴+𝐵(0) = 𝐴
𝐵 𝐵
tan 𝛼 = 𝐴 ⇒ 𝛼 = tan−1 (𝐴)
⃗⃗ , 𝑅 = 2𝑃 cos 𝜃
Case 4: If 𝐴 = 𝐵 = 𝑃 and 𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵 2
⃗⃗, 𝑅 = 2𝑃 sin 𝜃
Case 5: If 𝐴 = 𝐵 = 𝑃 and 𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵 2
Problems:
1. Two forces 6 N and 8 N are acting at a point such that the angle between them is 600.
Find the resultant force.
2. The resultant of two equal forces is 141.4 N when they are mutually perpendicular.
Find the magnitude of resultant when they are inclined at an angle 1200.
3. The resultant of two forces 2P and √2P is √10P. find the angle between two forces.
4. Two forces whose magnitudes are in the ratio 3 : 5 gives a resultant of 28 N. If the
angle of their inclination is 600, find the magnitude of each force.

❖ Polygon law of vector addition:

If a number of vectors can be represented by the sides of a polygon taken in the same
order, then their resultant is represented by the closing side of the polygon taken in the
opposite order.
𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ + 𝐶⃗ + 𝐷
⃗⃗ + 𝐸⃗⃗

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❖ Resolution of vectors:
Resolution of a vector is the process of splitting a vector into two or more vectors in
different directions.
Rectangular components of a vector:
When a vector is splitted into components which are at right angle to each other, then
the components are called rectangular or orthogonal components of that vector.

❖ Rectangular components in 2-D SPACE:

Consider a vector 𝑅⃗⃗ inclined to the 𝑥 − axis at angle 𝜃.
𝑅⃗⃗𝑥 → Component of 𝑅⃗⃗ along 𝑥 − axis.
𝑅⃗⃗𝑦 → Component of 𝑅⃗⃗ along 𝑦 − axis.
By using parallelogram law of vectors, 𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑅⃗⃗𝑥 + 𝑅⃗⃗𝑦
𝑅⃗⃗𝑥 = 𝑅𝑥 𝑖̂, 𝑅⃗⃗𝑦 = 𝑅𝑦 𝑗̂
𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑅𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑅𝑦 𝑗̂
𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅 cos 𝜃, 𝑅𝑦 = 𝑅 sin 𝜃
𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑅 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ + 𝑅 sin 𝜃 𝑗̂ = 𝑅(cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ + sin 𝜃 𝑗̂)
𝑅𝑥2 = 𝑅 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃; 𝑅𝑦2 = 𝑅 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2 = 𝑅 2
𝑅 = √𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2
𝑅𝑥
cos 𝜃 = 𝑅
Component
Angle which ( of vector )
𝑅𝑥 along 𝑥−axis
cos ( 𝑅⃗⃗ makes ) = 𝑅 = Magnitude
( )
with 𝑥 − axis of vector

Problems:
1. Find the magnitude and direction of the following vectors
(a) 𝑎⃗ = 3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ (b) 𝑏⃗⃗ = −2𝑖̂ + 2√3𝑗̂
(c) 𝑐⃗ = −2𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ (d) 𝑎⃗ = √3𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂

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2. Find a vector of magnitude 6 unit making an angle of 30° with 𝑦 − axis.

Solution:
300 with 𝑦 − axis ⇒ 600 with 𝑥 − axis.
𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑅(cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ + sin 𝜃 𝑗̂), where 𝜃 is the angle which 𝑅⃗⃗ makes with 𝑥 − axis.
1 √3
𝑅⃗⃗ = 6(cos 60 𝑖̂ + sin 60 𝑗̂) = 6 (2 𝑖̂ + 2 𝑗̂) = 3(1𝑖̂ + √3𝑗̂)
𝑅⃗⃗ = 3𝑖̂ + 3√3𝑗̂
❖ Rectangular components of a vector in 3-D SPACE:
Consider a vector 𝑅⃗⃗ making angles 𝛼 , 𝛽 and 𝛾
with 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 − axis respectively.
𝑅⃗⃗𝑥 → Component of 𝑅⃗⃗ along 𝑥 − axis.
𝑅⃗⃗𝑦 → Component of 𝑅⃗⃗ along 𝑦 − axis.
𝑅⃗⃗𝑧 → Component of 𝑅⃗⃗ along 𝑧 − axis.
𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ and 𝑘̂ are unit vectors along 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 − axis
respectively.
𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑅⃗⃗𝑥 + 𝑅⃗⃗𝑦 + 𝑅⃗⃗𝑧
𝑅⃗⃗𝑥 = 𝑅𝑥 𝑖̂, 𝑅⃗⃗𝑦 = 𝑅𝑦 𝑗̂ and 𝑅⃗⃗𝑧 = 𝑅𝑧 𝑘̂
𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑅𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑅𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑅𝑧 𝑘̂
𝑅 = √𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2 + 𝑅𝑧2

❖ Direction cosines:
The direction cosines 𝑙, 𝑚 and 𝑛 of a vector are the cosines of the angles 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾
which a given vector makes with 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 − axis respectively.
Consider a vector 𝑅⃗⃗ making angles 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 with 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 − axis respectively and
cos 𝛼, cos 𝛽 and cos 𝛾 are called direction cosines.
𝑅𝑥 𝑅𝑥
𝑙 = cos 𝛼 = =
𝑅
√𝑅𝑥2 +𝑅𝑦
2 +𝑅 2
𝑧

𝑅𝑦 𝑅𝑦
𝑚 = cos 𝛽 = =
𝑅
√𝑅𝑥2 +𝑅𝑦
2 +𝑅2
𝑧

𝑅𝑧 𝑅𝑧
𝑛 = cos 𝛾 = =
𝑅
√𝑅𝑥2 +𝑅𝑦
2 +𝑅2
𝑧

𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑅 cos 𝛼 𝑖̂ + 𝑅 cos 𝛽 𝑗̂ + 𝑅 cos 𝛾 𝑘̂

PROBLEMS:
1. Given 𝐴⃗ = 5𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂, find direction cosines of 𝐴⃗.
2. If 𝑃⃗⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 6𝑘̂, find the direction cosines of 𝑃⃗⃗.
4 1 3
3. Given the direction cosines of a vector 𝐴⃗ are cos 𝛼 = 5√2 , cos 𝛽 = , cos 𝛾 = 5√2,
√2
then find the vector 𝐴⃗.

❖ Addition & subtraction of vectors in component form:

If 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂

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⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂) + (𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂)

𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 )𝑖̂ + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 )𝑗̂ + (𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧 )𝑘̂
𝐴⃗ + 𝐵

⃗⃗ | = √(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 )2 + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 )2 + (𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧 )2

|𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂) − (𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂)
𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 − 𝐵𝑥 )𝑖̂ + (𝐴𝑦 − 𝐵𝑦 )𝑗̂ + (𝐴𝑧 − 𝐵𝑧 )𝑘̂
𝐴⃗ − 𝐵

⃗⃗ | = √(𝐴𝑥 − 𝐵𝑥 )2 + (𝐴𝑦 − 𝐵𝑦 )2 + (𝐴𝑧 − 𝐵𝑧 )2

|𝐴⃗ − 𝐵

Problems:
1. If 𝐴⃗ = 3𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ = −𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂, calculate 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵 ⃗⃗ and |𝐴⃗ + 𝐵 ⃗⃗ |.
2. Given 𝑎⃗ = 2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 3𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂, find 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ and |𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗|.
3. Given, 𝐴⃗ = −2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ − 4𝑘̂
(a) Calculate magnitude of 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵⃗⃗
(b) Calculate magnitude of 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵⃗⃗
(c) Find the unit vector in the direction of resultant vector of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗.
4. Two vectors are given by 𝑎⃗ = −2𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ − 3𝑘̂ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 5𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ − 2𝑘̂ . If 3𝑎⃗ + 2𝑏⃗⃗ −
𝑐⃗ = 0, then find 𝑐⃗?

❖ Position Vector:
It is a vector that gives the position of a particle with respect to the origin of a
coordinate system.
The position vector of a point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ +
𝑧𝑘̂
Magnitude of position vector 𝑟⃗ is |𝑟⃗| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
𝑟⃗ ̂
𝑥𝑖̂+𝑦𝑗̂ +𝑧𝑘
Unit vector of position vector 𝑟⃗ is 𝑟̂ = |𝑟⃗| =
√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2
Examples
5. Find the unit vector of 4𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂.
Solution:
Let the given vector be 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂
= 4𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
∴ 𝑥 = 4, 𝑦 = −3, 𝑧 = 1
|𝑟⃗| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = √(4)2 + (−3)2 + (1)2 = √26
𝑟⃗ ̂
4𝑖̂−3𝑗̂ +𝑘
∴ Unit vector, 𝑟̂ = |𝑟⃗| =
√26

❖ DISPLACEMENT VECTOR:
If 𝑟⃗1 and 𝑟⃗2 are the position vectors of a particle at point A and B at times 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 .
𝑟⃗1 = 𝑥1 𝑖̂ + 𝑦1 𝑗̂
𝑟⃗2 = 𝑥2 𝑖̂ + 𝑦2 𝑗̂

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⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗2 − 𝑟⃗1

∆𝑟
= (𝑥2 𝑖̂ + 𝑦2 𝑗̂) − (𝑥1 𝑖̂ + 𝑦1 𝑗̂)
= (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖̂ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∆𝒙𝒊̂ + ∆𝒚𝒋̂
∆𝒓
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
The displacement during time interval ∆𝑡 is ∆𝑟
Magnitude of displacement,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = √(∆𝑥)2 + (∆𝑦)2 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
|∆𝒓
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is given by
Direction of the displacement vector ∆𝒓
∆𝑦 ∆𝒚
tan 𝜃 = ∆𝑥 ⇒ 𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (∆𝒙)
where, 𝜃 is the angle made by ∆𝒓 with 𝑥 – axis.
In Space:
̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∆𝒙𝒊̂ + ∆𝒚𝒋̂ + ∆𝒛𝒌
∆𝒓
∆𝒓 = √(∆𝑥)2 + (∆𝑦)2 + (∆𝑧)2 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2

Problems:
1. An object moves from position (3, 4) to (6, 5) in the XY- plane. Find the magnitude
and direction of displacement vector of the particle.
2. A particle is initially at point A (2, 4, 6) m moves finally to a point B (3, 2, -3) m.
write the initial position vector, final position vector and displacement vector of the
particle.

❖ Equilibriant:
A vector having same magnitude and opposite in direction to that of the resultant of a
number of vectors is called the equilibriant.
Or
Negative vector of the resultant of a number of vectors is called the equilibriant (𝐸⃗⃗ ).
If 𝐹⃗1 , 𝐹⃗2 & 𝐹⃗3 are the three forces acting on a body, then their resultant is
𝐹⃗𝑅 = 𝐹⃗1 + 𝐹⃗2 + 𝐹⃗3
∴ 𝐸⃗⃗ = −𝐹⃗𝑅 = −(𝐹⃗1 + 𝐹⃗2 + 𝐹⃗3 )
Note:
1. Single force cannot keep the particle in equilibrium.
2. Minimum number of equal coplanar forces required to keep the particle in
equilibrium is two.
3. Minimum number of unequal coplanar forces required to keep the particle in
equilibrium is three.
4. Minimum number of equal or unequal non coplanar forces required to keep the
particle in equilibrium is four.

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❖ Lami’s theorem:
"If three coplanar forces acting at a point keeps it in equilibrium,
then each force is proportional to the sine of the angle between
the other two forces"
If 𝐹⃗1 , 𝐹⃗2 and 𝐹⃗3 are the magnitudes of three forces and
𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 are the angles between forces as shown in fig. Then
according to lami's theorem
𝐹⃗1 𝐹⃗ 𝐹⃗
= sin2𝛽 = sin3𝛾
sin 𝛼

G SUBBA REDDY, LECTURER IN PHYSICS