Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions

on structures
The Eurocode extracts in this chapter are taken from:

EN 1991-1-1:2002 (incorporating corrigendum No 1 and corrigendum No 2 March 2009),

Eurocode 1: Actions on structures — Part 1-1: General actions — Densities, self-weight,
imposed loads for buildings;

EN 1991‑1‑3:2003 (incorporating corrigenda December 2004 and March 2009), Eurocode 1:

Actions on structures — Part 1-3: General actions — Snow loads;

and EN 1991‑1‑4:2005 (incorporating corrigendum July 2009), Eurocode 1: Actions on

structures — Part 1-4: General actions — Wind actions.

The National Annex extracts are taken from:

NA to BS EN 1991-1-1:2002, UK National Annex to Eurocode 1: Actions on structures —

Part 1-1: General actions — Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings

NA to BS EN 1991-1-3:2003 (Incorporating corrigendum No 1), UK National Annex to

Eurocode 1: Actions on structures — Part 1-3: General actions — Snow loads

NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, UK National Annex to Eurocode 1 — Actions on structures —

Part 1-4: General actions — Wind actions

Extracts from EN 1991-1-1

The extracts in this part of Chapter 1 are taken from EN 1991-1-1:2002 (incorporating
corrigendum No 1 and corrigendum No 2 March 2009), Eurocode 1: Actions on structures —
Part 1-1: General actions — Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings.

Text altered by CEN corrigendum March 2009 is indicated in the text by ˆ‰.

The full list of the contents of EN 1991-1-1 follows, and is given for reference purposes. (Bold
items are included in this chapter.)

Foreword
Background of the Eurocode programme
Status and field of application of Eurocodes
National Standards implementing Eurocodes
Links between Eurocodes and harmonised technical specifications (ENs and ETAs) for products
Additional information specific for EN 1991-1-1
National Annex for EN 1991-1-1
Section 1 General
1.1 Scope
1.2 Normative references
1.3 Distinction between principles and application rules
1.4 Terms and definitions
1.5 Symbols
Section 2 Classification of actions
2.1 Self-weight
2.2 Imposed loads

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Section 3 Design situations

3.1 General
3.2 Permanent loads
3.3 Imposed loads
3.3.1 General
3.3.2 Additional provisions for buildings
Section 4 Densities of construction and stored materials
4.1 General
Section 5 Self-weight of construction works
5.1 Representation of actions
5.2 Characteristic values of self-weight
5.2.1 General
5.2.2 Additional provisions for buildings
5.2.3 Additional provisions specific for bridges
Section 6 Imposed loads on buildings
6.1 Representation of actions
6.2 Load arrangements
6.2.1 Floors, beams and roofs
6.2.2 Columns and walls
6.3 Characteristic values of Imposed Loads
6.3.1 Residential, social, commercial and administration areas
6.3.1.1 Categories
6.3.1.2 Values of actions
6.3.2 Areas for storage and industrial activities
6.3.2.1 Categories
6.3.2.2 Values for Actions
6.3.2.3 Actions induced by forklifts
6.3.2.4 Actions induced by transport vehicles
6.3.2.5 Actions induced by special devices for maintenance
6.3.3 Garages and vehicle traffic areas (excluding bridges)
6.3.3.1 Categories
6.3.3.2 Values of actions
6.3.4 Roofs
6.3.4.1 Categories
6.3.4.2 Values of actions
6.4 Horizontal loads on parapets and partition walls acting as barriers
Loaded areas
Annex A (informative) Tables for nominal density of construction materials, and nominal
density and angles of repose for stored materials
Annex B (informative) Vehicle barriers and parapets for car parks

Foreword
Additional information specific for EN 1991-1-1

EN 1991-1-1 gives design guidance and actions for the structural design of buildings and civil
engineering works, including the following aspects:
– densities of construction materials and stored materials;
– self-weight of construction elements; and
– imposed loads for buildings.

EN 1991-1-1 is intended for clients, designers, contractors and public authorities. EN 1991-1-1
is intended to be used with EN 1990, the other Parts of EN 1991 and EN 1992 to EN 1999 for the
design of structures.

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

See Chapter 0 – Extracts from Eurocode: Basis of structural design.

The following text is a brief summary of the scope and field of application for the Parts of
Eurocode 1 that are outside the scope of this guide.

EN 1991-1-2, Actions on structures exposed to fire

EN 1991-1-2 covers the actions to be used in the structural design of buildings and civil
engineering works where they are required to give adequate performance in fire exposure. It
is intended for use with EN 1990 and with the Parts on structural fire design in Eurocodes 2 to
6 and 9. For fire design, fire actions are the dominant action.

EN 1991-1-5, Thermal actions

EN 1991-1-5 gives principles, rules and methods of calculating thermal actions on buildings,
bridges and other structures including their structural components. Principles for determining
thermal actions for claddings and other appendages on the building are also provided.

Characteristic values of thermal actions are provided for the design of structures which
are exposed to daily and seasonal climatic changes. Structures in which thermal actions
are mainly a function of their use (e.g. chimneys, cooling towers, silos, tanks, warm and
cold storage facilities, hot and cold services) are also treated. The characteristic values of
isotherms of national minimum and maximum shade air temperatures are provided in the
form of maps or in other forms.

EN 1991-1-6, Actions during execution

EN 1991-1-6 covers assessment of actions, combinations of actions and environmental

influences during the execution stage, including those actions applied to auxiliary construction
works, e.g. scaffolding, propping and bracing, for use in structural design of buildings and
bridges. The safety of people on construction sites is not within the scope of this Eurocode.

EN 1991-1-7, Accidental actions

EN 1991-1-7 describes safety strategies for accidental design situations. It recommends

design values for the most common cases of accidental actions from impact and explosion; it
gives design models and also detailing provisions which may be used as alternatives to design
verifications. It also provides more advanced impact and explosion design concepts.

External explosion, warfare, sabotage or actions due to natural phenomena such as tornadoes,
extreme erosion or rock falls are not in the scope of the Eurocode.

EN 1991-2, Traffic loads on bridges

EN 1991-2 specifies imposed loads (models and representative values) associated with
road traffic, pedestrian actions and rail traffic that include, when relevant, dynamic effects
and centrifugal, braking, acceleration and accidental forces. It also includes guidance on
combinations with non-traffic loads on road and railway bridges, and on loads on parapets.
Actions for the design of road bridges with individual spans less than 200 m and with
carriageway widths not greater than 42 m are defined.

EN 1991-3, Actions induced by cranes and machinery

EN 1991-3 specifies actions, self-weights and imposed loads (models and representative
values) associated with hoists, crabs and cranes on runway beams and static and dynamic
actions induced in supporting structures by machinery.

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Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

EN 1991-4, Actions in silos and tanks

EN 1991-4 gives general principles and rules for determining actions arising from the storage
of bulk materials and liquids in silos and tanks. The scope is restricted to:

– silos with limited eccentricity of inlet and outlet, with small impact effects caused by filling,
and with discharge devices which do not cause shock or eccentricities beyond the given
limitations;
– silos containing particulate materials which are free-flowing and have a low cohesion;
– tanks with liquids stored at normal atmospheric pressure.

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Section 1 General
1.1 Scope

The scope of EN 1991-1-1 is given in full. (Bold items are covered in this chapter.)

(1) EN 1991-1-1 gives design guidance and actions for the structural design of
buildings and civil engineering works including some geotechnical aspects for the
following subjects:
– Densities of construction materials and stored materials;
– Self-weight of construction works;
– Imposed loads for buildings.

(2) Section 4 and Annex A give nominal values for densities of specific building
materials, additional materials for bridges and stored materials. In addition for specific
materials the angle of repose is provided.

(3) Section 5 provides methods for the assessment of the characteristic values of self-
weight of construction works.

(4) Section 6 gives characteristic values of imposed loads for floors and roofs according
to category of use in the following areas in buildings:
– residential, social, commercial and administration areas;
– garage and vehicle traffic areas;
– areas for storage and industrial activities;
– roofs;
– helicopter landing areas.

(5) The loads on traffic areas given in Section 6 refer to vehicles up to a gross vehicle
weight of 160 kN. The design for traffic areas for heavy vehicles of more than 160 kN
gross weight needs to be agreed with the relevant authority. Further information may
be obtained from EN 1991-2.

(6) For barriers or walls having the function of barriers, horizontal forces are given in
Section 6. Annex B gives additional guidance for vehicle barriers in car parks.

NOTE Forces due to vehicle impact are specified in EN 1991-1-7 and EN 1991-2.

(7) For the design situations and effects of actions in silos and tanks caused by water or other
materials see EN 1991-3.

1.3 Distinction between principles and application rules

See Chapter 0 – Extracts from Eurocode: Basis of structural design.

1.4 Terms and definitions

For the purposes of this European Standard, the terms and definitions given in ISO 2394, ISO
3898, ISO 8930 and the following apply. Additionally, for the purposes of this standard a basic list
of terms and definitions is provided in EN 1990, 1.5.

1.4.1
bulk weight density
the bulk weight density is the overall weight per unit volume of a material, including a normal
distribution of micro-voids, voids and pores

NOTE In everyday usage this term is frequently abbreviated to “density” (which is strictly mass
per unit volume).

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1.4.2
angle of repose
the angle of repose is the angle which the natural slope of the sides of a heaped pile of loose
material makes to the horizontal

1.4.3
gross weight of vehicle
the gross weight of a vehicle includes the self-weight of the vehicle together with the maximum
weight of the goods it is permitted to carry

1.4.4
structural elements
structural elements comprise the primary structural frame and supporting structures. For bridges,
structural elements comprise girders, structural slabs and elements providing support such as
cable stays

1.4.5
non-structural elements
non structural elements are those that include completion and finishing elements connected with
the structure, including road surfacing and non-structural parapets. They also include services
and machinery fixed permanently to, or within, the structure

1.4.6
partitions
non load bearing walls

1.4.7
movable partitions
movable partitions are those which can be moved on the floor, be added or removed or re-built at
another place

1.5 Symbols
(1) For the purposes of this European standard, the following symbols apply.

NOTE The notation used is based on ISO 3898: 1997.

(2) A basic list of symbols is provided in EN 1990 clause 1.6 and the additional notations below
are specific to this part of EN 1991.

Latin upper case letters

A Loaded area
A0 Basic area
Qk Characteristic value of a variable concentrated load

Latin lower case letters

gk Weight per unit area, or weight per unit length

n Number of storeys
qk Characteristic value of a uniformly distributed load, or line load

Lower case Greek letters

aA Reduction factor
an Reduction factor
c Bulk weight density
u Dynamic magnification factor
w0 Factor for combination value of a variable action, see Table A.1.1 of EN 1990
φ Angle of repose (degrees)

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

Section 2 Classification of actions

2.1 Self-weight
(1) The self-weight of construction works should be classified as a permanent fixed action, see
EN 1990, 1.5.3 and 4.1.1.

(4)P The earth loads on roofs and terraces shall be considered as permanent actions.

(5) With regard to 2.1(4)P, the design should consider variations in moisture content and
variation in depth, that may be caused by uncontrolled accumulation during the design life of
the structure.

NOTE For detailed information on earth pressures see EN 1997.

Where there is doubt as to the permanency of an action, the action should be treated as an
imposed load. This applies in particular when the effect of the permanent action is favourable.

2.2 Imposed loads

(1)P Imposed loads shall be classified as variable free actions, unless otherwise specified in this
standard, see EN 1990, 1.5.3 and 4.1.1.

NOTE For imposed loads on bridges see EN 1991-2.

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Section 3 Design situations

3.1 General
(1)P The relevant permanent and imposed loads shall be determined for each design situation
identified in accordance with EN 1990, 3.2.

3.2 Permanent loads

(1) The total self-weight of structural and non-structural members should be taken into account in
combinations of actions as a single action.

See Chapter 0, Table A1.2(B), Note 3. (Page 0-36)

(2) For areas where it is intended to remove or add structural or non-structural elements, the
critical load cases should be taken into account in the design.

(3) The self-weight of new coatings and/or distribution conduits that are intended to be added
after execution should be taken into account in design situations (see 5.2).

(5) The source and moisture content of bulk materials should be considered in design situations
of buildings used for storage purposes.

NOTE The values for the densities provided in Annex A are for materials in the dry state.

3.3 Imposed loads

3.3.1 General

(1)P For areas which are intended to be subjected to different categories of loadings the design
shall consider the most critical load case.

(2)P In design situations when imposed loads act simultaneously with other variable actions (e.g
actions induced by wind, snow, cranes or machinery), the total imposed loads considered in the
load case shall be considered as a single action.

3.3.2 Additional provisions for buildings

ˆ(1) On roofs (particularly for category H roofs), imposed loads need not be applied in combination
with either snowloads and/or wind actions.‰

(2)P When the imposed load is considered as an accompanying action, in accordance with EN
1990, only one of the two factors w (EN 1990, Table A1.1) and an (6.3.1.2 (11)) shall be applied.

(4) The imposed loads to be considered for serviceability limit state verifications should be
specified in accordance with the service conditions and the requirements concerning the
performance of the structure.

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

Section 4 Densities of construction and

stored materials
4.1 General
(1) Characteristic values of densities of construction and stored materials should be specified.
Mean values should be used as characteristic values. See however 4.1(2) and 4.1(3).

NOTE Annex A gives mean values for densities and angles of repose for stored materials. When
a range is given it is assumed that the mean value will be highly dependent on the source of the
material and may be selected considering each individual project.

The following tables are extracts from tables in Annex A of EN 1991-1-1 for key construction
materials.

Table A.1 — Construction materials-concrete and mortar

Materials Density
c
[kN/m3]

concrete
lightweight 14,0 to 16,01)2)
density class LC 1,6 24,01)2)
normal weight

1)
Increase by 1 kN/m3 for normal percentage of reinforcing and pre-stressing steel.
2)
Increase by 1 kN/m3 for unhardened concrete.

Table A.2 — Construction materials-masonry

Materials Density
c
[kN/m3]

masonry units
clay masonry units see EN 771-1
aggregate concrete masonry units see EN 771-3
autoclaved aerated masonry units see EN 771-4

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Table A.3 — Construction materials-wood

Materials Density
c
[kN/m3]

wood
timber strength class C16 3,7
timber strength class C24 4,2

glued laminated timber

homogeneous glulam GL28h 4,0
combined glulam GL28c 3,7

plywood
softwood plywood 5,0
birch plywood 7,0

particle boards
chipboard 7,0 to 8,0
oriented strand board 7,0

Table A.4 — Construction materials-metals

Materials Density
c
[kN/m3]

metals
aluminium 27,0
steel 77,0 to 78,5

(2) For materials (e.g. new and innovative materials) which are not covered by the tables in
Annex A, the characteristic value of the density should be determined in accordance with EN 1990
clause 4.1.2 and agreed for each individual project.

(3) Where materials are used with a significant scatter of densities e.g. due to their source, water
content etc, the characteristic value of these densities should be assessed in accordance with EN
1990 clause 4.1.2.

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Section 5 Self-weight of construction works

5.1 Representation of actions
(1) The self-weight of the construction works should in most cases, be represented by a
single characteristic value and be calculated on the basis of the nominal dimensions and the
characteristic values of the densities.

(2) The self-weight of the construction works includes the structure and non-structural elements
including fixed services as well as the weight of earth and ballast.

(3) Non-structural elements include:

– roofing;
– surfacing and coverings;
– partitions and linings;
– hand rails, safety barriers, parapets and kerbs;
– wall cladding;
– suspended ceilings;
– thermal insulation;
– fixed services (see 5.1(4)).

NOTE For information on fixed machinery see EN 1991-3. For other industrial equipment
(e.g. safes) the manufacturer should be consulted.

(4) Fixed services include:

– equipments for lifts and moving stairways;
– heating, ventilating and air conditioning equipment;
– electrical equipment;
– pipes without their contents;
– cable trunking and conduits.

(5)P Loads due to movable partitions shall be treated as imposed loads, see 5.2.2(2)P and
6.3.1.2(8).

5.2 Characteristic values of self-weight

5.2.1 General

(1)P The determination of the characteristic values of self-weight, and of the dimensions and
densities shall be in accordance with EN 1990, 4.1.2.

(2) Nominal dimensions should be those as shown on the drawings.

5.2.2 Additional provisions for buildings

(1) For manufactured elements such as flooring systems, facades and ceilings, lifts and
equipment for buildings, data may be provided by the manufacturer.

(2)P For determining the effect of the self-weight due to movable partitions, an equivalent
uniformly distributed load shall be used and added to the imposed load, see 6.3.1.2 (8).

Additional provisions that are specific for bridges (see EN 1991-1-1, 5.2.2) are omitted from
this guide.

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Section 6 Imposed loads on buildings

6.1 Representation of actions
(1) Imposed loads on buildings are those arising from occupancy. Values given in this
section include:
– normal use by persons;
– furniture and moveable objects (e.g. moveable partitions, storage, the contents of
containers);
– vehicles;
– anticipating rare events, such as concentrations of persons or of furniture, or the moving or
stacking of objects which may occur during reorganization or redecoration.

(2) The imposed loads specified in this part are modelled by uniformly distributed loads, line loads
or concentrated loads or combinations of these loads.

(3) For the determination of the imposed loads, floor and roof areas in buildings should be sub-
divided into categories according to their use.

(4) Heavy equipment (e.g. in communal kitchens, radiology rooms, boiler rooms etc) are not
included in the loads given in this section. Loads for heavy equipment should be agreed between
the client and/or the relevant Authority.

6.2 Load arrangements

6.2.1 Floors, beams and roofs

(1)P For the design of a floor structure within one storey or a roof, the imposed load shall be
taken into account as a free action applied at the most unfavourable part of the influence area of
the action effects considered.

(2) Where the loads on other storeys are relevant, they may be assumed to be distributed
uniformly (fixed actions).

As a practical example the horizontal beam at the second storey of the frame shown in the
figure below is considered. In accordance with the two subclauses above (6.1 and 6.2) for
determining the bending resistance at the points (a) and (b), the load arrangement for the
imposed load q should be as demonstrated in Figure A.

q
3m
3m

(a) (b) (c) (d)

3m
3m
3m

5m 5m 5m

Figure A — An example of the load arrangement for the imposed load q

(3)P To ensure a minimum local resistance of the floor structure a separate verification shall be
performed with a concentrated load that, unless stated otherwise, shall not be combined with the
uniformly distributed loads or other variable actions.

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

(4) Imposed loads from a single category may be reduced according to the areas supported by
the appropriate member, by a reduction factor aA according to 6.3.1.2(10).

6.2.2 Columns and walls

ˆ(1) For the design of columns and walls, the imposed load should be placed at all unfavourable
locations.

NOTE The National Annex may introduce further simplifying rules. It is recommended that the
maximum axial force may be calculated assuming the total imposed load on the floor of each
story to be uniformly distributed.‰

(2) Where imposed loads from several storeys act on columns and walls, the total imposed loads
may be reduced by a factor an according to 6.3.1.2(11) and 3.3.1(2)P.

6.3 Characteristic values of imposed loads

6.3.1 Residential, social, commercial and administration areas

6.3.1.1 Categories

(1)P Areas in residential, social, commercial and administration buildings shall be divided into
categories according to their specific uses shown in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1 — Categories of use

Category Specific Use Example

A Areas for domestic Rooms in residential buildings and houses; bedrooms

and residential and wards in hospitals; bedrooms in hotels and
activities hostels; kitchens and toilets.

B Office areas

C Areas where people C1: Areas with tables, etc. e.g. areas in schools, cafés,
may congregate restaurants, dining halls, reading rooms, receptions.
(with the exception
C2: Areas with fixed seats, e.g. areas in churches,
of areas defined
theatres or cinemas, conference rooms, lecture halls,
under category A,
assembly halls, waiting rooms, railway waiting rooms.
B, and D1))
C3: Areas without obstacles for moving people, e.g.
areas in museums, exhibition rooms, etc. and access
areas in public and administration buildings, hotels,
hospitals, railway station forecourts.
C4: Areas with possible physical activities, e.g. dance
halls, gymnastic rooms, stages.
C5: Areas susceptible to large crowds, e.g. in
buildings for public events like concert halls, sports
halls including stands, terraces and access areas and
railway platforms.

D Shopping areas D1: Areas in general retail shops

D2: Areas in department stores
1)
 Attention is drawn to 6.3.1.1(2), in particular for C4 and C5. See EN 1990 when dynamic
effects need to be considered. For Category E, see Table 6.3.

NOTE 1 Depending on their anticipated uses, areas likely to be categorised as C2, C3, C4 may
be categorized as C5 by decision of the client and/or National Annex.
NOTE 2 The National Annex may provide sub categories to A, B, C1 to C5, D1 and D2.
NOTE 3 See 6.3.2 for storage or industrial activity.

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The National Annex for EN 1991-1-1 sub-categorizes A, B, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5.

NA.2.3 Categories for residential, social, commercial and administration areas

[BS EN 1991-1-1:2002, 6.3.1.1]

The categories for residential, social, commercial and administration areas are given in
BS EN 1991-1-1:2002, Table 6.1. These categories have been expanded in Table NA.2 to
include additional sub-categories for the UK.

Table NA.2 of EN 1991-1-1 — Categories for residential, social, commercial and

administration areas including additional sub-categories for the UK

Category Specific Sub- Example

of use category
loaded
area

A Areas for A1 All usages within self-contained dwelling units

domestic (a unit occupied by a single family or a modular
and student accommodation unit with a secure door
residential and comprising not more than six single bedrooms
activities and an internal corridor)
Communal areas (including kitchens) in blocks of
flats with limited use (see Note 1). For communal
areas in other blocks of flats, see A5, A6 and C3

A2 Bedrooms and dormitories except those in self-

contained single family dwelling units and in hotels
and motels

A3 Bedrooms in hotels and motels; hospital wards;

toilet areas

A4 Billiard/snooker rooms

A5 Balconies in single family dwelling units and

communal areas in blocks of flats with limited use
(see Note 1)

A6 Balconies in hostels, guest houses, residential clubs

and communal areas in blocks of flats except those
covered by Note 1

A7 Balconies in hotels and motels

B Office areas B1 General use other than in B2

B2 At or below ground floor level

C Areas where C1 Areas with tables

people may
congregate C11 Public, institutional and communal dining rooms
(with the and lounges, cafes and restaurants (see Note 2)
exception
of areas C12 Reading rooms with no book storage
defined
under C13 Classrooms
category A,
B and D) C2 Areas with fixed seats

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

Category Specific Sub- Example

of use category
loaded
area

C21 Assembly areas with fixed seating (see Note 3)

C22 Places of worship

C3 Areas without obstacles for moving people

C31 Corridors, hallways, aisles in institutional type

buildings not subjected to crowds or wheeled
vehicles, hostels, guest houses, residential clubs,
and communal areas in blocks of flats not covered
by Note 1

C32 Stairs, landings in institutional type buildings not

subjected to crowds or wheeled vehicles, hostels,
guest houses, residential clubs, and communal
areas in blocks of flats not covered by Note 1

C33 Corridors, hallways, aisles in all buildings not

covered by C31 and C32, including hotels and
motels and institutional buildings subjected to
crowds

C34 Corridors, hallways, aisles in all buildings not

covered by C31 and C32, including hotels and
motels and institutional buildings subjected to
wheeled vehicles, including trolleys

C35 Stairs, landings in all buildings not covered by

C31 and C32, including hotels and motels and
institutional buildings subjected to crowds

C36 Walkways — Light duty (access suitable for one

person, walkway width approx 600 mm)

C37 Walkways — General duty (regular two-way

pedestrian traffic)

C38 Walkways — Heavy duty (high density pedestrian

traffic including escape routes)

C39 Museum floors and art galleries for exhibition

purposes

C4 Areas with possible physical activities

C41 Dance halls and studios, gymnasia, stages (see

Note 5)

C42 Drill halls and drill rooms (Note 5)

C5 Areas susceptible to large crowds

C51 Assembly areas without fixed seating, concert

halls, bars and places of worship (see Note 4 and
Note 5)

C52 Stages in public assembly areas (see Note 5)

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Category Specific Sub- Example

of use category
loaded
area

D Shopping D1 Areas in general retail shops

areas
D2 Areas in department stores

NOTE 1 Communal areas in blocks of flats with limited use are blocks of flats not more than
three storeys in height and with not more than four self-contained dwelling units per floor
accessible from one staircase.
NOTE 2 Where the areas described by C11 might be subjected to loads due to physical
activities or overcrowding, e.g. a hotel dining room used as a dance floor, imposed loads
should be based on C4 or C5 as appropriate. Reference should also be made to Note 5.
NOTE 3 Fixed seating is seating where its removal and the use of the space for other purposes
is improbable.
NOTE 4 For grandstands and stadia, reference should be made to the requirements of the
appropriate certifying authority.
NOTE 5 For structures that might be susceptible to resonance effects, reference should be
made to NA.2.1.

6.3.1.2 Values of actions

(1)P The categories of loaded areas, as specified in Table 6.1, shall be designed by using
characteristic values qk (uniformly distributed load) and Qk (concentrated load).

NOTE Values for qk and Qk are given in Table 6.2 below. Where a range is given in this table,
the value may be set by the National Annex. The recommended values, intended for separate
application, are underlined. qk is intended for determination of general effects and Qk for local
effects. The National Annex may define different conditions of use of this table.

Table 6.2 — Imposed loads on floors, balconies and stairs in buildings

Categories of loaded areas qk Qk

[kN/m2] [kN]

Category A
– Floors 1,5 to 2,0 2,0 to 3,0
– Stairs 2,0 to 4,0 2,0 to 4,0
– Balconies 2,5 to 4,0 2,0 to 3,0

Category B 2,0 to 3,0 1,5 to 4,5

Category C
– C1 2,0 to 3,0 3,0 to 4,0
– C2 3,0 to 4,0 2,5 to 7,0 (4,0)
– C3 3,0 to 5,0 4,0 to 7,0
– C4 4,5 to 5,0 3,5 to 7,0
– C5 5,0 to 7,5 3,5 to 4,5

Category D
– D1 4,0 to 5,0 3,5 to 7,0 (4,0)
– D2 4,0 to 5,0 3,5 to 7,0

The National Annex to EN 1991-1-1 comprehensively categorizes A, B, C and D. The values

adopted by the National Annex are within the ranges above. For educational purposes the
underlined values above may be used.

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

NA.2.4 Imposed loads on floors, balconies and stairs in buildings

[BS EN 1991-1-1:2002, 6.3.1.2 (1)P]

Values for minimum imposed loads on floors, balconies and stairs in buildings should be taken
from Table NA.3 of EN 1991-1-1 for the categories of residential, social, commercial and
administration areas described in Table NA.2.

Table NA.3 of EN 1991-1-1 — Imposed loads on floors, balconies and stairs in buildings

Category of loaded qk Qk
area kN/m2 kN

Category A A1 1,5 2,0

A2 1,5 2,0

A3 2,0 2,0

A4 2,0 2,7

A5 2,5 2,0

A6 Same as the rooms to which they give 2,0 (concentrated at the

access but with a minimum of 3,0 outer edge)

A7 Same as the rooms to which they give 2,0 (concentrated at the

access but with a minimum of 4,0 outer edge)

Category B B1 2,5 2,7

B2 3,0 2,7

Category C C11 2,0 3,0

C12 2,5 4,0

C13 3,0 3,0

C21 4,0 3,6

C22 3,0 2,7

C31 3,0 4,5

C32 3,0 4,0

C33 4,0 4,5

C34 5,0 4,5

C35 4,0 4,0

C36 3,0 2,0

C37 5,0 3,6

C38 7,5 4,5

C39 4,0 4,5

C41 5,0 3,6

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 Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

Category of loaded qk Qk
area kN/m2 kN

C42 5,0 7,0

C51 5,0 3,6

C52 7,5 4,5

Category D D1/D2 4,0 3,6

(2) Where necessary qk and Qk should be increased in the design (e.g. for stairs and balconies
depending on the occupancy and on dimensions).

(3) For local verifications a concentrated load Qk acting alone should be taken into account.

The shape on which the load acts may normally be assumed as a square with a width of 500 mm.

(7)P Where floors are subjected to multiple use, they shall be designed for the most unfavourable
category of loading which produces the highest effects of actions (e.g. forces or deflection) in the
member under consideration.

(8) Provided that a floor allows a lateral distribution of loads, the self-weight of movable
partitions may be taken into account by a uniformly distributed load qk which should be added
to the imposed loads of floors obtained from Table 6.2. This defined uniformly distributed load is
dependent on the self-weight of the partitions as follows:
– for movable partitions with a self-weight ≤ 1,0 kN/m wall length: qk =0,5 kN/m2;
ˆ– for movable partitions with a self-weight > 1,0 and ≤ 2,0 kN/m wall length: qk =0,8 kN/m2;
– for movable partitions with a self-weight > 2,0 and ≤ 3,0 kN/m wall length: qk =1,2 kN/m2.‰

(9) Heavier partitions should be considered in the design taking account of:
– the locations and directions of the partitions;
– the structural form of the floors.

ˆ(10) In accordance with 6.2.1(4) a reduction factor aA may be applied to the qk values for
imposed loads for floors (see Table 6.2 and sub-clauses (8) and (9)), and for accessible roofs,
Category I (see Table 6.9).‰

NOTE 1 The recommended value for the reduction factor aA for categories ˆA to D‰ is
determined as follows:

aA 5 } + A0 # 1, 0
7 0 A  (6.1)
with the restriction for categories C and D: aA ≥ 0,6
where:
w0 is the factor according to EN 1990 Annex A1 Table A1.1
A0 = 10,0 m2
A is the loaded area.

NOTE 2 The National Annex may give an alternative method.

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

NA.2.5 Reduction factor for imposed loads for floors and accessible roofs
[BS EN 1991-1-1:2002, 6.3.1.2 (10)]

The reduction factor aA should be determined using Equation (NA.1) instead of

BS EN 1991-1-1:2002, Equation (6.1):

aA = 1,0 – A/1 000 ≥ 0,75 (NA.1)

where:
A is the area (m2) supported.

NOTE Loads that have been specifically determined from knowledge of the proposed use of
the structure do not qualify for reduction.

The tabulated values obtained from NA 2.5 are given below.

Reduction factor, aA (Reference NA 2.5)

Area supported (see note), m2 Reduction factor, aA

0 1,00

50 0,95

100 0,90

150 0,85

200 0,80

above 250 0,75 max

NOTE Reductions for intermediate areas may be calculated by

linear interpolation.

(11) In accordance with 6.2.2(2) and provided that the area is classified according to Table 6.1
into the categories A to D, for columns and walls the total imposed loads from several storeys
may be multiplied by the reduction factor an.

NOTE 1 The recommended values for an are given below.

2 + ]n 2g }0
an n  (6.2)

where:
n is the number of storeys (> 2) above the loaded structural elements from the same category.
w0 is in accordance with EN 1990, Annex A1, Table A1.1.

NOTE 2 The National Annex may give an alternative method.

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Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

NA.2.6 Reduction factors for imposed loads from several storeys

[BS EN 1991-1-1:2002, 6.3.1.2 (11)]

The reduction factor an should be determined using Equation (NA.2) instead of

BS EN 1991-1-1:2002, Equation (6.2):

an = 1,1 – n/10 for 1 ≤ n ≤ 5

an = 0,6 for 5 < n ≤ 10 (NA.2)
an = 0,5 for n > 10

where:
n is the number of storeys with loads qualifying for reduction (see Note).

Load reductions based on area in NA.2.5 may be applied if aA < an. However, the reductions
given by Equation (NA.1) cannot be used in combination with those determined from
Equation (NA.2).

NOTE Loads that have been specifically determined from knowledge of the proposed use of
the structure do not qualify for reduction.

The tabulated values from NA 2.6 are given below.

Reduction factor, an (Reference NA 2.6)

Number of storeys with loads Reduction factor, an, for

qualifying for reduction total imposed load from
several storeys carried by
the column or wall

1 1,0

2 0,90

3 0,80

4 0,70

5 to 10 0,60

over 10 0,5 max

6.3.2 Areas for storage and industrial activities

Storage is not discussed in this document. See EN 1991-1-1 and the UK National Annex
to EN 1991-1-1.

6.3.3 Garages and vehicle traffic areas (excluding bridges)

6.3.3.1 Categories

(1)P Traffic and parking areas in buildings shall be divided into two categories according to their
accessibility for vehicles as shown in Table 6.7.

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Table 6.7 — Traffic and parking areas in buildings

Categories of traffic areas Specific use Examples

F Traffic and parking areas for garages;

light vehicles (≤ 30 kN gross parking areas, parking halls
vehicle weight and ≤ 8 seats
not including driver)

G Traffic and parking areas access routes; delivery

for medium vehicles (> 30 zones; zones accessible to
kN, ≤ 160 kN gross vehicle fire engines (≤ 160 kN gross
weight, on 2 axles) vehicle weight)

NOTE 1 Access to areas designed to category F should be limited by physical means built
into the structure.
NOTE 2 Areas designed to categories F and G should be posted with the appropriate
warning signs.

6.3.3.2 Values of actions

(1) The load model which should be used is a single axle with a load Qk with dimensions according
to Figure 6.2 and a uniformly distributed load qk. The characteristic values for qk and Qk are given
in Table 6.8.

NOTE qk is intended for determination of general effects and Qk for local effects. The National
Annex may define different conditions of use of this table.

a a

Qk Qk
a

2 2

1,80

NOTE For category F (see Table 6.8) the width of the square surface is 100 mm and for category G
(see Table 6.8) the width of a square surface is 200 mm.

Figure 6.2 — Dimensions of axle load

Table 6.8 — Imposed loads on garages and vehicle traffic areas

Categories of traffic areas qk Qk

[kN/m2] [kN]

Category F
Gross vehicle weight: ≤ 30 kN qk Qk

Category G
30 kN < gross vehicle weight ≤ 160 kN 5,0 Qk

NOTE 1 For category F, qk may be selected within the range 1,5 to 2,5 kN/m2 and Qk
may be selected within the range 10 to 20 kN.
NOTE 2 For category G, Qk may be selected within the range 40 to 90 kN.
NOTE 3 Where a range of values are given in Notes 1 & 2, the value may be set by the
National Annex.
The recommended values are underlined.

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Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

NA.2.9 Imposed loads on garages and vehicle traffic areas

[BS EN 1991-1-1:2002, 6.3.3.2 (1)]

Values for imposed loads on garages and vehicle traffic areas should be taken from Table NA.6
(as a replacement for BS EN 1991-1-1:2002, Table 6.8) for categories F and G described in
BS EN 1991-1-1:2002, Table 6.7.

Table NA.6 of EN 1991-1-1 — Imposed loads on garages and vehicle traffic areas

Categories of traffic areas qk Qk

kN/m2 kN

Category F
(Gross vehicle weight: ≤ 30 kN) 2,5 10,0

Category G
(30 kN < gross vehicle weight ≤ 160 kN) 5,0 To be determined
for specific use

NOTE qk and Qk should not be applied simultaneously.

(2) The axle load should be applied on two square surfaces with a 100 mm side for category F
and a 200 mm side for category G in the possible positions which will produce the most adverse
effects of the action.

6.3.4 Roofs

6.3.4.1 Categories

(1)P Roofs shall be categorised according to their accessibility into three categories as shown
in Table 6.9.

Table 6.9 — Categorization of roofs

Categories of Specific use

loaded area

H Roofs not accessible except for normal maintenance and repair

I Roofs accessible with occupancy according to categories ˆA to G‰

K Roofs accessible for special services, such as helicopter landing areas

(2) Imposed loads for roofs of category H should be those given in Table 6.10. Imposed loads for
roofs of category I are given in Tables 6.2, 6.4 and 6.8 according to the specific use.

(3) The loads for roofs of category K which provide areas for helicopter landing areas should be
for the helicopter classes HC, see Table 6.11.

6.3.4.2 Values of actions

(1) For roofs of category H the minimum characteristic values Qk and qk that should be used are
given in Table 6.10. They are related to the projected area of the roof under consideration.

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

Table 6.10 — Imposed loads on roofs of category H

Roof qk Qk
[kN/m2] [kN]

Category H qk Qk

NOTE 1 For category H qk may be selected within the range 0,00 kN/m2 to 1,0 kN/m2 and
Qk may be selected within the range 0,9 kN to 1,5 kN.

Where a range is given the values may be set by the National Annex. The recommended
values are:

qk = 0,4 kN/m2, Qk = 1,0 kN

NOTE 2 qk may be varied by the National Annex dependent upon the roof slope.

NOTE 3 qk may be assumed to act on an area A which may be set by the National Annex. The
recommended value for A is 10 m2, within the range of zero to the whole area of the roof.

NOTE 4 See also 3.3.2 (1).

NA.2.10 Imposed loads on roofs [BS EN 1991-1-1:2002, 6.3.4.2]

Values for imposed loads on roofs not accessible except for normal maintenance and
repair should be taken from Table NA.7 of EN 1991-1-1 for category H described in
BS EN 1991-1-1:2002, Table 6.9.

Table NA.7 of EN 1991-1-1 — Imposed loads on roofs not accessible except

for normal maintenance and repair

Roof slope, a qk Qk
(degrees) kN/m2 kN

a < 30° 0,6 0,9

30° ≤ a < 60° 0,6 [(60 - a)/30]

a ≥ 60° 0

NOTE 1 All roof slopes a are measured from the horizontal and all loads
should be applied vertically.
NOTE 2 In evaluating Table NA.6 for curved roofs the roofs should be
divided into not less than five equal segments and the mean slope of each
segment considered to be equivalent to the roof slope, a.
NOTE 3 BS EN 1991-1-1:2002, Note 3 to Table 6.10 states that qk may be
assumed to act on an area A. It is recommended that the value of A should
be the whole area of the roof.

(2) The minimum values given in Table 6.10 do not take into account uncontrolled accumulations
of construction materials that may occur during maintenance.

NOTE See also EN 1991-1-6: Actions during execution.

(3)P For roofs separate verifications shall be performed for the concentrated load Qk and the
uniformly distributed load qk, acting independently.

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Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

(4) Roofs, other than those with roof sheeting, should be designed to resist 1,5 kN on an area
based on a 50 mm sided square. Roof elements with a profiled or discontinuously laid surface
should be designed so that the concentrated load Qk acts over the effective area provided by load
spreading arrangements.

(5) For roofs of category K the actions from helicopters on landing areas should be determined
in accordance with Table 6.11, and using the dynamic factors given in 6.3.4.2 (6) and
expression 6.3.

Table 6.11 — Imposed loads on roofs of category K for helicopters

Class of Take-off load Q Take-off load Qk Dimension of the

helicopter of helicopter loaded area (m x m)

HC1 Q ≤ 20 kN Qk = 20 kN 0,2 x 0,2

HC2 20 kN< Q ≤ 60 kN Qk = 60 kN 0,3 x 0,3

(6) The dynamic factor  to be applied to the take-off load Qk to take account of impact effects
may be taken as  = 1,40.

(7) Access ladders and walkways should be assumed to be loaded according to Table 6.10 for
a roof slope < 20°. For walkways which are part of a designated escape route, qk should be
according to Table 6.2. For walkways for service a minimum characteristic value Qk of 1,5 kN
should be taken.

(8) The following loads should be used for the design of frames and coverings of access hatches
(other than glazing), the supports of ceilings and similar structures:
a) without access: no imposed load;
b) with access: 0,25 kN/m2 distributed over the whole area or the area supported, and
the concentrated load of 0,9 kN so placed so as to produce maximum stresses in the
affected member.

6.4 Horizontal loads on parapets and partition walls acting as barriers

Horizontal loads on parapets are not discussed in this document. See EN 1991-1-1 and the UK
National Annex to EN 1991-1-1.

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

Bibliography
ISO 2394 General principles on reliability for structures

ISO 3898 Basis of design of structures – Notations. General symbols

ISO 8930 General principles on reliability for structures. List of equivalent terms

Bibliography
Standards publications

BS EN 1991-1-3, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures — Part 1-3: General actions — Snow loads.

BS EN 1991-1-4, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures — Part 1-4: General actions — Wind actions.

BS EN 1991-1-5, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures — Part 1-5: General actions — Thermal

actions.

BS EN 1991-2, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures — Part 2: Traffic loads on bridges.

BS EN 1991-3, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures — Part 3: Actions induced by cranes and

machinery.

PD 6688, Background paper to the UK National Annexes to BS EN 1991-1.

Other publications

[1] BRE Digest 426, The response of structures to dynamic crowd loads. BRE: Watford, 2004.

Useful references

[1] Gulvanessian H., Formichi P. and Calgaro J.A. Designers’ Guide to Eurocode 1: Actions on
Buildings, Thomas Telford, London, 2009

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Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

Extracts from EN 1991-1-3

The extracts in this part of Chapter 1 are taken from EN 1991-1-3:2003 (incorporating
corrigenda December 2004 and March 2009), Eurocode 1: Actions on structures — Part 1-3:
General actions — Snow loads.
The start and finish of text introduced or altered by corrigendum is indicated in the text by
tags. Text altered by CEN corrigendum March 2009 is indicated in the text by ˆ‰.

Foreword
Introduction – Additional information specific for EN 1991-1-3
EN 1991-1-3 gives design guidance and actions from snow for the structural design of buildings
and civil engineering works. EN 1991-1-3 is intended for clients, designers, contractors and public
authorities. EN 1991-1-3 is intended to be used with EN 1990, the other Parts of EN 1991 and EN
1992-1999 for the design of structures.

See Chapter 0 – Extracts from Eurocode 0: Basis of structural design.

The full list of the contents of EN 1991-1-3 follows, and is given for reference purposes. (Bold
items are included in this chapter.)
Foreword
Section 1 General
1.1 Scope
1.2 Normative references
1.3 Assumptions
1.4 Distinction between principles and application rules
1.5 Design assisted by testing
1.6 Terms and definitions
1.7 Symbols
Section 2 Classification of actions
Section 3 Design situations
3.1 General
3.2 Normal conditions
3.3 Exceptional conditions
Section 4 Snow load on the ground
4.1 Characteristic values
4.2 Other representative values
4.3 Treatment of exceptional snow loads on the ground
Section 5 Snow load on roofs
5.1 Nature of the load
5.2 Load arrangements
5.3 Roof shape coefficients
5.3.1 General
5.3.2 Monopitch roofs
5.3.3 Pitched roofs
5.3.4 Multi-span roofs
5.3.5 Cylindrical roofs
5.3.6 Roof abutting and close to taller construction works
Section 6 Local effects
6.1 General
6.2 Drifting at projections and obstructions
6.3 Snow overhanging the edge of a roof
6.4 Snow loads on snowguards and other obstacles
Annex A Design situations and load arrangements to be used for different locations
Annex B Snow load shape coefficients for exceptional snow drifts
Annex C European ground snow load maps
Annex D Adjustment of the ground snow load according to return period
Annex E Bulk weight density of snow
Bibliography

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

Section 1 General
1.1 Scope

The scope of EN 1991-1-3 is given in full. (Bold items are covered in this chapter.)

(1) EN 1991-1-3 gives guidance to determine the values of loads due to snow to be
used for the structural design of buildings and civil engineering works.

(2) This Part does not apply for sites at altitudes above 1 500 m, unless otherwise
specified.

ˆNOTE Advice for the treatment of snow loads for altitudes above 1 500 m may be found
in the National Annex.‰

NA.2.1 Altitudes greater than 1 500 m [BS EN 1991–1–3:2003, 1.1 (2)]

The scope of BS EN 1991-1-3 does not include sites at altitudes above 1 500 m. For altitudes
greater than 1 500 m specialist advice should be sought from the Meteorological Office on the
snow loads likely to occur at the site.

(3) Annex A gives information on design situations and load arrangements to be used
for different locations.

NOTE These different locations may be identified by the National Annex.

NA.2.2 Design situations and load arrangements to be used for different locations
[BS EN 1991–1–3:2003, 1.1 (3)]

The scope of BS EN 1991-1-3 states that information on design situations and load
arrangements to be used for different locations is given in BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, Annex A.

The design situations summarized as case B2 in BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, Table A.1 should be the
only exceptional condition to be checked for determining imposed roof snow loads in the UK.

(4) Annex B gives shape coefficients to be used for the treatment of exceptional
snow drifts.

NOTE The use of Annex B is allowed through the National Annex.

NA.2.3 Snow load shape coefficients for exceptional snow drifts

[BS EN 1991–1–3:2003, 1.1 (4)]

The scope of BS EN 1991-1-3 states that information on snow load shape coefficients for
exceptional snow drifts is given in BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, Annex B.

BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, Annex B should be used in the UK in order to determine exceptional

snow drift loads.

(5) Annex C gives characteristic values of snow load on the ground based on the results of work
carried out under a contract specific to this Eurocode, to DGIII / D3 of the European Commission.
The objectives of this Annex are:
– to give information to National Competent Authorities to help them to redraft and update their
national maps;
– to help to ensure that the established harmonised procedures used to produce the maps in
this Annex are used in the member states for treating their basic snow data.

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Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

(6) Annex D gives guidance for adjusting the ground snow loads according to the return period.

(7) Annex E gives information on the bulk weight density of snow.

(8) This Part does not give guidance on specialist aspects of snow loading, for example:
– impact snow loads resulting from snow sliding off or falling from a higher roof;
– the additional wind loads which could result from changes in shape or size of the construction
works due to the presence of snow or the accretion of ice;
– loads in areas where snow is present all year round;
– ice loading;
– lateral loading due to snow (e.g. lateral loads exerted by drifts);
– snow loads on bridges.

1.3 Assumptions

See Chapter 0 – Extracts from Eurocode: Basis of structural design.

1.4 Distinction between principles and application rules

See Chapter 0 – Extracts from Eurocode: Basis of structural design.

1.6 Terms and definitions

For the purposes of this European standard, a basic list of terms and definitions given in
EN 1990:2002, 1.5 apply together with the following.

1.6.1
characteristic value of snow load on the ground
snow load on the ground based on an annual probability of exceedence of 0,02, excluding
exceptional snow loads

1.6.2
altitude of the site
height above mean sea level of the site where the structure is to be located, or is already located
for an existing structure

1.6.3
exceptional snow load on the ground
load of the snow layer on the ground resulting from a snow fall which has an exceptionally
infrequent likelihood of occurring

NOTE See notes to 2(3) and 4.3(1).

1.6.4
characteristic value of snow load on the roof
product of the characteristic snow load on the ground and appropriate coefficients

NOTE These coefficients are chosen so that the probability of the calculated snow load on the roof
does not exceed the probability of the characteristic value of the snow load on the ground

1.6.5
undrifted snow load on the roof
load arrangement which describes the uniformly distributed snow load on the roof, affected only
by the shape of the roof, before any redistribution of snow due to other climatic actions

1.6.6
drifted snow load on the roof
load arrangement which describes the snow load distribution resulting from snow having been
moved from one location to another location on a roof, e.g. by the action of the wind

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1.6.7
roof snow load shape coefficient
ratio of the snow load on the roof to the undrifted snow load on the ground, without the influence
of exposure and thermal effects

1.6.8
thermal coefficient
coefficient defining the reduction of snow load on roofs as a function of the heat flux through the
roof, causing snow melting

1.6.9
exposure coefficient
coefficient defining the reduction or increase of load on a roof of an unheated building, as a
fraction of the characteristic snow load on the ground

1.6.10
load due to exceptional snow drift
load arrangement which describes the load of the snow layer on the roof resulting from a snow
deposition pattern which has an exceptionally infrequent likelihood of occurring

1.7 Symbols
(1) For the purpose of this European standard, the following symbols apply.

NOTE The notation used is based on ISO 3898.

(2) A basic list of notations is given in EN 1990:2002 1.6, and the additional notations below are
specific to this Part.

Latin upper case letters

Ce Exposure coefficient
Ct Thermal coefficient
Cesl Coefficient for exceptional snow loads
A Site altitude above sea level [m]
Se Snow load per metre length due to overhang [kN/m]
Fs Force per metre length exerted by a sliding mass of snow [kN/m]

Latin lower case letters

b Width of construction work [m]

d Depth of the snow layer [m]
h Height of construction work [m]
k Coefficient to take account of the irregular shape of snow (see also 6.3)
ls Length of snow drift or snow loaded area [m]
s Snow load on the roof [kN/m2]
sk Characteristic value of snow on the ground at the relevant site [kN/m2]
sAd Design value of exceptional snow load on the ground [kN/m2]

Greek lower case letters

a Pitch of roof, measured from horizontal [°]

b Angle between the horizontal and the tangent to the curve for a cylindrical roof [°]
c Weight density of snow [kN/m3]
l Snow load shape coefficient
w0 Factor for combination value of a variable action
w1 Factor for frequent value of a variable action
w2 Factor for quasi-permanent value of a variable action

NOTE For the purpose of this standard the units specified in the above list apply.

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Section 2 Classification of actions

(1)P Snow loads shall be classified as variable, fixed actions (see also 5.2), unless otherwise
specified in this standard, see EN 1990:2002, 4.1.1 (1)P and 4.1.1 (4).

(2) Snow loads covered in this standard should be classified as static actions, see EN 1990:2002,
4.1.1 (4).

(3) In accordance with EN 1990:2002, 4.1.1 (2), for the particular condition defined in 1.6.3,
exceptional snow loads may be treated as accidental actions depending on geographical locations.

NOTE The National Annex may give the conditions of use (which may include geographical
locations) of this clause.

NA.2.4 Exceptional snow load on the ground [BS EN 1991–1–3:2003, 2 (3)]

Exceptional snow load on the ground should be treated as accidental actions.

(4) In accordance with EN 1990:2002, 4.1.1 (2), for the particular condition defined in 1.6.10,
loads due to exceptional snow drifts may be treated as accidental actions, depending on
geographical locations.

NOTE The National Annex may give the conditions of use (which may include geographical
locations) of this clause.

NA.2.5 Load due to exceptional snow drift [BS EN 1991–1–3:2003, 2 (4)]

Drift loads determined using the guidance given in BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, Annex B should be
treated as accidental actions.

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Section 3 Design situations

3.1 General
(1)P The relevant snow loads shall be determined for each design situation identified, in
accordance with EN 1990:2002, 3.5.

(2) For local effects described in Section 6 the persistent/transient design situation should
be used.

The table in Annex A (reproduced after Section 6 of this part of Chapter 1) recommends the
design situations to be used for:

– no exceptional falls, no exceptional drifts;

– exceptional falls, no exceptional drifts;
– no exceptional falls, exceptional drifts;
– exceptional falls, exceptional drifts.

EN 1991-1-3, Annex B should be used in place of EN 1991-1-3, 6.2 in order to determine the
load case due to drifting in the UK.

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Section 4 Snow load on the ground

4.1 Characteristic values
(1) The characteristic value of snow load on the ground (sk) should be determined in accordance
with EN 1990:2002, 4.1.2 (7)P and the definition for characteristic snow load on the ground given
in 1.6.1.

NOTE 1 The National Annex specifies the characteristic values to be used. To cover unusual local
conditions the National Annex may additionally allow the client and the relevant authority to
agree upon a different characteristic value from that specified for an individual project.

NOTE 2 Annex C gives the European ground snow load map, resulting from studies commissioned
by DGIII/D-3. The National Annex may make reference to this map in order to eliminate, or to
reduce, inconsistencies occurring at borderlines between countries.

NA.2.8 Characteristic value of snow load on the ground

[BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, 4.1 (1)]

The characteristic ground snow loads sk to be used in the UK should be obtained from the map
shown in Figure NA.1 and Equation (NA.1).

sk = [0,15 + (0,1Z + 0,05)] + [(A – 100)/525] (NA.1)

where:
sk is the characteristic ground snow load (kN/m2);
Z is the zone number obtained from the map in Figure NA.1;
A is the site altitude (m).

Unusual local effects may not have been accounted for in the analysis undertaken to produce
the ground snow load map given in Figure NA.1. These include local shelter from the wind,
which can result in increased local snow loads and local configurations in mountainous areas,
which may funnel the snow and give increased local loading. If the designer suspects that
there are unusual local conditions that need to be taken into account, then for coastal sites
below 100 m the map value should be used without the altitude modification. Alternatively,
and in other cases, the Meteorological Office should be consulted.

NA.2.9 Refined characteristic value of snow load on the ground

[BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, 4.1 (2)]

Where a more refined characteristic ground snow load value sk is required, the Meteorological
Office should be consulted.

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

Zone Ground snow load at

numbers 100m a.m.s.l (kN/m2)
HP 7
1 0,30 12

2 0,40 HT HU

3 0,50
4 0,60
11
5 0,70 HT HY HZ
6,5 0,85

10
NA NB NC ND NE

9
NF NG NJ NK

8
NL NM N NP

7
5
NR NS NT NU
IB IC

6
4
NX NY HT
IF IG IH
IJ

5
3
SC SE TA
IL IM IN
IO

2
SD 4
SH SJ SK TF HT
IQ IR IS IT

3
1
SMSN SO SP TL
IV IW TM
IX

2
0
0
1
2 SR SS SU TQ TR
3
ST

1 1
SW TW
TV
SY SZ
SX 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0

Jersey - Zone 3, 0,50 kN/m2 at 100m a.m.s.l, Guernsey - Zone 2, 0,40 kN/M2 at 100m a.m.s.l

Figure NA.1 — Characteristic ground snow load map

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4.2 Other representative values

See Chapter 0, Table A.1.1.

4.3 Treatment of exceptional snow loads on the ground

(1) For locations where exceptional snow loads on the ground can occur, they may be
determined by:

sAd = Cesl sk (4.1)

where:

sAd is the design value of exceptional snow load on the ground for the given location;
Cesl is the coefficient for exceptional snow loads;
sk is the characteristic value of snow load on the ground for a given location.

NOTE The coefficient Cesl may be set by the National Annex. The recommended value for Cesl is
2,0 (see also 2(3))

NA.2.11 Treatment of exceptional snow load on the ground

[BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, 4.3 (1)]

The coefficient for exceptional snow loads Cesl should take a value of 2,0 as recommended in
BS EN 1991-1-3.

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

Section 5 Snow load on roofs

5.1 Nature of the load
(1) P The design shall recognise that snow can be deposited on a roof in many different patterns.

(2) Properties of a roof or other factors causing different patterns can include:

a) the shape of the roof;

b) its thermal properties;
c) the roughness of its surface;
d) the amount of heat generated under the roof;
e) the proximity of nearby buildings;
f) the surrounding terrain;
g) the local meteorological climate, in particular its windiness, temperature variations, and
likelihood of precipitation (either as rain or as snow).

5.2 Load arrangements

(1)P The following two primary load arrangements shall be taken into account:

– undrifted snow load on roofs (see 1.6.5);

– drifted snow load on roofs (see 1.6.6).

(2) The load arrangements should be determined using 5.3; and Annex B, where specified in
accordance with 3.3.

NOTE The National Annex may specify the use of Annex B for the roof shapes described in 5.3.4,
5.3.6 and 6.2, and will normally apply to specific locations where all the snow usually melts and
clears between the individual weather systems and where moderate to high wind speeds occur
during the individual weather system.

The National Annex to EN 1991-1-3 specifies the use of Annex B for the roof shapes described
in 5.3.4, 5.3.6 and 6.2.

(3)P Snow loads on roofs shall be determined as follows:

a) for the persistent / transient design situations

s= li Ce Ct sk (5.1)

b) for the accidental design situations where exceptional snow load is the accidental action
(except for the cases covered in 5.2 (3) P c)

s= li Ce Ct sAd (5.2)

NOTE See 2(3).

c) for the accidental design situations where exceptional snow drift is the accidental action and
where Annex B applies

s= li sk (5.3)

NOTE See 2(4).

where:

li is the snow load shape coefficient (see Section 5.3 and Annex B)
sk is the characteristic value of snow load on the ground
sAd is the design value of exceptional snow load on the ground for a given location (see 4.3)
Ce is the exposure coefficient
Ct is the thermal coefficient

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Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

(4) The load should be assumed to act vertically and refer to a horizontal projection of the
roof area.

(5) When artificial removal or redistribution of snow on a roof is anticipated the roof should be
designed for suitable load arrangements.

NOTE 1 Load arrangements according to this Section have been derived for natural deposition
patterns only.

NOTE 2 Further guidance may be given in the National Annex.

NA.2.13 Load arrangements for artificial removal or redistribution of snow on a roof

[BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, 5.2 (5)]

In certain cases, snow may be artificially removed from or redistributed on a roof, e.g. due
to excessive heat loss through a small section of roof or manually to maintain access to a
service door. This can result in more severe load imbalances occurring than those resulting
from BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, 5.3 and Annex B (which have been derived for natural deposition
patterns). To provide for these situations, if they are likely to occur and other information is
not available, a load case should be considered comprising the minimum imposed uniformly
distributed load (BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, 5.3) on any portion of the roof area and zero load on
the remainder of the area.

(7) The exposure coefficient Ce should be used for determining the snow load on the roof. The
choice for Ce should consider the future development around the site. Ce should be taken as 1,0
unless otherwise specified for different topographies.

NOTE The National Annex may give the values of Ce for different topographies. The recommended
values are given in Table 5.1 below.

Table 5.1 — Recommended values of Ce for different topographies

Topography Ce

Windswepta 0,8

Normalb 1,0

Shelteredc 1,2

a
Windswept topography: flat unobstructed areas exposed on all sides without, or little shelter
afforded by terrain, higher construction works or trees.
b
Normal topography: areas where there is no significant removal of snow by wind on
construction work, because of terrain, other construction works or trees.

c
Sheltered topography: areas in which the construction work being considered is considerably
lower than the surrounding terrain or surrounded by high trees and/or surrounded by higher
construction works.

NA.2.15 Exposure coefficient used for determining snow load on a roof

[BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, 5.2 (7)]

The recommended value for exposure coefficient Ce in the UK is 1,0 for all topographies.

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

(8) The thermal coefficient Ct should be used to account for the reduction of snow loads on roofs
with high thermal transmittance (> 1 W/m2K), in particular for some glass covered roofs, because
of melting caused by heat loss.

For all other cases:

Ct = 1,0

NOTE 1 Based on the thermal insulating properties of the material and the shape of the
construction work, the use of a reduced Ct value may be permitted through the National Annex.

NOTE 2 Further guidance may be obtained from ISO 4355.

NA.2.16 Thermal coefficient used to account for the reduction of snow load on roofs
with high thermal transmittance [BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, 5.2 (8)]

The recommended value for thermal coefficient Ct in the UK is 1,0 for all roofing materials.

5.3 Roof shape coefficients

5.3.1 General

(1) 5.3 gives roof shape coefficients for undrifted and drifted snow load arrangements for all
types of roofs identified in this standard, with the exception of the consideration of exceptional
snow drifts defined in Annex B, where its use is allowed.

(2) Special consideration should be given to the snow load shape coefficients to be used where
the roof has an external geometry which may lead to increases in snow load, that are considered
significant in comparison with that of a roof with linear profile.

(3) Shape coefficients for roof shapes in 5.3.2, 5.3.3 and 5.3.4 are given in Figure 5.1.

5.3.2 Monopitch roofs

(1) The snow load shape coefficient l1 that should be used for monopitch roofs is given in Table
5.2 and shown in Figure 5.1 and Figure 5.2.

LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view µ
2.0
µ2
1.6

1.0
0.8

µ1


0° 15 ° 30 ° 45 ° 60 °

Figure 5.1 — Snow load shape coefficients

(2) The values given in Table 5.2 apply when the snow is not prevented from sliding off the roof.
Where snow fences or other obstructions exist or where the lower edge of the roof is terminated
with a parapet, then the snow load shape coefficient should not be reduced below 0,8.

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Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

Table 5.2 — Snow load shape coefficients

Angle of pitch of roof a 0° ≤ a ≤ 30° 30° < a < 60° a ≥ 60°

l1 0,8 0,8(60 - a)/30 0,0

l2 0,8 + 0,8 a/30 1,6 --

(3) The load arrangement of Figure 5.2 should be used for both the undrifted and drifted
load arrangements.

µ1

Figure 5.2 — Snow load shape coefficient – monopitch roof

5.3.3 Pitched roofs

(1) The snow load shape coefficients that should be used for pitched roofs are given in Figure 5.3,
where l1 is given in Table 5.2 and shown in Figure 5.1.

(2) The values given in Table 5.2 apply when snow is not prevented from sliding off the roof.
Where snow fences or other obstructions exist or where the lower edge of the roof is terminated
with a parapet, then the snow load shape coefficient should not be reduced below 0,8.

Case (i) µ1(1) µ1(2)

Case (ii) 0,5µ1(1) µ1(2)

Case (iii) µ1(1) 0,5µ1(2)

1 2

Figure 5.3 — Snow load shape coefficients – pitched roofs

(3) The undrifted load arrangement which should be used is shown in Figure 5.3, case (i).

(4) The drifted load arrangements which should be used are shown in Figure 5.3, cases (ii)
and (iii), unless ˆotherwise‰ specified for local conditions.

NOTE Based on local conditions, an alternative drifting load arrangement may be given in the
National Annex.

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

NA.2.17 Drifted snow load arrangement for pitched roofs

[BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, 5.3.3 (4)]

The load arrangement given in Figure NA.2 and Table NA.1 of EN 1991-1-3 should be used in
place of BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, 5.3.3 (4) to determine the drifted snow load on a duo-pitched
roof in the UK.

Case (ii) µ1,

2
ls
2

Case (iii) µ1,

1
ls
1

1 2

lsi = bsi

b1 b2

Figure NA.2 — Drifted snow load arrangement for a duo-pitched roof in the UK

Table NA.1 — Drifted snow load shape

coefficient for a duo-pitched roof in the UK

Snow load Angle of pitch of roof (ai, i =1,2)

shape coefficent
0° ≤ ai ≤ 15° 15° < ai ≤ 30° 30° < ai < 60° ai ≥ 60°

l1 0,8 0,8+0,4(a–15)/15 1,2(60–a)/30 0,0

5.3.4 Multi-span roofs

(1) For multi-span roofs the snow load shape coefficients are given in Table 5.2 and shown
in Figure ˆ5.4‰.

(2) The undrifted load arrangement which should be used is shown in Figure 5.4, case (i).

(3) The drifted load arrangement which should be used is shown in Figure 5.4, case (ii), unless
specified for local conditions.

NOTE Where permitted by the National Annex, Annex B may be used to determine the load case
due to drifting.

The National Annex for EN 1991-1-3 specifies the use of Annex B to determine the load case
due to drifting.

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Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

µ1(1) µ1(2) µ1(1) µ1(2)

Case (i)

µ2()   (1+ 2)/2

Case (ii)

µ1(1) µ1(2)

1 2 1 2

Figure 5.4 — Snow load shape coefficients for multi-span roofs

(4) Special consideration should be given to the snow load shape coefficients for the design of
multi-span roofs, where one or both sides of the valley have a slope greater than 60°.

NOTE Guidance may be given in the National Annex.

NA.2.18 Drifted snow load arrangement for multi-span roofs

[BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, 5.3.4 (3)]

BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, Annex B should be used in place of the drift load arrangement given in
BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, 5.3.4 (3).

5.3.6 Roof abutting and close to taller construction works

(1) The snow load shape coefficients that should be used for roofs abutting to taller construction
works are given in the following expressions and shown in Figure 5.7.

l1 = 0,8 (assuming the lower roof is flat) (5.6)

l2 = ls + lw (5.7)

where:
ls is the snow load shape coefficient due to sliding of snow from the upper roof:
For a ≤ 15°, ls = 0.
For a > 15°, ls is determined from an additional load amounting to 50 % of the maximum
total snow load, on the adjacent slope of the upper roof calculated according to 5.3.3.

lw is the snow load shape coefficient due to wind

lw = (b1 + b2)/2h ≤ c h/sk (5.8)

where:
c is the weight density of snow, which for this calculation may be taken as 2 kN/m3

An upper and a lower value of lw should be specified.

See EN 1991-1-3, Annex E.

NOTE 1 The range for lw may be fixed in the National Annex. The recommended range is
0,8 ≤ lw ≤ 4.

The drift length is determined as follows:

ls = 2h (5.9)

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

NOTE 2 A restriction for ls may be given in the National Annex. The recommended restriction is
5 ≤ ls ≤ 15 m.

NOTE 3 If b2 < ls the coefficient at the end of the lower roof is determined by interpolation
between l1 and l2 truncated at the end of the lower roof (see Figure 5.7).

(2) The undrifted load arrangement which should be used is shown in Figure 5.7, case (i).

(3) The drifted load arrangement which should be used is shown B

in Figure
EN 91- 5.7,
- case
003 (ii), unless
specified for local conditions.

NOTE Where permitted by the National Annex, Annex B may be used to determine the load case
due to drifting.

The National Annex for EN 1991-1-3 specifies the use of Annex B to determine the load case
due to drifting.

ls

ls

AC1 This load arrangement applies where AC1

Figure 5.7 — Snow load shape coefficients for roofs

abutting to taller construction works

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Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

NA.2.21 Snow load shape coeffecient for a roof abutting and close to taller
construction works [BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, 5.3.6 (1)]

BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, Annex B should be used to determine the drifted snow load case. This
method does not include the snow load shape coefficient lw, therefore, no range of values is
specified for this coefficient for use in the UK.

NA.2.22 Drifted snow load arrangement for a roof abutting and close to taller
construction works [BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, 5.3.6 (3)]

BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, Annex B should be used to determine the drifted snow load case.

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Section 6 Local effects

6.1 General
(1) This section gives forces to be applied for the local verifications of:
– drifting at projections and obstructions;
– the edge of the roof;
– snow fences.

(2) The design situations to be considered are persistent/transient.

6.2 Drifting at projections and obstructions

(1) In windy conditions drifting of snow can occur on any roof which has obstructions as these
cause areas of aerodynamic shade in which snow accumulates.

(2) The snow load shape coefficients and drift lengths for quasi-horizontal roofs should be taken
as follows (see Figure 6.1), unless specified for local conditions:

l1 = 0,8 l2 = ch/sk (6.1)

with the restriction: 0,8 ≤ l2 ≤ 2,0 (6.2)

where:

c is the weight density of snow, may be taken as 2 kN/m3 See Annex E.

ls = 2h (6.3)

with the restriction: 5 ≤ ls ≤ 15 m

NOTE Where permitted by the National Annex, Annex B may be used to determine the load case
due to drifting.

NA.2.23 Drifting at projections and obstructions [BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, 6.2 (2)]

BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, Annex B should be used to determine the drifted snow load case.
µ1

µ2

ls ls
h

Figure 6.1 — Snow load shape coefficients at projections and obstructions

6.3 Snow overhanging the edge of a roof

(1) Snow overhanging the edge of a roof should be considered.

NOTE The National Annex may specify the conditions of use for this clause. It is recommended
that the clause is used for sites above 800 meters above sea level.

See EN 1991-1-3 and NA 2.25 for an explanation.

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 Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design
Table A.1 has been taken from EN 1991-1-3, Annex A (normative), Design situations and load arrangements to be used for different locations.

Table A.1 — Design situations and load arrangements to be used for different locations

Normal Exceptional conditions

Case A Case B1 Case B2 Case B3

No exceptional falls Exceptional falls No exceptional falls Exceptional falls

No exceptional drift No exceptional drift Exceptional drift Exceptional drift

3.2(1) 3.3(1) 3.3(2) 3.3(3)

Persistent/transient design Persistent/transient design Persistent/transient design Persistent/transient design

situation situation situation situation

[1] undrifted li CeCt sk [1] undrifted li CeCt sk [1] undrifted li CeCt sk [1] undrifted li CeCt sk
1-44

[2] drifted li CeCt sk [2] drifted li CeCt sk [2] drifted li CeCt sk (except for [2] drifted li CeCt sk (except for
roof shapes in Annex B) roof shapes in Annex B)

Accidental design situation Accidental design situation Accidental design situation

(where snow is the accidental (where snow is the accidental (where snow is the accidental
action) action) action)

[3] undrifted li CeCt Cesl sk [3] drifted li sk (for roof shapes [3] undrifted li CeCt Cesl sk
in Annex B)
[4] drifted li CeCt Cesl sk [4] drifted li sk (for roof shapes
in Annex B)

NOTE 1 Exceptional conditions are defined according to the National Annex.

NOTE 2 For cases B1 and B3 the National Annex may define design situations which apply for the particular local effects described in
Section 6.
 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

NA.2.26 Design situations and load arrangements to be used for different locations
[BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, Annex A]

The localized drifts given in BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, Annex B have been classified as

exceptional drifts due to the maritime climate of the UK.

Load case B2 described in BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, Annex A should be used in place of BS EN

1991-1-3:2003, 6.2 for local drifting at projections and obstructions.

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Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

ANNEX B
(normative)
Snow load shape coefficients for exceptional
snow drifts
B.1 Scope
(1) This annex gives snow shape coefficients to determine load arrangements due to exceptional
snow drifts for the following types of roofs.
a) Multi-span roofs;
b) Roofs abutting and close to taller construction works;
c) Roofs where drifting occurs at projections, obstructions and parapets;
d) For all other load arrangements Section 5 and Section 6 should be used as appropriate.

(2) When considering load cases using snow load shape coefficients obtained from this annex it
should be assumed that they are exceptional snow drift loads and that there is no snow elsewhere
on the roof.

B.2 Multi-span roofs

(1) The snow load shape coefficient for an exceptional snow drift that should be used for valleys
of multi-span roofs is given in Figure B.1 and B.2(2).

µ1

ls ls
1 2
h

b1 b2

b3

Figure B.1 — Shape coefficient and drift lengths for exceptional

snow drifts – valleys of multi-span roofs

(2) The shape coefficient given in Figure B.1 is determined as the least value of:

l1 = 2h/sk

l1 = 2b3/(ls1 + ls2)

l1 = 5

The drift lengths are determined as:

ls = b 1 , l s = b 2
1 2

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

B.3 Roofs abutting and close to taller structures

(1) The snow load shape coefficients for exceptional snow drifts that should be used for roofs
abutting a taller construction work are given in Figure B.2 and Table B.1.

µ1


µ2

ls b2

b1

Figure B.2 — Shape coefficients and drift lengths for exceptional snow
drifts – Roofs abutting and close to taller structures

(3) The drift length ls is the least value of 5h, b1 or 15 m.

Table B.1 — Shape coefficients for exceptional snow drifts for roofs
abutting and close to taller structures

Shape coefficient Angle of roof pitch a1

0° ≤ a ≤ 15° 15° < a ≤ 30° 30° < a < 60° 60° ≤ a

l1 l3 l3{[30 – a]/15} 0 0

l2 l3 l3 l3{[60–a]/30} 0

Note 1 l3 is the least value of 2h/sK , 2b/ls or 8 where b is the larger of b1 or b2 and ls is the
least value of 5h, b1 or 15 m.

B.4 Roofs where drifting occurs at projections, obstructions and parapets

(1) The snow load shape coefficients for exceptional snow drifts that should be used for roofs
where drifting occurs at projections and obstructions, other than parapets, are given in B.4(2)
and Figure B.3. Shape coefficients for drifting behind parapets are given in B4(4).

(2) a) If the vertical elevation against which a drift could form is not greater than ˆ1 m,‰ the
effect of drifting can be ignored.

b) This clause applies to:

– Drifting against obstructions not exceeding 1 m in height.

– Drifting on canopies, projecting not more than 5 m from the face of the building over doors
and loading bays, irrespective of the height of the obstruction.

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Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

– Slender obstructions over 1 m high but not more than 2 m wide, may be considered as local
projections. For this specific case h may be taken as the lesser of the projection height or
width perpendicular to the direction of the wind.

c) The shape coefficient given in Figure B.3 is determined as the least value of:
l1 = 2h1/sk or 5
l2 = 2h2/sk or 5

In addition, for door canopies projecting not more than 5 m from the building, l1 should not
exceed 2b/ls , where b is the larger of b1 and b2.
1

d) The drift length (ls ) is taken as the least value of 5h or bi, where i = 1 or 2 and h ≤ 1m.
i

µ1 µ2 µ1
ls

ls ls

h
1 2
h1

h2

b1 b2 b1 b2

Obstruction on flat roof Canopy over door or loading bay where

b1 ≤ 5 m

µ1 µ2
ls
2

ls
1
h2
h1

b1 b2

Obstruction on pitched or curved roof

Figure B.3 — Shape coefficients for exceptional snow drifts for roofs
where drifting occurs at projections and obstructions

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

ANNEX E
(informative)
Bulk weight density of snow
(1) The bulk weight density of snow varies. In general it increases with the duration of the snow
cover and depends on the site location, climate and altitude.

(2) Except where specified in Sections 1 to 6 indicative values for the mean bulk weight density of
snow on the ground given in Table E.1 may be used.

Table E.1 — Mean bulk weight density of snow

Type of snow Bulk weight density

[kN/m3]

Fresh 1,0

Settled (several hours or days after its fall) 2,0

Old (several weeks or months after its fall) 2,5 - 3,5

Wet 4,0

NA.3.3 Bulk weight density of snow [BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, Annex E]

BS EN 1991-1-3:2003, Annex E may be used in the UK.

Bibliography
ISO 4355 Bases for design of structures – Determination of snow loads on roofs

ISO 3898 Bases for design of structures – Notations – General symbols

Bibliography
Standards publications

BS EN 1990:2002, Eurocode — Basis of structural design.

NA to BS EN 1990:2002, UK National Annex for Eurocode 0 — Basis of structural design.

NA to BS EN 1991-1-1, UK National Annex to Eurocode 1: Actions on structures — Part 1-1:

General actions — Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings.

Other publications

[1] BRE Digest 439, Roof loads due to local drifting of snow, Watford: BRE, 1999.

Useful references
[1] Sanpaolesi L. ‘Snow loading: Scientific basis, problems and challenges’, Progress in
Structural Engineering and Materials, 1998, Vol 1 (4), pp443-451

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Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

Extracts from EN 1991-1-4

The extracts in this part of Chapter 1 are taken from EN 1991-1-4:2005 (incorporating
corrigendum July 2009), Eurocode 1: Actions on structure — Part 1-4 General actions —
Wind actions.

The start and finish of text introduced or altered by corrigendum is indicated in the text by
tags. Text altered by CEN corrigendum July 2009 is indicated in the text by ˆ‰.

Foreword
Additional information specific for EN 1991-1-4
EN 1991-1-4 gives design guidance and actions for the structural design of buildings and civil
engineering works for wind.
EN 1991-1-4 is intended for the use by clients, designers, contractors and relevant authorities.
EN 1991-1-4 is intended to be used with EN 1990, the other Parts of EN 1991 and EN 1992-1999
for the design of structures.

See Chapter 0 – Extracts from Eurocode 0: Basis of structural design.

The full list of the contents of EN 1991-1-4 follows, and is give for reference purposes. (Bold
items are included in this chapter.)

Section 1 General
1.1 Scope
1.2 Normative references
1.3 Assumptions
1.4 Distinction between principles and application rules
1.5 Design assisted by testing and measurements
1.6 Definitions
1.7 Symbols
Section 2 Design situations
Section 3 Modelling of wind actions
3.1 Nature
3.2 Representations of wind actions
3.3 Classification of wind actions
3.4 Characteristic values
3.5 Models
Section 4 Wind velocity and velocity pressure
4.1 Basis for calculation
4.2 Basic values
4.3 Mean wind
4.3.1 Variation with height
4.3.2 Terrain roughness
4.3.3 Terrain orography
4.3.4 Large and considerably higher neighbouring structures
4.3.5 Closely spaced buildings and obstacles
4.4 Wind turbulence
4.5 Peak velocity pressure
Section 5 Wind actions
5.1 General
5.2 Wind pressure on surfaces
5.3 Wind forces
Section 6 Structural factor cscd
6.1 General
6.2 Determination of cscd

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6.3 Detailed procedure

6.3.1 Structural factor cscd
6.3.2 Serviceability assessments
6.3.3 Wake buffeting
Section 7 Pressure and force coefficients
7.1 General
7.1.1 Choice of aerodynamic coefficient
7.1.2 Asymmetric and counteracting pressures and forces
7.1.3 Effects of ice and snow
7.2 Pressure coefficients for buildings
7.2.1 General
7.2.2 Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings
7.2.3 Flat roofs
7.2.4 Monopitch roofs
7.2.5 Duopitch roofs
7.2.6 Hipped roofs
7.2.7 Multispan roofs
7.2.8 Vaulted roofs and domes
7.2.9 Internal pressure
7.2.10 Pressure on walls or roofs with more than one skin
7.3 Canopy roofs
7.4 Free-standing walls, parapets, fences and signboards
7.4.1 Free-standing walls and parapets
7.4.2 Shelter factors for walls and fences
7.4.3 Signboards
7.5 Friction coefficients
7.6 Structural elements with rectangular sections
7.7 Structural elements with sharp edged section
7.8 Structural elements with regular polygonal section
7.9 Circular cylinders
7.9.1 External pressure coefficients
7.9.2 Force coefficients
7.9.3 Force coefficients for vertical cylinders in a row arrangement
7.10 Spheres
7.11 Lattice structures and scaffoldings
7.12 Flags
7.13 Effective slenderness k and end-effect factor wk
Section 8 Wind actions on bridges
8.1 General
8.2 Choice of the response calculation procedure
8.3 Force coefficients
8.3.1 Force coefficients in x-direction (general method)
8.3.2 Force in x-direction – simplified method
8.3.3 Wind forces on bridge decks in z-direction
8.3.4 Wind forces on bridge decks in y-direction
8.4 Bridge piers
8.4.1 Wind directions and design situations
8.4.2 Wind effects on piers
Annex A (informative) Terrain effects
A.1 Illustrations of the upper roughness of each terrain category
A.2 Transition between roughness categories 0, I, II, III and IV
A.3 Numerical calculation of orography coefficients
A.4 Neighbouring structures
A.5 Displacement height
Annex B (informative) Procedure 1 for determining the structural factor cscd
B.1 Wind turbulence
B.2 Procedure 1
B.2.1 Wind turbulence
B.2.2 Structural factor cscd
B.2.3 Number of loads for dynamic response
B.2.4 Service displacement and accelerations for serviceability assessments

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B.3 Procedure 2
B.3.1 Wind turbulence
B.3.2 Structural factor
B.3.3 Number of loads for dynamic response
B.3.4 Service displacement and accelerations for serviceability assessments
B.4 cscd-values for different types of structures
Annex C (informative) Vortex shedding and aeroelastic instabilities
C.1 Vortex shedding
C.1.1 General
C.1.2 Criteria for vortex shedding
C.1.3 Basic parameters for the classification of vortex shedding
C.1.4 Vortex shedding action
C.1.5 Calculation of the cross wind amplitude
C.1.6 Measures against vortex induced vibrations
C.2 Galloping
C.2.1 General
C.2.2 Onset wind velocity
C.2.3 Classical galloping of coupled cylinders
C.3 Interference galloping of two or more free standing cylinders
C.4 Divergence and flutter
C.4.1 General
C.4.2 Criteria for plate-like structures
C.4.3 Divergency velocity
Annex D (informative) Wind action on bridges
D.1 General
D.2 Wind forces on bridge decks in z-direction
D.3 Procedure and criteria
D.4 Criteria for vortex excitation
D.5 Vortex excitation effects on bridges
Annex E (informative) Dynamic characteristics of structures
E.1 General
E.2 Fundamental frequency
E.3 Fundamental mode shape
E.4 Equivalent mass
E.5 Logarithmic decrement of damping
National Annex (informative)

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Section 1 General
1.1 Scope

The scope for EN 1991-1-4 is given in full. (Bold items are covered in this chapter.)

(1) EN 1991-1-4 gives guidance on the determination of natural wind actions for the
structural design of building and civil engineering works for each of the loaded areas
under consideration. This includes the whole structure or parts of the structure or
elements attached to the structure, e.g. components, cladding units and their fixings,
safety and noise barriers.

ˆ(2) This part is applicable to:

– buildings and civil engineering works with heights up to 200 m, see also (11)
– bridges having no span greater than 200 m, provided that they satisfy the criteria for
dynamic response, see (12) and 8.2.‰

(3) This part is intended to predict characteristic wind actions on land-based structures,
their components and appendages.

(4) Certain aspects necessary to determine wind actions on a structure are dependent
on the location and on the availability and quality of meteorological data, the type of
terrain, etc. These need to be provided in the National Annex and Annex A, through
National choice by notes in the text as indicated. Default values and methods are given
in the main text, where the National Annex does not provide information.

(5) Annex A gives illustrations of the terrain categories and provides rules for the
effects of orography including displacement height, roughness change, influence of
landscape and influence of neighbouring structures.

(6) Annexes B and C give alternative procedures for calculating the structural factor cscd.

(7) Annex D gives cscd factors for different types of structures.

(8) Annex E gives rules for vortex induced response and some guidance on other
aeroelastic effects.

(9) Annex F gives dynamic characteristics of structures with linear behaviour.

(10) This part does not give guidance on local thermal effects on the characteristic wind, e.g.
strong arctic thermal surface inversion or funnelling or tornadoes.

ˆ(11) Guyed masts and lattice towers are treated in EN 1993-3-1 and lighting columns in EN 40.

(12) This part does not give guidance on the following aspects:

– torsional vibrations, e.g. tall buildings with a central core

– bridge deck vibrations from transverse wind turbulence
– wind actions on cable supported bridges
– vibrations where more than the fundamental mode needs to be considered.‰

1.3 Assumptions

See Chapter 0.

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1.4 Distinction between Principles and Application Rules

See Chapter 0.

1.6 Definitions
For the purposes of this European Standard, the definitions given in ISO 2394, ISO 3898 and
ISO 8930 and the following apply. Additionally for the purposes of this Standard a basic list of
definitions is provided in EN 1990, 1.5.

1.6.1
fundamental basic wind velocity
the 10 minute mean wind velocity with an annual risk of being exceeded of 0,02, irrespective of
wind direction, at a height of 10 m above flat open country terrain and accounting for altitude
effects (if required)

1.6.2
basic wind velocity
the fundamental basic wind velocity modified to account for the direction of the wind being
considered and the season (if required)

1.6.3
mean wind velocity
the basic wind velocity modified to account for the effect of terrain roughness and orography

1.6.4
pressure coefficient
external pressure coefficients give the effect of the wind on the external surfaces of buildings;
internal pressure coefficients give the effect of the wind on the internal surfaces of buildings.

The external pressure coefficients are divided into overall coefficients and local coefficients. Local
coefficients give the pressure coefficients for loaded areas of 1 m2 or less, e.g. for the design of
small elements and fixings; overall coefficients give the pressure coefficients for loaded areas
larger than 10 m2.

Net pressure coefficients give the resulting effect of the wind on a structure, structural element or
component per unit area

1.6.5
force coefficient
force coefficients give the overall effect of the wind on a structure, structural element or
component as a whole, including friction, if not specifically excluded

1.6.6
background response factor
the background factor allowing for the lack of full correlation of the pressure on the
structure surface

1.6.7
resonance response factor
the resonance response factor allowing for turbulence in resonance with the vibration mode

1.7 Symbols
(1) For the purposes of this European Standard, the following symbols apply.

NOTE The notation used is based on ISO 3898:1999. In this Part the symbol dot in expressions
indicates multiplication sign. This notation has been employed to avoid confusion with functional
expressions.

(2) A basic list of notations is provided in EN 1990, 1.6 and the additional notations below are
specific to EN 1991-1-4.

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Latin upper case letters

A area
Afr area swept by the wind
Aref reference area
B2 background response part
C wind load factor for bridges
E Young’s modulus
Ffr resultant friction force
Fj vortex exciting force at point j of the structure
Fw resultant wind force
H height of a topographic feature
lv turbulence intensity
K mode shape factor; shape parameter
ˆKa aerodynamic damping parameter‰
Kiv interference factor for vortex shedding
Krd reduction factor for parapets
Kw correlation length factor
Kx non dimensional coefficient
L length of the span of a bridge deck; turbulent length scale
Ld actual length of a downwind slope
Le effective length of an upwind slope
Lj correlation length
Lu actual length of an upwind slope
N number of cycles caused by vortex shedding
Ng number of loads for gust response
R2 resonant response part
Re Reynolds number
Rh, Rb aerodynamic admittance
S wind action
Sc Scruton number
SL non dimensional power spectral density function
St Strouhal number
Ws weight of the structural parts contributing to the stiffness of a chimney
Wt total weight of a chimney

Latin lower case letters

aG factor of galloping instability

aIG combined stability parameter for interference galloping
b width of the structure
calt altitude factor
cd dynamic factor
cdir directional factor
ce(z) exposure factor
cf force coefficient
cf,o force coefficient of structures or structural elements without free-end flow
cf,l lift force coefficient
cfr friction coefficient
clat aerodynamic exciting coefficient
cM moment coefficient
cp pressure coefficient
ˆcpe external pressure coefficient
cpi internal pressure coefficient
cp,net net pressure coefficient‰
cprob probability factor
cr roughness factor
co orography factor
cs size factor
cseason seasonal factor
d depth of the structure
e eccentricity of a force or edge distance

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fL non dimensional frequency

h height of the structure
have obstruction height
hdis displacement height
k equivalent roughness
ˆkl turbulence factor‰
kp peak factor
kr terrain factor
kH torsional stiffness
l length of a horizontal structure
m mass per unit length
m1 equivalent mass per unit length
ni natural frequency of the structure of the mode i
n1,x fundamental frequency of along wind vibration
n1,y fundamental frequency of cross-wind vibration
n0 ovalling frequency
p annual probability of exceedence
qb reference mean (basic) velocity pressure
qp peak velocity pressure
r radius
s factor; coordinate
t averaging time of the reference wind speed, plate thickness
vCG onset wind velocity for galloping
vCIG critical wind velocity for interference galloping
vcrit critical wind velocity of vortex shedding
vdiv divergence wind velocity
vm mean wind velocity
vb,0 fundamental value of the basic wind velocity
vb basic wind velocity
w wind pressure
x horizontal distance of the site from the top of a crest
x-direction horizontal direction, perpendicular to the span
y-direction horizontal direction along the span
ymax maximum cross-wind amplitude at critical wind speed
z height above ground
zave average height
z-direction vertical direction
z0 roughness length
ze, zi reference height for external wind action, internal pressure
zg distance from the ground to the considered component
zmax maximum height
zmin minimum height
zs reference height for determining the structural factor

Greek upper case letters

U upwind slope
U1,x fundamental alongwind modal shape

Greek lower case letters

aG galloping instability parameter

aIG combined stability parameter of interference galloping
d logarithmic decrement of damping
da ˆ logarithmic decrement of aerodynamic damping‰
dd logarithmic decrement of damping due to special devices
ds ˆ logarithmic decrement of structural damping‰
e coefficient
e0 bandwidth factor
e1 frequency factor
g variable
u solidity ratio, blockage of canopy

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k slenderness ratio
l opening ratio, permeability of a skin
m up-crossing frequency; Poisson ratio; kinematic viscosity
h torsional angle; wind direction
q air density
rv standard deviation of the turbulence
ra,x standard deviation of alongwind acceleration
wmc reduction factor for multibay canopies
wr reduction factor of force coefficient for square sections with rounded corners
wk reduction factor of force coefficient for structural elements with end-effects
wka end-effect factor for circular cylinders
ws shelter factor for walls and fences
f exponent of mode shape

Indices

crit critical
e external, exposure
fr friction
i internal, mode number
j current number of incremental area or point of a structure
m mean
p peak, parapet
ref reference
v wind velocity
x along-wind direction
y cross-wind direction
z vertical direction

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Section 2 Design situations

(1)P The relevant wind actions shall be determined for each design situation identified in
accordance with EN 1990, 3.2.

(2) In accordance with EN 1990, 3.2 (3)P other actions (such as snow, traffic or ice) which will
modify the effects due to wind should be taken into account.

ˆNOTE See also EN 1991-1-3, EN 1991-2 and ISO 12494.‰

(3) In accordance with EN 1990, 3.2 (3)P, the changes to the structure during stages of execution
(such as different stages of the form of the structure, dynamic characteristics, etc.), which may
modify the effects due to wind, should be taken into account.

NOTE See also EN 1991-1-6.

(4) Where in design windows and doors are assumed to be shut under storm conditions, the
effect of these being open should be treated as an accidental design situation.

NOTE See also EN 1990, 3.2 (2) (P).

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

Section 3 Modelling of wind actions

3.1 Nature
(1) Wind actions fluctuate with time and act directly as pressures on the external surfaces
of enclosed structures and, because of porosity of the external surface, also act indirectly on
the internal surfaces. They may also act directly on the internal surface of open structures.
Pressures act on areas of the surface resulting in forces normal to the surface of the structure or
of individual cladding components. Additionally, when large areas of structures are swept by the
wind, friction forces acting tangentially to the surface may be significant.

3.2 Representations of wind actions

(1) The wind action is represented by a simplified set of pressures or forces whose effects are
equivalent to the extreme effects of the turbulent wind.

3.3 Classification of wind actions

(1) Unless otherwise specified, wind actions should be classified as variable fixed actions, see
EN 1990, 4.1.1.

3.4 Characteristic values

(1) The wind actions calculated using EN 1991-1-4 are characteristic values (see EN 1990,
4.1.2). They are determined from the basic values of wind velocity or the velocity pressure. In
accordance with EN 1990 4.1.2 (7)P the basic values are characteristic values having annual
probabilities of exceedence of 0,02, which is equivalent to a mean return period of 50 years.

NOTE All coefficients or models, to derive wind actions from basic values, are chosen so that the
probability of the calculated wind actions does not exceed the probability of these basic values.

3.5 Models
(1) The effect of the wind on the structure (i.e. the response of the structure) depends on the
size, shape and dynamic properties of the structure. This part covers dynamic response due to
along-wind turbulence in resonance with the along-wind vibrations of a fundamental flexural
mode shape with constant sign.

The response of structures should be calculated according to Section 5 from the peak velocity
pressure, qp, at the reference height in the undisturbed wind field, the force and pressure
coefficients and the structural factor cscd (see Section 6). qp depends on the wind climate, the
terrain roughness and orography, and the reference height. qp is equal to the mean velocity
pressure plus a contribution from short-term pressure fluctuations.

(2) Aeroelastic response should be considered for flexible structures such as cables, masts,
chimneys and bridges.

NOTE Simplified guidance on aeroelastic response is given in Annex E.

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Section 4 Wind velocity and velocity pressure

4.1 Basis for calculation
(1) The wind velocity and the velocity pressure are composed of a mean and a fluctuating
component.

The mean wind velocity vm should be determined from the basic wind velocity vb which depends
on the wind climate as described in 4.2, and the height variation of the wind determined from
the terrain roughness and orography as described in 4.3. The peak velocity pressure is determined
in 4.5.

The fluctuating component of the wind is represented by the turbulence intensity defined in 4.4.

NOTE The National Annex may provide national climatic information from which the mean wind
velocity vm, the peak velocity pressure qp and additional values may be directly obtained for the
terrain categories considered.

4.2 Basic values

(1)P The fundamental value of the basic wind velocity, vb,0, is the characteristic 10 minutes mean
wind velocity, irrespective of wind direction and time of year, at 10 m above ground level in open
country terrain with low vegetation such as grass and isolated obstacles with separations of at
least 20 obstacle heights.

NOTE 1 This terrain corresponds to terrain category II in Table 4.1.

NOTE 2 The fundamental value of the basic wind velocity, vb,0, may be given in the National Annex.

The National Annex to EN 1991-1-4 provides a wind map to determine vb,0. See Figure NA.1
on page 1-63.

(2)P The basic wind velocity shall be calculated from expression (4.1).
vb = cdir cseason vb, 0  (4.1)

where:
vb is the basic wind velocity, defined as a function of wind direction and time of year at
10 m above ground of terrain category II
vb,0 is the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity, see (1)P
cdir is the directional factor
cseason is the season factor

NOTE 1 Where the influence of altitude on the basic wind velocity vb is not included in the
specified fundamental value vb,0 the National Annex may give a procedure to take it into account.

NOTE 2 The value of the directional factor, cdir, for various wind directions may be found in the
National Annex. The recommended value is 1,0.

NOTE 3 The value of the season factor, cseason, may be given in the National Annex. The
recommended value is 1,0.

NOTE 4 The 10 minutes mean wind velocity having the probability p for an annual exceedence
is determined by multiplying the basic wind velocity vb in 4.2 (2)P by the probability factor, cprob
given by Expression (4.2). See also EN 1991-1-6.

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NA.2.4 The fundamental value of the basic wind velocity vb,0

[BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, 4.2 (1)P Note 2]

The fundamental value of the basic wind velocity vb,0 should be determined from Equation NA.1.

vb,0 = vb,mapcalt (NA.1)

where

vb,map is the value of the fundamental basic wind velocity before the altitude correction is
applied. vb,map is given in Figure NA.1;
calt is the altitude factor given in NA.2.5.

NA.2.5 Procedure for determining the influence of altitude

[BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, 4.2 (2)P Note 1]

The altitude factor calt should be determined from Equations NA.2a) or NA.2b).

calt = 1 + 0,001·A   for z ≤ 10 m (NA.2a))

calt = 1 + 0,001·A·(10/z)0.2   for z > 10 m (NA.2b))

where

A is the altitude of the site in metres above mean sea level;

z is either zs as defined in BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 Figure 6.1 or ze the height of the part
above ground as defined in BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 Figure 7.4.

NOTE Equation NA.2a) may be used conservatively for any building height.

Where there is significant orography, as defined by the shaded zones in Figure NA.2, A should
be taken as the altitude of the upwind base of the orographic feature for each wind direction
considered.

(3) For temporary structures and for all structures in the execution phase, the seasonal factor
cseason may be used. For transportable structures, which may be used at any time in the year,
cseason should be taken equal to 1,0.

NOTE See also EN 1991-1-6.

4.3 Mean wind

4.3.1 Variation with height

(1) The mean wind velocity vm(z) at a height z above the terrain depends on the terrain
roughness and orography and on the basic wind velocity, vb, and should be determined using
expression (4.3)
vm ]z g = cr ]z g : co ]z g : vb  (4.3)

where:

cr(z) is the roughness factor, given in 4.3.2

co(z) is the orography factor, taken as 1,0 unless otherwise specified in 4.3.3

Figure NA.2 defines areas of significant orography.

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0.5 x Ld if φ < 0.3

Hill or ridge 1.6 x H if φ > 0.3

H/2 Downwind slope > 0.05

H
H/2

Upwind slope φ > 0.05 1.5 x Le if φ < 0.3

5 x H if φ > 0.3
A = Base of upwind
orography
Downwind slope < 0.05

H/2
H
H/2

Escarpment

Figure NA.2 — Definition of significant orography (definition of symbols given in A.3(3))

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 Chapter
Value 1 — ndamenta
Extracts from
bas Eurocode
wi d velo 1:
it Actions
v ( on
/s) structures
before t e

Figure NA.1 — Value of fundamental basic wind velocity vb,map (m/s)

before the altitude correction is applied

NOTE 1 Information on co(z) may be given in the National Annex. If the orography is accounted
for in the basic wind velocity, the recommended value is 1,0.

NOTE 2 Design charts or tables for vm(z) may be given in the National Annex.

To determine co(z) in accordance with the UK National Annex, the recommended procedure in
EN 1991-1-4, Annex A should be used. Design charts for vm(z) are not provided in the UK NA.

The influence of neighbouring structures on the wind velocity should be considered (see 4.3.4).

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4.3.2 Terrain roughness

(1) The roughness factor, cr(z), accounts for the variability of the mean wind velocity at the site of
the structure due to:

• the height above ground level

• the ground roughness of the terrain upwind of the structure in the wind direction considered

NOTE The procedure for determining cr(z) may be given in the National Annex. The recommended
procedure for the determination of the roughness factor at height z is given by the expression (4.4)
and is based on a logarithmic velocity profile.

The procedure for determining cr(z) is given in the National Annex and is given below this clause.

cr ]z g = kr : ln c zz m for zmin # z # zmax

0

cr ]z g = cr ^ zminh for z # zmin  (4.4)

where:
z0 is the roughness length
kr is a terrain factor depending on the roughness length z0 calculated using

z0 0, 07
kr = 0, 19 : d z n
0, 11  (4.5)

where z0,II = 0,05 m (terrain category II, Table 4.1)

zmin is the minimum height defined in Table 4.1
zmax is to be taken as 200 m

z0, zmin depend on the terrain category. Recommended values are given in Table 4.1 depending
on five representative terrain categories.

Expression (4.4) is valid when the upstream distance with uniform terrain roughness is long
enough to stabilise the profile sufficiently. See (2).

Table 4.1 — Terrain categories and terrain parameters

z0 zmin
Terrain category
m m

0 Sea or coastal area exposed to the open sea 0,003 1

I Lakes or flat and horizontal area with negligible vegetation and

0,01 1
without obstacles

II Area with low vegetation such as grass and isolated obstacles

0,05 2
(trees, buildings) with separations of at least 20 obstacle heights

III Area with regular cover of vegetation or buildings or with isolated

obstacles with separations of maximum 20 obstacle heights (such 0,3 5
as villages, suburban terrain, permanent forest)

IV Area in which at least 15 % of the surface is covered with

1,0 10
buildings and their average height exceeds 15 m

The terrain categories are illustrated in Annex A.1.

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NA.2.11 Procedure for determining the roughness factor cr(z)

[BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, 4.3.2 (1)]

BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 Expressions (4.4) and (4.5) do not apply.

The classification of roughness categories has been simplified to give the following three
terrain categories:

– Terrain category 0 is referred to as Sea;

– Terrain categories I and II have been considered together to give a single terrain category
referred to as Country terrain;
– Terrain categories III and IV have been considered together to give a single terrain
category referred to as Town terrain.

All inland lakes extending more than 1 km in the direction of wind and closer than 1 km
upwind of the site should be treated as Sea.

The roughness factor cr(z) depends on upwind distance to sea and additionally on the distance
upwind to the edge of the urban area for sites in Town terrain.

For sites in Country terrain, the roughness factor cr(z) given in Figure NA.3 should be used.

For sites adjacent to Sea terrain (sea or large inland lakes), the distance upwind from the
shoreline should be taken as 0,1 km.

For sites in Town terrain, the roughness factor cr(z) given in Figure NA.3 should be multiplied
by the roughness correction factor cr,T for Town terrain given in Figure NA.4.

NOTE The appropriate value of hdis is to be used in Figure NA.3 and Figure NA.4. For sites in
Country terrain, hdis = 0. For sites in Town terrain, hdis is given by BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 A.5.

BS EN 1991-1-4 A.5 is reproduced after Figure NA.4 on page 1-67.

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LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view

NOTE The height z is the height at which vm is sought.

Figure NA.3 — Values of cr(z)

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LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view

NOTE The height z is the height at which vm is sought.

Figure NA.4 — Values of correction factor cr,T for sites in Town terrain

A.5 Displacement height

(1) For buildings in terrain category IV, closely spaced buildings and other obstructions cause
the wind to behave as if the ground level was raised to a displacement height, hdis. hdis may
be determined by Expression (A.15), see Figure A.5. The profile of peak velocity pressure over
height (see Figure 4.2) may be lifted by a height hdis.

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Figure A.5 — Obstruction height and upwind spacing

x ≤ 2 · have hdis is the lesser of 0,8 · have or 0,6 · h

2 · have < x < 6 · have hdis is the lesser of 1,2 · have – 0,2 · x or 0,6 · h (A.15)

x ≥ 6 · have hdis = 0

In the absence of more accurate information the obstruction height may be taken as
have = 15 m for terrain category IV. ˆThese rules are direction dependent, the values of
have and x should be established for each 30° sector as described in 4.3.2.‰

(2) The terrain roughness to be used for a given wind direction depends on the ground roughness
and the distance with uniform terrain roughness in an angular sector around the wind direction.
Small areas (less than 10% of the area under consideration) with deviating roughness may be
ignored. See Figure 4.1.

Nominal +45°
angular
sector

distance
Upstream in (2) +15°
ied
as specif -15°

-45°
Consideration area

Area with deviating

roughness

NOTE The National Annex may give definitions of the angular sector and of the upstream
distance. The recommended value of the angular sector may be taken as the 30° angular sector
within ±15° from the wind direction. The recommended value for the upstream distance may be
obtained from Annex A.2.

The UK NA gives national parameters for the use of Annex A.2.

Figure 4.1 — Assessment of terrain roughness

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(3) When a pressure or force coefficient is defined for a nominal angular sector, the lowest
roughness length within any 30° angular wind sector should be used.

(4) When there is choice between two or more terrain categories in the definition of a given area,
then the area with the lowest roughness length should be used.

4.3.3 Terrain orography

(1) Where orography (e.g. hills, cliffs etc.) increases wind velocities by more than 5 % the effects
should be taken into account using the orography factor cO.

NOTE The procedure to be used for determining co may be given in the National Annex. The
recommended procedure is given in A.3.

For the purpose of this guide, cO is taken as 1,0. The National Annex for EN 1991-1-4 gives a
procedure to consider terrain orography.

(2) The effects of orography may be neglected when the average slope of the upwind terrain is
less than 3°. The upwind terrain may be considered up to a distance of 10 times the height of the
isolated orographic feature.

4.3.4 Large and considerably higher neighbouring structures

(1) If the structure is to be located close to another structure, that is at least twice as high as
the average height of its neighbouring structures, then it could be exposed (dependent on the
properties of the structure) to increased wind velocities for certain wind directions. Such cases
should be taken into account.

NOTE The National Annex may give a procedure to take account of this effect. A recommended
conservative first approximation is given in A.4.

4.3.5 Closely spaced buildings and obstacles

(1) The effect of closely spaced buildings and other obstacles may be taken into account.

NOTE The National Annex may give a procedure. A recommended first approximation is given in
A.5. In rough terrain closely spaced buildings modify the mean wind flow near the ground, as if
the ground level was raised to a height called displacement height hdis.

4.4 Wind turbulence

(1) The turbulence intensity Iv(z) at height z is defined as the standard deviation of the
turbulence divided by the mean wind velocity.

NOTE 1 The turbulent component of wind velocity has a mean value of 0 and a standard deviation
rv. The standard deviation of the turbulence rv may be determined using expression (4.6).
vv = kr : vb : kl  (4.6)

For the terrain factor kr see expression (4.5), for the basic wind velocity vb see expression (4.1)
and for turbulence factor kI see Note 2.

NOTE 2 The recommended rules for the determination of Iv(z) are given in expression (4.7)

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vv kl
lv ] z g = = for zmin # z # zmax
vm ]z g co ]z g : ln _ z/z0i
lv ]z g = lv ^ zminh for z < zmin  (4.7)

where:
kI is the turbulence factor. The value of kI may be given in the National Annex. The
recommended value is kI = 1,0
co is the orography factor as described in 4.3.3
z0 is the roughness length, given in Table 4.1

NA.2.16 Determination of the turbulence factor kI

[BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, 4.4 (1) Note 2]

Values for turbulence factor kI on its own are not given. It is incorporated in a new term
Iv(z)flat.

Iv(z)flat = kI/ln((z – hdis)/z0), values of which are given in Figure NA.5.

Where orography is not significant as defined by Figure NA.2: Iv(z) = Iv(z)flat for sites in
Country terrain; and

Iv(z) = Iv(z)flat kI,T, for sites in Town terrain. kI,T is the turbulence correction factor for Town
terrain, values of which are given in Figure NA.6.

Where orography is significant, the value obtained from Figure NA.5 should be divided by the
orography factor co.

NOTE The appropriate value of hdis to be used in Figure NA.5 and Figure NA.6 is defined in
BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 A.5.

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LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view

NOTE The height z is the height at which qp is sought using Expression NA.4b).

Figure NA.5 — Values of Iv(z)flat

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gure NA 6 Values of structural
of turbulence correct design
on fact

LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view

NOTE The height z is the height at which qp is sought using Expression NA.4b).

Figure NA.6 – Values of turbulence correction factor kI,T for sites in Town terrain

4.5 Peak velocity pressure

(1) The peak velocity pressure qp(z) at height z, which includes mean and short-term velocity
fluctuations, should be determined.

NOTE 1 The National Annex may give rules for the determination of qp(z). The recommended rule
is given in expression (4.8).

qp ]z g 81 + 7 : lv ]z gA : 1 : t : vm
2
]zg ce ]z g : qb
2  (4.8)

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

where:

q is the air density, which depends on the altitude, temperature and barometric pressure to be
expected in the region during wind storms

ce(z) is the exposure factor given in expression (4.9)

qp ]z g
ce ]z g = qb  (4.9)

qb is the basic velocity pressure given in expression (4.10)

qb = 1 : t : vb2
2  (4.10)

NOTE 2 The values for q may be given in the National Annex. The recommended value is
1,25 kg/m3.

NOTE 3 The value 7 in expression (4.8) is based on a peak factor equal to 3,5 and is consistent
with the values of the pressure and force coefficients in Section 7.

For flat terrain where cO(z) = 1,0 (see 4.3.3), the exposure factor ce(z) is illustrated in Figure 4.2
as a function of height above terrain and a function of terrain category as defined in Table 4.1.

In the UK NA q is taken as 1,226 kg/m3.

z [m] 100
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view 90
IV III II I 0
80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 ce(z)
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0

Figure 4.2 — Illustrations of the exposure factor ce(z) for cO=1,0, kI=1,0

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NA.2.17 Determination of peak velocity pressure, qp(z)

[BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, 4.5 (i) Note 1]

BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 Expression (4.8) does not apply.

When orography is not significant as defined by Figure NA.2 (co = 1,0):

qp(z) = ce(z)qb for sites in Country terrain; and (NA.3a))

qp(z) = ce(z) · ce,T · qb for sites in Town terrain. (NA.3b))

The values of exposure factor ce(z) are given in Figure NA.7 and the values of exposure
correction factor for Town terrain ce,T are given in Figure NA.8.

When orography is significant:

(NA.4a)) qp(z) = [qp(z) from Equation NA.3a or NA.3b] ∙ [(co(z) + 0.6)/1.6]2 for z ≤ 50 m;

or

(NA.4b)) qp(z) = [1 + 3,0 ∙ Iv(z)]2 ∙ 0.5 ∙ q ∙ vm2   for z > 50 m.

Annex A to this National Annex shows flow diagrams for the determination of qp(z).

Where orography is significant see NA.2.17 of the UK NA.

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200
4.2

4.1

100 4
90
80 3.9
70
60
50

40
A 3.8

3.7

3.6
3.5

30 3.4
3.3
3.2
20 3.1
z - hdis (m)

3
2.9
2.8
2.7
10
9
8
7
6
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.6

B
2.2
5
2.1
4 2
1.9
3 1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
2
0.1 1 10 100

LIVE GRAPH Distance upwind to shoreline (km)

Click here to view

NOTE 1 The height z is the height at which qp is sought using Equations NA.3a) or NA.3b).

NOTE 2 Zones A and B are indicated for use in Table NA.3.

Figure NA.7 — Values of ce(z)

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Guide to the Structural
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gur NA 8 Val es f exp of
s rstructural
orrectiondesign
factor
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view

200

100
90 Use 1.0 in this area
80
70
60

50

40
A or B
30 1
0.98
0.96
0.94
z - h dis (m)

20
0.92

0.9
0.88

10 0.86
9 0.84
8 0.82
0.8
7

4
6

5 C 0.78
0.76
0.74
0.72
0.7
0.68
0.66
3

2
0.1 1 10 20

Distance inside town terrain (km)

NOTE 1 The height z is the height at which qp is sought using Equations NA.3a) or NA.3b).

NOTE 2 Zones A, B and C are indicated for use in Table NA.3.

Figure NA.8 — Values of exposure correction factor ce,T for sites in Town terrain

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

Table NA.3 — Size factor cs for zones A, B and C

bl N 3 f t f o C di t
indicated in Figure NA.7 and Figure NA.8

b+h z – hdis = 6 m z – hdis = 10 m z – hdis = 30 m z – hdis = 50 m z – hdis = 200 m

m A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C
1 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.99 0.99 0.97 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99
5 0.96 0.96 0.92 0.97 0.96 0.93 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.98 0.98 0.96 0.98 0.98 0.98
10 0.95 0.94 0.88 0.95 0.95 0.90 0.96 0.96 0.93 0.97 0.96 0.94 0.98 0.97 0.97
20 0.93 0.91 0.84 0.93 0.92 0.87 0.95 0.94 0.90 0.95 0.95 0.92 0.96 0.96 0.95
30 0.91 0.89 0.81 0.92 0.91 0.84 0.94 0.93 0.88 0.94 0.93 0.90 0.96 0.95 0.93
40 0.90 0.88 0.79 0.91 0.89 0.82 0.93 0.91 0.86 0.93 0.92 0.88 0.95 0.94 0.92
50 0.89 0.86 0.77 0.90 0.88 0.80 0.92 0.90 0.85 0.92 0.91 0.87 0.94 0.94 0.91
70 0.87 0.84 0.74 0.88 0.86 0.77 0.90 0.89 0.83 0.91 0.90 0.85 0.93 0.92 0.90
100 0.85 0.82 0.71 0.86 0.84 0.74 0.89 0.87 0.80 0.90 0.88 0.82 0.92 0.91 0.88
150 0.83 0.80 0.67 0.84 0.82 0.71 0.87 0.85 0.77 0.88 0.86 0.79 0.90 0.89 0.85
200 0.81 0.78 0.65 0.83 0.80 0.69 0.85 0.83 0.74 0.86 0.84 0.77 0.89 0.88 0.83
300 0.79 0.75 0.62 0.80 0.77 0.65 0.83 0.80 0.71 0.84 0.82 0.73 0.87 0.85 0.80
b = cross wind breadth of building or building part or width of element
h = height of building or building part or length of element
z = height of building or height to top of element (or height of building part, subject to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 7.2.2 (1))
interpolation may be used
The zone A, B or C to be used for a building can be determined as follows:
For sites in country, it is determined with respect to distance from shore and (z p hdis) using Figure NA.7.
For sites in town, using the distance into town and (z p hdis) in Figure NA.8 it is first determined
whether zone C applies. If not, zone A or B will apply depending on the distance of the site from shore
and (z p hdis) as shown in Figure NA.7.

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Section 5 Wind actions

5.1 General
(1)P Wind actions on structures and structural elements shall be determined taking account of
both external and internal wind pressures.

NOTE A summary of recommended calculation procedures for the determination of wind actions is
given in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 — Calculation procedures for the determination of wind actions

Parameter Subject Reference

Peak velocity pressure qp

basic wind velocity vb 4.2 (2)P
reference height ze Section 7
terrain category Table 4.1
characteristic peak velocity pressure qp 4.5 (1)
turbulence intensity Iv 4.4
mean wind velocity vm 4.3.1
orography coefficient co(z) 4.3.3
roughness coefficient cr(z) 4.3.2

Wind pressures, e.g. for cladding, fixings and structural parts

external pressure coefficient cpe Section 7
internal pressure coefficient cpi Section 7
net pressure coefficient cp,net Section 7
external wind pressure: we=qp cpe 5.2 (1)
internal wind pressure: wi=qp cpi 5.2 (2)

Wind forces on structures, e.g. for overall wind effects

structural factor: cscd 6
wind force Fw calculated from force coefficients 5.3 (2)
wind force Fw calculated from pressure coefficients 5.3 (3)

5.2 Wind pressure on surfaces

(1) The wind pressure acting on the external surfaces, we, should be obtained from
expression (5.1).
we = qp _ zei : cpe  (5.1)

where:
qp(ze) is the peak velocity pressure
ze is the reference height for the external pressure given in Section 7
cpe is the pressure coefficient for the external pressure, see Section 7.

NOTE qp(z) is defined in 4.5.

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(2) The wind pressure acting on the internal surfaces of a structure, wi, should be obtained from
expression (5.2)
wi = qp ^ zih : cpi  (5.2)

where:
qp(zi) is the peak velocity pressure
zi is the reference height for the internal pressure given in Section 7
cpi is the pressure coefficient for the internal pressure given in Section 7.

NOTE qp(z) is defined in 4.5.

(3) The net pressure on a wall, roof or element is the difference between the pressures on the
opposite surfaces taking due account of their signs. Pressure, directed towards the surface is
taken as positive, and suction, directed away from the surface as negative. Examples are given
in Figure 5.1.

neg neg neg neg

Positive Negative
pos internal neg pos internal neg
pressure pressure

(a) (b)

pos neg pos neg

we1 we2 wi1 wi2

(c) (d)

Figure 5.1 — Pressure on surfaces

5.3 Wind forces

(1) The wind forces for the whole structure or a structural component should be determined:

– by calculating forces using force coefficients (see (2)) or

– by calculating forces from surface pressures (see (3)).

This guide will only deal with calculating forces from surface pressures. For a detailed
explanation for calculating forces from force coefficients (required for signboards, structural
elements with rectangular sections, sharp edge sections, polygonal sections, circular cylinders,
spheres, lattice structures and flags) see EN 1991-1-4, rest of 5.3(1), and Sections 7 and 8.

(3) The wind force Fw acting on a structure or a structural element may be determined by
vectorial summation of the forces Fw,e, Fw,i and Ffr calculated from the external and internal
pressures using expressions (5.5) and (5.6) and the frictional forces resulting from the friction of
the wind parallel to the external surfaces, calculated using expression (5.7).

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external forces:

Fw, e = cs cd : ! we : Aref
surfaces  (5.5)

internal forces:

Fw, i = ! wi : Aref
surfaces  (5.6)

friction forces:
Ffr = cfr : qp _ zei : Afr  (5.7)

where:
cscd is the structural factor as defined in Section 6
we is the external pressure on the individual surface at height ze, given in expression (5.1)
wi is the internal pressure on the individual surface at height zi, given in expression (5.2)
Aref is the reference area of the individual surface
cfr is the friction coefficient derived from 7.5
Afr is the area of external surface parallel to the wind, given in 7.5.

NOTE 1 For elements (e.g. walls, roofs), the wind force becomes equal to the difference between
the external and internal resulting forces.

NOTE 2 Friction forces Ffr act in the direction of the wind components parallel to external surfaces.

(4) The effects of wind friction on the surface can be disregarded when the total area of all
surfaces parallel with (or at a small angle to) the wind is equal to or less than 4 times the total
area of all external surfaces perpendicular to the wind (windward and leeward).

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Section 6 Structural factor cscd

6.1 General
(1) The structural factor cscd should take into account the effect on wind actions from the non-
simultaneous occurrence of peak wind pressures on the surface (cs) together with the effect of
the vibrations of the structure due to turbulence (cd).

NOTE The structural factor cscd may be separated into a size factor cs and a dynamic factor cd,
based on 6.3. Information on whether the structural factor cscd should be separated or not may
be given in the National Annex.

The National Annex for EN 1991-1-4 provides information on when and whether cs and cd
should be separated. See NA.2.20.

6.2 Determination of cscd

(1) cscd should be determined as follows:

a) For buildings with a height less than 15 m the value of cscd may be taken as 1.

b) For facade and roof elements having a natural frequency greater than 5 Hz, the value of cscd
may be taken as 1.

c) For framed buildings which have structural walls and which are less than 100 m high and
whose height is less than 4 times the in-wind depth, the value of cscd may be taken as 1.

d) For chimneys with circular cross-sections whose height is less than 60 m and 6,5 times the
diameter, the value of cscd may be taken as 1.

e) Alternatively, for cases a), b), c) and d) above, values of cscd may be derived from 6.3.1.

f) For civil engineering works (other than bridges, which are considered in Section 8), and
chimneys and buildings outside the limitations given in c) and d) above, cscd should be derived
from 6.3 or taken from Annex D.

NOTE 1 Natural frequencies of facade and roof elements may be calculated using Annex F
(glazing spans smaller than 3 m usually lead to natural frequencies greater than 5 Hz).

NOTE 2 The figures in Annex D give values of cscd for various types of structures. The figures give
envelopes of safe values calculated from models complying with the requirements in 6.3.1.

For all other cases and detailed procedures for obtaining cscd see EN 1991-1-4, 6.2, 6.3 and
Annex B. See also NA.2.20 and Figure NA.9.

6.3.3 Wake buffeting

(1) For slender buildings (h/d > 4) and chimneys (h/d > 6,5) in tandem or grouped arrangement,
the effect of increased turbulence in the wake of nearby structures (wake buffeting) should be
taken into account.

(2) Wake buffeting effects may be assumed to be negligible if at least one of the following
conditions applies:

– The distance between two buildings or chimneys is larger than 25 times the cross-wind
dimension of the upstream building or chimney.
– The natural frequency of the downstream building or chimney is higher than 1 Hz.

NOTE If none of the conditions in 6.3.3 (2) is fulfilled wind tunnel tests or specialist advice is
recommended.

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1 4:2005 ( Eurocodes for students of structural design

            

          

       

 
 =  ⋅  ≥   =  + ≥   =  + ≥ 
 

Figure 6.1 — General shapes of structures covered by the design procedure. The
structural dimensions and the reference height used are also shown.

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Section 7 Pressure and force coefficients

7.1 General
(1) This section should be used to determine the appropriate aerodynamic coefficients for
structures. Depending on the structure the appropriate aerodynamic coefficient will be:

– Internal and external pressure coefficients, see 7.1.1 (1),

– Net pressure coefficients, see 7.1.1 (2),
– Friction coefficients, see 7.1.1 (3),
– Force coefficients, see 7.1.1 (4).

7.1.1 Choice of aerodynamic coefficient

This guide only gives pressure coefficients for buildings.

(1) The pressure coefficients should be determined for:

– Buildings, using 7.2 for both internal and external pressures, and for
– Circular cylinders, using 7.2.9 for the internal pressures and 7.9.1 for the external pressures.

NOTE 1 External pressure coefficients give the effect of the wind on the external surfaces
of buildings; internal pressure coefficients give the effect of the wind on the internal surfaces
of buildings.

NOTE 2 The external pressure coefficients are divided into overall coefficients and local
coefficients. Local coefficients give the pressure coefficients for loaded areas of 1 m2. They
may be used for the design of small elements and fixings. Overall coefficients give the pressure
coefficients for loaded areas of 10 m2. They may be used for loaded areas larger than 10 m2.

For the determination of pressure and force coefficients for other types of structures e.g.:

– canopy roofs;
– free-standing walls, parapets and fences;
– signboards;
– structural elements with rectangular cross section;
– structural elements with sharp edged section;
– structural elements with regular polygonal section;
– circular cylinders;
– spheres;
– lattice structures and scaffoldings;
– flags.

See Section 7 of EN 1991-1-4.

7.1.3 Effects of ice and snow

(1) If ice or snow alters the geometry of a structure so that it changes the reference area or
shape, this should be taken into account.

NOTE Further information may be given in the National Annex.

7.2 Pressure coefficients for buildings

7.2.1 General

(1) The external pressure coefficients cpe for buildings and parts of buildings depend on the size
of the loaded area A, which is the area of the structure, that produces the wind action in the
section to be calculated. The external pressure coefficients are given for loaded areas A of 1 m2
and 10 m2 in the tables for the appropriate building configurations as cpe,1, for local coefficients,
and cpe,10, for overall coefficients, respectively.

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NOTE 1 Values for cpe,1 are intended for the design of small elements and fixings with an area per
element of 1 m2 or less such as cladding elements and roofing elements. Values for cpe,10 may be
used for the design of the overall load bearing structure of buildings.

NOTE 2 The National Annex may give a procedure for calculating external pressure coefficients
for loaded areas above 1 m2 based on external pressure coefficients cpe,1 and cpe,10. The
recommended procedure for loaded areas up to 10 m2 is given in Figure 7.2.

cpe

cpe,1

cpe,10

0,1 1 2 4 6 8 10
A [m2]
The figure is based on the following:
for 1 m2 < A < 10m2 cpe = cpe,1 - (cpe - cpe,10) log10 A

Figure 7.2 — Recommended procedure for determining the external pressure

coefficient cpe for buildings with a loaded area A between 1 m2 and 10 m2

(2) The values cpe,10 and cpe,1 in Tables 7.2 to 7.5 should be used for the orthogonal wind
directions 0°, 90°, 180°. These values represent the most unfavourable values obtained in a
range of wind directions h = ± 45° either side of the relevant orthogonal direction.

NA.2.25 Procedure for determining the external pressure coefficient for loaded
areas between 1 m2 and 10 m2
[BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.2.1 (1) Note 2]

BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 Figure 7.2 should not be used.

cpe,1 values should be used for loaded areas 1 m2 and cpe,10 values should be used for loaded
areas >1 m2.

(3) For protruding roof corners the pressure on the underside of the roof overhang is equal to the
pressure for the zone of the vertical wall directly connected to the protruding roof; the pressure
at the top side of the roof overhang is equal to the pressure of the zone, defined for the roof.

pressure at top side found

from roof pressure

protruding roof

pressure at underside
found from wall pressure

Figure 7.3 — Illustration of relevant pressures for protruding roofs

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

7.2.2 Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings

(1) The reference heights, ze, for walls of rectangular plan buildings (zone D, see Figure 7.5)
depend on the aspect ratio h/b and are always the upper heights of the different parts of the
walls. They are given in Figure 7.4 for the following three cases:

– A building, whose height h is less than b should be considered to be one part.

– A building, whose height h is greater than b, but less than 2b, may be considered to be two
parts, comprising: a lower part extending upwards from the ground by a height equal to b
and an upper part consisting of the remainder.

– A building, whose height h is greater than 2b, may be considered to be in multiple parts,
comprising: a lower part extending upwards from the ground by a height equal to b; an upper
part extending downwards from the top by a height equal to b and a middle region, between
the upper and lower parts, which may be divided into horizontal strips with a height hstrip as
shown in Figure 7.4.

NOTE The rules for the velocity pressure distribution for leeward wall and sidewalls (zones A, B, C
and E, see Figure 7.5) may be given in the National Annex or be defined for the individual project.
The recommended procedure is to take the reference height as the height of the building.
Building Reference Shape of profile
face height of velocity pressure

ze=h qp(z)=qp(ze)
h b
h

ze=h qp(z)=qp(h)
h-b

ze=b qp(z)=qp(b)
b < h < 2b
h
b

ze=h qp(z)=qp(h)
b
hstrip

h > 2b ze=zstrip qp(z)=qp(zstrip)

h

ze=b qp(z)=qp(b)
b

NOTE The velocity pressure should be assumed to be uniform over each horizontal strip considered.

Figure 7.4 — Reference height, ze, depending on h and b, and

corresponding velocity pressure profile

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(2) The external pressure coefficients cpe,10 and cpe,1 for zones A, B, C, D and E are defined in
Figure 7.5.

Plan
d e=b or 2h, whichever is smaller
b: crosswind dimension

Elevation for e < d

Wind
A B C

h
Wind
D E

b
e/5 4/5e d-e
e

Wind

h
Elevation A B C

Elevation for e d Elevation for e 5d

Wind A B Wind A
h

h
e/5 d-e/5 d
d

Wind
h

Wind
h

A B A

Figure 7.5 — Key for vertical walls

NOTE 1 The values of cpe,10 and cpe,1 may be given in the National Annex. The recommended
values are given in Table 7.1, depending on the ratio h/d. For intermediate values of h/d, linear
interpolation may be applied. The values of Table 7.1 also apply to walls of buildings with inclined
roofs, such as duopitch and monopitch roofs.

Table 7.1 — Recommended values of external pressure coefficients for

vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings

Zone A B C D E

h/d cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1

5 -1,2 -1,4 -0,8 -1,1 -0,5 +0,8 +1,0 -0,7

1 -1,2 -1,4 -0,8 -1,1 -0,5 +0,8 +1,0 -0,5

≤ 0,25 -1,2 -1,4 -0,8 -1,1 -0,5 +0,7 +1,0 -0,3

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1 — Extracts (1) Note 2] 1: Actions on structures
Eurocode

NOTE 2 For buildings

b us with
fo h/d
lo > 5,a the total
eas > m2wind loading may be based on the provisions given
in Sections 7.6 to 7.8 and 7.9.2.

A.2. 6
(3) In cases whereul f forcel on
the wind c building
t pr ss e d is determined
structures i ution onby application of
leeward
the pressure coefficie ts c pe a d side wal s
on windward and leeward side (zones D and E) of the building
simultaneously, the lack of correlation of wind pressures between the windward and leeward side
[B into
may have to be taken EN account.
9 1 72 1)

NOTE The lack of correlation

d b a of wind
d o bpressures between
unifo m ov he the
h l windward
h igh and leeward side may
be considered as follows. For buildings with h/d ≥ 5 the resulting force is multiplied by 1. For
buildings with h/d ≤ 1, the resulting force is multiplied by 0,85. For intermediate values of h/d,
linearNA.2.27 V may
interpolation luesbeofapplied.
exte

NA.2.27 Values[BS
of EN 1991-1
external 4:2005
pressure 7.2.2 for
coefficients 2) Note 1]walls of rectangular-
vertical
plan buildings
B EN 199 7.2.2
[BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, 1 4 005
(2) able
Note 1]1m

T ble N Table
BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 .4 may7.1e may
used ins ead o For
be used. the sum
the of the pressure of
determination oefficient
overall loads on
fo pressure
buildings, the net zones D a coefficients
d E. Factor f in
r Table
ccou NA.4
tin f may
lackbe
of used
corre instead
ation be of
ween
the sum of the
pressure coefficthe front
ents nd rea Df and
for zones ces m also befor
E. Factor a accounting
plied to the net
for pressur
lack of correlation between
the front and rear
co ffaces
ic en may
s also be applied to the net pressure coefficients.

T be A4 tp n wa e n r
Table NA.4 — Net pressure coefficients for vertical walls of rectangular buildings

h/d Net pressure coefficient cpe,10

5 1.3
1.0 1.1
≥0.25 0.8
The following should be noted:
a) In BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 Table 7.1, linear interpolation may be used
for intermediate values of h/d.
b) The coefficients may be applied to non-vertical walls within ±15° of
vertical.
c) For bridge piers, see NA.2.52 relating to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 8.4.2.
d) Where the walls of two buildings face each other and the gap between
them is less than e (smaller value of e in case of buildings with
different e values), “funnelling” will accelerate the flow and make the
pressure coefficients in zones A, B and C more negative than in the
case where the building is “isolated”, according to the following:
1) where the gap between the buildings is < e/4 or > e, the
coefficient for isolated case should be used;
2) where the gap between the buildings is > e/4 and < e:
• either use the funnelling values, conservatively, or
• interpolate linearly according to the actual gap between the
following values: the funnelling values to apply for a gap
of e/2 and the isolated values to apply for a gap of e/4 and
a gap of e;
3) where the two buildings are sheltered by upwind buildings such
that (hr – hdis)< 0.4hr for the lower of the two buildings, then
funneling can be disregarded.
e) The external pressure coefficients for side faces affected by funneling
should be taken as p1.6 for Zone A, p 0.9 for Zone B and p 0.9 for
Zone C.

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Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

NA.2.28 Pressure coefficients

The pressure coefficients given in BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.2.3 to 7.2.6 are not given in a
form that allows a National Choice; however, users of BS EN 1991-1-4 are recommended to
follow the advisory note to this National Annex drafted in order to advise users on how to
maintain the current levels of safety and economy of construction.

The Advisory note is reproduced at the end of this Section on page 1-96.

7.2.3 Flat roofs

(1) Flat roofs are defined as having a slope (a) of –5°< a < 5°

(2) The roof should be divided into zones as shown in Figure 7.6.

(3) The reference height for flat roof and roofs with curved or mansard eaves should be taken
as h. The reference height for flat roofs with parapets should be taken as h + hp, see Figure 7.6.

(4) Pressure coefficients for each zone are given in Table 7.2.

(5) The resulting pressure coefficient on the parapet should be determined using 7.4.

Edge of eave
hp


r
ze

ze = h
h

Parapets Curved and mansard eaves

e=b or 2h, whichever is smaller

e/4

F b: crosswind dimension

Wind
G H I
b
e/4

e/10

e/2

Figure 7.6 — Key for flat roofs

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

Table 7.2 — External pressure coefficients for flat roofs

Zone

Roof type F G H I

cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1

+0,2
Sharp eaves -1,8 -2,5 -1,2 -2,0 -0,7 -1,2
-0,2

+0,2
hp/h=0,025 -1,6 -2,2 -1,1 -1,8 -0,7 -1,2
-0,2

With +0,2
hp/h=0,05 -1,4 -2,0 -0,9 -1,6 -0,7 -1,2
Parapets -0,2

+0,2
hp/h=0,10 -1,2 -1,8 -0,8 -1,4 -0,7 -1,2
-0,2

+0,2
r/h = 0,05 -1,0 -1,5 -1,2 -1,8 -0,4
-0,2

Curved +0,2
r/h = 0,10 -0,7 -1,2 -0,8 -1,4 -0,3
Eaves -0,2

+0,2
r/h = 0,20 -0,5 -0,8 -0,5 -0,8 -0,3
-0,2

+0,2
a = 30° -1,0 -1,5 -1,0 -1,5 -0,3
-0,2

Mansard +0,2
a = 45° -1,2 -1,8 -1,3 -1,9 -0,4
Eaves -0,2

+0,2
a = 60° -1,3 -1,9 -1,3 -1,9 -0,5
-0,2

NOTE 1 For roofs with parapets or curved eaves, linear interpolation may be used for
intermediate values of hp/h and r/h.

NOTE 2 For roofs with mansard eaves, linear interpolation between a = 30°, 45° and a = 60°
may be used. For a > 60° linear interpolation between the values for a = 60° and the values
for flat roofs with sharp eaves may be used.

NOTE 3 In Zone I, where positive and negative values are given, both values shall be
considered.

NOTE 4 For the mansard eave itself, the external pressure coefficients are given in Table 7.4
"External pressure coefficients for duopitch roofs: wind direction 0°”, Zone F and G, depending
on the pitch angle of the mansard eave.

NOTE 5 For the curved eave itself, the external pressure coefficients are given by linear
interpolation along the curve, between values on the wall and on the roof.

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Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

7.2.4 Monopitch roofs

(1) The roof, including protruding parts, should be divided into zones as shown in Figure 7.7.
(2) The reference height ze should be taken equal to h.
(3) The pressure coefficients for each zone that should be used are given in Table 7.3.

Wind Wind
High eave High eave
 =0°   =180° 
Low eave Low eave

h
(a) general
e/4

Wind
G H
b
e/4

e/10 e=b or 2h, whichever is smaller

b: crosswind dimension

(b) wind directions h = 0° and h = 180°

High eave
e/4

Fup

Wind
G H I
b

Flow
e/4

Low eave
e/10
e/2

(c) wind directions h = 90°

Figure 7.7 — Key for monopitch roofs

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

Table 7.3a — External pressure coefficients for monopitch roofs

Zone for wind direction h = 0° Zone for wind direction h = 180°

Pitch
Angle F G H F G H
a
cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1

-1,7 -2,5 -1,2 -2,0 -0,6 -1,2

5° -2,3 -2,5 -1,3 -2,0 -0,8 -1,2
+0,0 +0,0 +0,0

-0,9 -2,0 -0,8 -1,5 -0,3

15° -2,5 -2,8 -1,3 -2,0 -0,9 -1,2
+0,2 +0,2 + 0,2

-0,5 -1,5 -0,5 -1,5 -0,2

30° -1,1 -2,3 -0,8 -1,5 -0,8
+0,7 +0,7 +0,4

-0,0 -0,0 -0,0

45° -0,6 -1,3 -0,5 -0,7
+0,7 +0,7 +0,6

60° +0,7 +0,7 +0,7 -0,5 -1,0 -0,5 -0,5

75° +0,8 +0,8 +0,8 -0,5 -1,0 -0,5 -0,5

Table 7.3b — External pressure coefficients for monopitch roofs

Zone for wind direction h = 90°

Pitch
Angle Fup Flow G H I
a
cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1

5° -2,1 -2,6 -2,1 -2,4 -1,8 -2,0 -0,6 -1,2 -0,5

15° -2,4 -2,9 -1,6 -2,4 -1,9 -2,5 -0,8 -1,2 -0,7 -1,2

30° -2,1 -2,9 -1,3 -2,0 -1,5 -2,0 -1,0 -1,3 -0,8 -1,2

45° -1,5 -2,4 -1,3 -2,0 -1,4 -2,0 -1,0 -1,3 -0,9 -1,2

60° -1,2 -2,0 -1,2 -2,0 -1,2 -2,0 -1,0 -1,3 -0,7 -1,2

75° -1,2 -2,0 -1,2 -2,0 -1,2 -2,0 -1,0 -1,3 -0,5

NOTE 1 At h = 0° (see Table a)) the pressure changes rapidly between positive and negative
values around a pitch angle of a = +5° to +45°, so both positive and negative values are given.
For those roofs, two cases should be considered: one with all positive values, and one with all
negative values. No mixing of positive and negative values is allowed on the same face.
NOTE 2 Linear interpolation for intermediate pitch angles may be used between values of the
same sign. The values equal to 0.0 are given for interpolation purposes.

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Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

7.2.5 Duopitch roofs

(1) The roof, including protruding parts, should be divided in zones as shown in Figure 7.8.
(2) The reference height ze should be taken as h.
(3) The pressure coefficients for each zone that should be used are given in Table 7.4.

Wind Wind
Downwind face
 = 0°  = 0°
>0
Upwind
    <0
face
Upwind
h

h
face
Downwind
face
Pitch angle positive Pitch angle negative

(a) general
Upwind face Downwind face
e/4

F
ridge or trough

Wind
 = 0° G H J I
b
e/4

e=b or 2h, whichever is smaller

e/10
e/10 b: crosswind dimension

(b) wind directions h = 0°

e/4

F
H I
G
Wind Ridge or trough
 = 90°
b

G
H I
e/4

e/10

e/2

(c) wind directions h = 90°

Figure 7.8 — Key for duopitch roofs

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

Table 7.4a — External pressure coefficients for duopitch roofs

Zone for wind direction h = 0°

Pitch
Angle F G H I J
a
cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1

-45° -0,6 -0,6 -0,8 -0,7 -1,0 -1,5

-30° -1,1 -2,0 -0,8 -1,5 -0,8 -0,6 -0,8 -1,4

-15° -2,5 -2,8 -1,3 -2,0 -0,9 -1,2 -0,5 -0,7 -1,2

+0,2 +0,2
-5° -2,3 -2,5 -1,2 -2,0 -0,8 -1,2
-0,6 -0,6

-1,7 -2,5 -1,2 -2,0 -0,6 -1,2 +0,2

5° -0,6
+0,0 +0,0 +0,0 -0,6

-0,9 -2,0 -0,8 -1,5 -0,3 -0,4 -1,0 -1,5

15°
+0,2 +0,2 +0,2 +0,0 +0,0 +0,0

-0,5 -1,5 -0,5 -1,5 -0,2 -0,4 -0,5

30°
+0,7 +0,7 +0,4 +0,0 +0,0

-0,0 -0,0 -0,0 -0,2 -0,3

45°
+0,7 +0,7 +0,6 +0,0 +0,0

60° +0,7 +0,7 +0,7 -0,2 -0,3

75° +0,8 +0,8 +0,8 -0,2 -0,3

NOTE 1 At h = 0° the pressure changes rapidly between positive and negative values on the
windward face around a pitch angle of a = -5° to +45°, so both positive and negative values
are given. For those roofs, four cases should be considered where the largest or smallest
values of all areas F, G and H are combined with the largest or smallest values in areas I and J.
No mixing of positive and negative values is allowed on the same face.
NOTE 2 Linear interpolation for intermediate pitch angles of the same sign may be used
between values of the same sign. (Do not interpolate between a = +5° and a = -5°, but use
the data for flat roofs in 7.2.3.) The values equal to 0,0 are given for interpolation purposes.

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Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

Table 7.4b — External pressure coefficients for duopitch roofs

Zone for wind direction h = 90°

Pitch
angle F G H I
a
cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1

-45° -1,4 -2,0 -1,2 -2,0 -1,0 -1,3 -0,9 -1,2

-30° -1,5 -2,1 -1,2 -2,0 -1,0 -1,3 -0,9 -1,2

-15° -1,9 -2,5 -1,2 -2,0 -0,8 -1,2 -0,8 -1,2

-5° -1,8 -2,5 -1,2 -2,0 -0,7 -1,2 -0,6 -1,2

5° -1,6 -2,2 -1,3 -2,0 -0,7 -1,2 -0,6

15° -1,3 -2,0 -1,3 -2,0 -0,6 -1,2 -0,5

30° -1,1 -1,5 -1,4 -2,0 -0,8 -1,2 -0,5

45° -1,1 -1,5 -1,4 -2,0 -0,9 -1,2 -0,5

60° -1,1 -1,5 -1,2 -2,0 -0,8 -1,0 -0,5

75° -1,1 -1,5 -1,2 -2,0 -0,8 -1,0 -0,5

7.2.9 Internal pressure

(1)P Internal and external pressures shall be considered to act at the same time. The worst
combination of external and internal pressures shall be considered for every combination of
possible openings and other leakage paths.

(2) The internal pressure coefficient, cpi, depends on the size and distribution of the openings in
the building envelope. When in at least two sides of the buildings (facades or roof) the total area
of openings in each side is more than 30 % of the area of that side, the actions on the structure
should not be calculated from the rules given in this section but the rules of 7.3 and 7.4 should
instead be used.

NOTE The openings of a building include small openings such as: open windows, ventilators,
chimneys, etc. as well as background permeability such as air leakage around doors, windows,
services and through the building envelope. The background permeability is typically in the range
0.01% to 0.1% of the face area. Additional information may be given in a National Annex.

(3) Where an external opening, such as a door or a window, would be dominant when open but is
considered to be closed in the ultimate limit state, during severe windstorms, the condition with
the door or window open should be considered as an accidental design situation in accordance
with EN 1990.

NOTE Checking of the accidental design situation is important for tall internal walls (with high
risk of hazard) when the wall has to carry the full external wind action because of openings in the
building envelope.

(4) A face of a building should be regarded as dominant when the area of openings at that
face is at least twice the area of openings and leakages in the remaining faces of the building
considered.

NOTE This can also be applied to individual internal volumes within the building.

(5) For a building with a dominant face the internal pressure should be taken as a fraction of the
external pressure at the openings of the dominant face. The values given by expressions (7.1)
and (7.2) should be used.

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 Chapter 1 — Extracts from Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

When the area of the openings at the dominant face is twice the area of the openings in the
remaining faces,
cpi = 0, 75 : cpe  (7.1)

When the area of the openings at the dominant face is at least 3 times the area of the openings
in the remaining faces,
cpi = 0, 90 : cpe  (7.2)

where cpe is the value for the external pressure coefficient at the openings in the dominant face.
When these openings are located in zones with different values of external pressures an area
weighted average value of cpe should be used.

When the area of the openings at the dominant face is between 2 and 3 times the area of the
openings in the remaining faces linear interpolation for calculating cpi may be used.

(6) For buildings without a dominant face, the internal pressure coefficient cpi should be
determined from Figure 7.13, and is a function of the ratio of the height and the depth of the
building, h/d, and the opening ratio l for each wind direction h, which should be determined
from expression (7.3).

LIVE GRAPH 0,8

Click here to view
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,35
0,3 h/d 0,25
0,2
Cpi 0,1
0
-0,1
h/d>1,0
-0,2
-0,3
-0,4
-0,5

0,33 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

µ

NOTE For values between h/d = 0,25 and h/d = 1,0 linear interpolation may be used.

Figure 7.13 — Internal pressure coefficients for uniformly distributed openings

n
!area of openings where cpe is negative or 0, 0
!area of all openings  (7.3)

NOTE 1 This applies to façades and roof of buildings with and without internal partitions.

NOTE 2 Where it is not possible, or not considered justified, to estimate l for a particular case
then cpi should be taken as the more onerous of +0,2 and -0,3.

(7) The reference height zi for the internal pressures should be equal to the reference height
ze for the external pressures (see 5.1) on the faces which contribute by their openings to the
creation of the internal pressure. If there are several openings the largest value of ze should be
used to determine zi.

(8) The internal pressure coefficient of open silos and chimneys should be based on
expression (7.4):
cpi 0, 60  (7.4)

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Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

The internal pressure coefficient of vented tanks with small openings should be based on
expression (7.5):
cpi 0, 40  (7.5)

The reference height zi is equal to the height of the structure.

Advisory note regarding BS EN 1991-1-4, 7.2.3 to 7.2.6

Calibration of BS EN 1991-1-4 against BS 6399-2 has shown that there are differences in
the values of pressure coefficients and in some cases the EN values are significantly different
to those currently used in the UK. National choice is not allowed for the external pressure
coefficients. It is therefore recommended that the external pressure coefficients in BS 6399-2
continue to be used to maintain the current levels of safety and economy of construction. The
tables affected together with the corresponding figures that define the zones are as follows.

Type of roof Relevant tables and Recommended tables and

figures in BS EN 1991-1-4 figures in BS 6399-2

1 Flat roofs Table 7.2 and Figure 7.6 Table 8 and Figure 17

2 Mono pitch roofs Tables 7.3a) and 7.3b) and Table 9 and Figure 19
Figure 7.7

3 Duo pitch roofs Tables 7.4a) and 7.4b) and Table 10 and Figure 20
Figure 7.8

4 Hipped roofs Table 7.5 and Figure 7.9 Table 11 and Figure 21

Attention is drawn to the requirement in the EN that fixings and small areas should be
designed using Cpe,1 coefficients given in BS EN 1991-1-4. There is no equivalent coefficient in
the BS for this.

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Annex A
(informative)
Terrain effects
A.1 Illustrations of the upper roughness of each terrain category

Terrain category 0
Sea, coastal area exposed to the open sea

Terrain category I
Lakes or area with negligible vegetation and without obstacles

Terrain category II
Area with low vegetation such as grass and isolated obstacles
(trees, buildings) with separations of at least 20 obstacle heights

Terrain category III

Area with regular cover of vegetation or buildings or with isolated
obstacles with separations of maximum 20 obstacle heights (such
as villages, suburban terrain, permanent forest)

Terrain category IV
Area in which at least 15% of the surface is covered with
buildings and their average height exceeds 15 m

Terrain category 0 is sea terrain

I and II are country terrain
III and IV are town terrain.

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 Guide to the Structural Eurocodes for students of structural design

Bibliography
ISO 2394 General principles on reliability for structures

ˆISO 3898 Bases for design of structures — Notations — General symbols‰

ISO 8930 General principles on reliability for structures — List of equivalent terms

ˆEN 12811-1 Temporary works equipment — Part 1: Scaffolds — Performance requirements and
general design

ISO 12494 Atmospheric icing of structures‰

Bibliography
Standards publications

For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition
of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.

BS 5534, Code of practice for slating and tiling (including shingles).

BS EN 1991-2, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures — Part 2: Traffic loads on bridges.

BS EN 1993-3-1, Eurocode 3 — Design of steel structures — Part 3-1: Towers, masts and
chimneys.

BS EN 12811-1, Temporary works equipment — Scaffolds — Performance requirements and

general design.

BS EN 12899-1, Fixed, vertical road traffic signs — Part 1: Fixed signs.

PD 6688-1-4, Background paper to National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-4.

Other publications

[1] COOK, N.J. The designer’s guide to wind loading of building structures – Part 2: Static
structures. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, 1990.

[2] CERMAK, J.E., and N. Isyumov (editors). ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers)
manuals and reports on engineering practice. No 67. Wind tunnel studies of buildings and
structures. ASCE, 1999.

[3] COOK, N.J. Wind loading: a practical guide to BS 6399-2 wind loads on buildings. Thomas
Telford Ltd, 1999.

[4] BLACKMORE, P. BRE Digest SD5. Wind loads on unclad structures. BRE Press, 2004.

Useful references
[1] Cook N.J. Designers’ Guide to Eurocode 1: Part 1-4 Wind Actions, Thomas Telford,
London, 2009

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