Introduction to Microcontroller/Microprocessor

Lecture 1
Embedded Systems

Eng George Mugala

THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

August 26, 2017

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 OUTLINE

1 Introduction to Microcontrollers

2 Examples of applications

3 What makes these devices smart

4 Structure of a microcontroller and Microprocessors

5 Instruction Sequency flow

6 Structure of a microcontroller

7 Differences between a Microprocessor and a microcontroller

8 Microcontroller and Processor End

Eng George Mugala ( THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

Introduction to
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Microcontroller/MicroprocessorLecture
OF ENGINEERING) 1Embedded
August Systems
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 OUTLINE

1 Introduction to Microcontrollers

2 Examples of applications

3 What makes these devices smart

4 Structure of a microcontroller and Microprocessors

5 Instruction Sequency flow

6 Structure of a microcontroller

7 Differences between a Microprocessor and a microcontroller

8 Microcontroller and Processor End

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 Introduction to Microcontrollers
Micro controllers have only been with us for a few decades but their
impact (direct or indirect) on our lives is profound. Usually these are
supposed to be just data processors performing exhaustive numeric
operations. But their presence is unnoticed at most of the places like;

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 Introduction to Microcontrollers
Micro controllers have only been with us for a few decades but their
impact (direct or indirect) on our lives is profound. Usually these are
supposed to be just data processors performing exhaustive numeric
operations. But their presence is unnoticed at most of the places like;

Eng George Mugala ( THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

Introduction to
SCHOOL
Microcontroller/MicroprocessorLecture
OF ENGINEERING) 1Embedded
August Systems
26, 2017 4 / 20
 OUTLINE

1 Introduction to Microcontrollers

2 Examples of applications

3 What makes these devices smart

4 Structure of a microcontroller and Microprocessors

5 Instruction Sequency flow

6 Structure of a microcontroller

7 Differences between a Microprocessor and a microcontroller

8 Microcontroller and Processor End

Eng George Mugala ( THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

Introduction to
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 Introduction to Microcontrollers

Eng George Mugala ( THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

Introduction to
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 Introduction to Microcontrollers

Eng George Mugala ( THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

Introduction to
SCHOOL
Microcontroller/MicroprocessorLecture
OF ENGINEERING) 1Embedded
August Systems
26, 2017 6 / 20
 OUTLINE

1 Introduction to Microcontrollers

2 Examples of applications

3 What makes these devices smart

4 Structure of a microcontroller and Microprocessors

5 Instruction Sequency flow

6 Structure of a microcontroller

7 Differences between a Microprocessor and a microcontroller

8 Microcontroller and Processor End

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 What inside them Makes these devices smart??

What inside them Makes these devices smart??

The answer is Microcontrollers

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OF ENGINEERING) 1Embedded
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 OUTLINE

1 Introduction to Microcontrollers

2 Examples of applications

3 What makes these devices smart

4 Structure of a microcontroller and Microprocessors

5 Instruction Sequency flow

6 Structure of a microcontroller

7 Differences between a Microprocessor and a microcontroller

8 Microcontroller and Processor End

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 Microprocessors and Microcontroller structures
Microprocessor structure(CPU).

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 Microprocessor structure(CPU)- Externally Mapped

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 OUTLINE

1 Introduction to Microcontrollers

2 Examples of applications

3 What makes these devices smart

4 Structure of a microcontroller and Microprocessors

5 Instruction Sequency flow

6 Structure of a microcontroller

7 Differences between a Microprocessor and a microcontroller

8 Microcontroller and Processor End

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 Instruction Cycle

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 OUTLINE

1 Introduction to Microcontrollers

2 Examples of applications

3 What makes these devices smart

4 Structure of a microcontroller and Microprocessors

5 Instruction Sequency flow

6 Structure of a microcontroller

7 Differences between a Microprocessor and a microcontroller

8 Microcontroller and Processor End

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 Structure of a microcontroller/Microcomputer
A digital computer having microprocessor as the CPU along with I/O
devices and memory is known as microcomputer.

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 Microcontroller as a Microcomputer

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 OUTLINE

1 Introduction to Microcontrollers

2 Examples of applications

3 What makes these devices smart

4 Structure of a microcontroller and Microprocessors

5 Instruction Sequency flow

6 Structure of a microcontroller

7 Differences between a Microprocessor and a microcontroller

8 Microcontroller and Processor End

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 Differences between a Microprocessor and a
microcontroller

Microprocessor is a single chip CPU,

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 Differences between a Microprocessor and a
microcontroller

Microprocessor is a single chip CPU,

microcontroller contains, a CPU and much of the remaining
circuitry of a complete microcomputer system in a single chip

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 Differences between a Microprocessor and a
microcontroller

Microprocessor is a single chip CPU,

microcontroller contains, a CPU and much of the remaining
circuitry of a complete microcomputer system in a single chip
Microcontroller includes RAM, ROM, serial and parallel interface,
timer, interrupt schedule circuitry (in addition to CPU) in a single
chip.

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 Differences between a Microprocessor and a
microcontroller

Microprocessor is a single chip CPU,

microcontroller contains, a CPU and much of the remaining
circuitry of a complete microcomputer system in a single chip
Microcontroller includes RAM, ROM, serial and parallel interface,
timer, interrupt schedule circuitry (in addition to CPU) in a single
chip.
Microprocessor instruction sets are ”processing intensive”, implying
powerful addressing modes with instructions catering to large
volumes of data. Their instructions operate on nibbles, bytes, etc.
Microcontrollers have instruction sets catering to the control of
inputs and outputs. Their instructions operate also on a single bit.
E.g., a motor may be turned ON and OFF by a 1-bit output port.

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Introduction to
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Microcontroller/MicroprocessorLecture
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 OUTLINE

1 Introduction to Microcontrollers

2 Examples of applications

3 What makes these devices smart

4 Structure of a microcontroller and Microprocessors

5 Instruction Sequency flow

6 Structure of a microcontroller

7 Differences between a Microprocessor and a microcontroller

8 Microcontroller and Processor End

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 THANK YOU

THANK YOU

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 Principle of Operation of
Microcontroller/Microprocessor
Lecturer 2
Embedded Systems

Eng George Mugala

THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

August 28, 2017

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 OUTLINE
1 basic principle of operations
2 microprocessor and memory
3 Memory Structure
4 Bus lines
5 Types of Memory
6 Memory Structure and Organization
7 AVR Architecture Memory Layout
8 FLASH MEMORY LAYOUT
9 DATA MEMORY
10 GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS
11 SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS
12 Memory Mapping
13 PORTS,PINS,DDR
14 REGISTERS
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 OUTLINE
1 basic principle of operations
2 microprocessor and memory
3 Memory Structure
4 Bus lines
5 Types of Memory
6 Memory Structure and Organization
7 AVR Architecture Memory Layout
8 FLASH MEMORY LAYOUT
9 DATA MEMORY
10 GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS
11 SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS
12 Memory Mapping
13 PORTS,PINS,DDR
14 REGISTERS
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 Microprocessor/Microcontrollers and Memory

At the most primitive level, a computer consists of a microprocessor,

which executes instructions, and a memory, for storing those
instructions (as well as other data).

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 OUTLINE
1 basic principle of operations
2 microprocessor and memory
3 Memory Structure
4 Bus lines
5 Types of Memory
6 Memory Structure and Organization
7 AVR Architecture Memory Layout
8 FLASH MEMORY LAYOUT
9 DATA MEMORY
10 GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS
11 SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS
12 Memory Mapping
13 PORTS,PINS,DDR
14 REGISTERS
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 Microprocessor/Microcontrollers and Memory

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 OUTLINE
1 basic principle of operations
2 microprocessor and memory
3 Memory Structure
4 Bus lines
5 Types of Memory
6 Memory Structure and Organization
7 AVR Architecture Memory Layout
8 FLASH MEMORY LAYOUT
9 DATA MEMORY
10 GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS
11 SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS
12 Memory Mapping
13 PORTS,PINS,DDR
14 REGISTERS
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 Memory Structure
One byte is 8bits and 2byte is
Address in HEX CellSize 16 bits which is also called a
0x00 byte/2bytes(word) word
0x01 byte/2bytes(word) MemoSize =
0x02 byte/2bytes(word) NumberofCellsXCellSize
0x03 byte/2bytes(word) Units in which memory is
0x04 byte/2bytes(word) measured is bytes but when
0x05 byte/2bytes(word) I 1024bytes(210 ) = 1kilobyte
0x06 byte/2bytes(word)
I 1024Kilobyte(210 ) = 1Mbyte
I 1024Mbyte(210 ) = 1Gbyte
0x07 byte/2bytes(word) I 1024Gbytes(210 ) =
0x08 byte/2bytes(word) 1Terabyte
0x09 byte/2bytes(word) Two Operations with Memory
0x0A byte/2bytes(word)

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 Memory Structure
One byte is 8bits and 2byte is
Address in HEX CellSize 16 bits which is also called a
0x00 byte/2bytes(word) word
0x01 byte/2bytes(word) MemoSize =
0x02 byte/2bytes(word) NumberofCellsXCellSize
0x03 byte/2bytes(word) Units in which memory is
0x04 byte/2bytes(word) measured is bytes but when
0x05 byte/2bytes(word) I 1024bytes(210 ) = 1kilobyte
0x06 byte/2bytes(word)
I 1024Kilobyte(210 ) = 1Mbyte
I 1024Mbyte(210 ) = 1Gbyte
0x07 byte/2bytes(word) I 1024Gbytes(210 ) =
0x08 byte/2bytes(word) 1Terabyte
0x09 byte/2bytes(word) Two Operations with Memory
0x0A byte/2bytes(word) I Write; specify Address,Value

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 Memory Structure
One byte is 8bits and 2byte is
Address in HEX CellSize 16 bits which is also called a
0x00 byte/2bytes(word) word
0x01 byte/2bytes(word) MemoSize =
0x02 byte/2bytes(word) NumberofCellsXCellSize
0x03 byte/2bytes(word) Units in which memory is
0x04 byte/2bytes(word) measured is bytes but when
0x05 byte/2bytes(word) I 1024bytes(210 ) = 1kilobyte
0x06 byte/2bytes(word)
I 1024Kilobyte(210 ) = 1Mbyte
I 1024Mbyte(210 ) = 1Gbyte
0x07 byte/2bytes(word) I 1024Gbytes(210 ) =
0x08 byte/2bytes(word) 1Terabyte
0x09 byte/2bytes(word) Two Operations with Memory
0x0A byte/2bytes(word) I Write; specify Address,Value
I Read; Specify Address and
returns a value

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 How to Store Data in Memory
how to store 1byte? at a
particular location
I data stored in binary. for Address in HEX CellSize(1byte)
easy reading it is displayed in
Hexadecimal
0x00 CB
I 1bytesay = 11001011 to be 0x01 16
stored at address 0x00 0x02 39
I ChangedtoHex = CB to be 0x03
stored at address 0x00 0x04
how to store 2bytes at a 0x05
particular location say address 0x06
0x01?? 0x07
lets say lets store 5689 in 0x08
memory 0x09
converted to binary 5689 = 0x0A
0001011001110001=1639 HEX

I
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 BIG INDIAN AND LITTLE INDIAN POLICY

Storing 2bytes by first entering Most Significant byte and Least

Significant Byte 16MSB39LSB = Big Indian
Storing 2bytes by first entering Least Significant and then Most
Significant byte and 39LSB16MSB = Little Indian
Data is stored in Consective memory location e.g at 0x01 then
0x02 to store two bytes
How do you store string Hello in Memory Location??

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 OUTLINE
1 basic principle of operations
2 microprocessor and memory
3 Memory Structure
4 Bus lines
5 Types of Memory
6 Memory Structure and Organization
7 AVR Architecture Memory Layout
8 FLASH MEMORY LAYOUT
9 DATA MEMORY
10 GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS
11 SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS
12 Memory Mapping
13 PORTS,PINS,DDR
14 REGISTERS
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 principle of operation as seen from Diagram
Address Bus
These wires are controlled by the microprocessor to select a
particular location in memory for reading or writing. The example
uses a memory chip that has 15 address wires. Since each wire has
two states (it can be a digital one or a zero), 2 to the 15th power
locations are possible. 215 is precisely 32,768 locations; thus, the
system is said to have ”32K” of memory (1K = 1024 bytes).
Data Bus These wires are used to pass data between the
microprocessor and the memory. When data is written to the
memory, the microprocessor drives the data bus; when data is read
from the memory, memory drives the bus. In our example, there
are eight data wires (or bits). These wires can transfer one of 28 ,
or 256, different values per transaction. The data size of 8 bits is
commonly referred to as a byte. (This jargon gets worse; a data
size of 4 bits is frequently referred to as a nybble.)

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 Microprocessor principle of Operations

Read/Write Control Line

This single wire is driven by the microprocessor to control the
function of the memory. If the read/write control line is asserted as
a logical one, i.e., “true”, then the memory performs a “read”
operation. If it is asserted as a logic zero, i.e., “false” then the
memory performs a “write” operation.
Memory Enable Control Line.
This wire, also called the E clock, connects to the enable circuitry
of the memory. When the memory is enabled, it performs either a
read or write operation as determined by the read/write line

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 OUTLINE
1 basic principle of operations
2 microprocessor and memory
3 Memory Structure
4 Bus lines
5 Types of Memory
6 Memory Structure and Organization
7 AVR Architecture Memory Layout
8 FLASH MEMORY LAYOUT
9 DATA MEMORY
10 GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS
11 SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS
12 Memory Mapping
13 PORTS,PINS,DDR
14 REGISTERS
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 Types of Memory

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 Types of Memory

RAM
I SRAM- SRAM (static RAM) is random access memory (RAM) that
retains data bits in its memory as long as power is being supplied.
I DRAM -Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) is a type of
random-access memory that stores each bit of data in a separate
capacitor within an integrated circuit. The capacitor can be either
charged or discharged; these two states are taken to represent the
two values of a bit, conventionally called 0 and 1.

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 Types of Memory

RAM
I SRAM- SRAM (static RAM) is random access memory (RAM) that
retains data bits in its memory as long as power is being supplied.
I DRAM -Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) is a type of
random-access memory that stores each bit of data in a separate
capacitor within an integrated circuit. The capacitor can be either
charged or discharged; these two states are taken to represent the
two values of a bit, conventionally called 0 and 1.
ROM
I EPROM-An EPROM (rarely EROM), or erasable programmable
read-only memory, is a type of memory chip that retains its data
when its power supply is switched off. The memory can be erased
and reused.Erasure is caused by shining an intense ultraviolet light
through a window that is designed into the memory chip

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 Types of Memory

EEPROM-EEPROM (also written E2PROM and pronounced

”e-e-prom”, ”double-e-prom” or ”e-squared-prom”) stands for
electrically erasable programmable read-only memory and is a type
of non-volatile memory used in computers and other electronic
devices to store relatively small amounts of data but allowing
individual bytes to be erased and reprogrammed.

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 Types of Memory

FLASH MEMORY-Flash memory is a type of electronically erasable

programmable read only memory (EEPROM), but may also be a
standalone memory storage device such as a USB drive. EEPROM
is a type of data memory device using an electronic device to erase
or write digital data. Flash memory is a distinct type of EEPROM,
which is programmed and erased in large blocks.

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 OUTLINE
1 basic principle of operations
2 microprocessor and memory
3 Memory Structure
4 Bus lines
5 Types of Memory
6 Memory Structure and Organization
7 AVR Architecture Memory Layout
8 FLASH MEMORY LAYOUT
9 DATA MEMORY
10 GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS
11 SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS
12 Memory Mapping
13 PORTS,PINS,DDR
14 REGISTERS
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 Von Neuman Vs Harvard Architecture

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 OUTLINE
1 basic principle of operations
2 microprocessor and memory
3 Memory Structure
4 Bus lines
5 Types of Memory
6 Memory Structure and Organization
7 AVR Architecture Memory Layout
8 FLASH MEMORY LAYOUT
9 DATA MEMORY
10 GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS
11 SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS
12 Memory Mapping
13 PORTS,PINS,DDR
14 REGISTERS
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 AVR Architecture Memory Layout-ATMEGA 32

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 OUTLINE
1 basic principle of operations
2 microprocessor and memory
3 Memory Structure
4 Bus lines
5 Types of Memory
6 Memory Structure and Organization
7 AVR Architecture Memory Layout
8 FLASH MEMORY LAYOUT
9 DATA MEMORY
10 GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS
11 SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS
12 Memory Mapping
13 PORTS,PINS,DDR
14 REGISTERS
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 FLASH MEMORY LAYOUT-EXAMPLE ATMEGA-32

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 OUTLINE
1 basic principle of operations
2 microprocessor and memory
3 Memory Structure
4 Bus lines
5 Types of Memory
6 Memory Structure and Organization
7 AVR Architecture Memory Layout
8 FLASH MEMORY LAYOUT
9 DATA MEMORY
10 GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS
11 SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS
12 Memory Mapping
13 PORTS,PINS,DDR
14 REGISTERS
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 DATA MEMORY

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 OUTLINE
1 basic principle of operations
2 microprocessor and memory
3 Memory Structure
4 Bus lines
5 Types of Memory
6 Memory Structure and Organization
7 AVR Architecture Memory Layout
8 FLASH MEMORY LAYOUT
9 DATA MEMORY
10 GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS
11 SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS
12 Memory Mapping
13 PORTS,PINS,DDR
14 REGISTERS
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 GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS

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 OUTLINE
1 basic principle of operations
2 microprocessor and memory
3 Memory Structure
4 Bus lines
5 Types of Memory
6 Memory Structure and Organization
7 AVR Architecture Memory Layout
8 FLASH MEMORY LAYOUT
9 DATA MEMORY
10 GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS
11 SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS
12 Memory Mapping
13 PORTS,PINS,DDR
14 REGISTERS
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 SPECIAL PURPOSE REGISTERS

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 OUTLINE
1 basic principle of operations
2 microprocessor and memory
3 Memory Structure
4 Bus lines
5 Types of Memory
6 Memory Structure and Organization
7 AVR Architecture Memory Layout
8 FLASH MEMORY LAYOUT
9 DATA MEMORY
10 GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS
11 SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS
12 Memory Mapping
13 PORTS,PINS,DDR
14 REGISTERS
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 Memory Mapping-Example ATMEGA 32

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 OUTLINE
1 basic principle of operations
2 microprocessor and memory
3 Memory Structure
4 Bus lines
5 Types of Memory
6 Memory Structure and Organization
7 AVR Architecture Memory Layout
8 FLASH MEMORY LAYOUT
9 DATA MEMORY
10 GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS
11 SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS
12 Memory Mapping
13 PORTS,PINS,DDR
14 REGISTERS
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 PORTS,PINS,DDR

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 PORTS,PINS,DATA DIRECTION REGISTERS OF
ATMEGA 32

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 PORTS,PINS,DATA DIRECTION REGISTERS OF
ATMEGA 32

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 PORTS,PINS,DATA DIRECTION REGISTERS OF
ATMEGA 32

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 PORTS,PINS,DATA DIRECTION REGISTERS OF
ATMEGA 32

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 PORTS,PINS,DATA DIRECTION REGISTERS OF
ATMEGA 32

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 PORTS,PINS,DATA DIRECTION REGISTERS OF
ATMEGA 32

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 PORTS,PINS,DATA DIRECTION REGISTERS OF
ATMEGA 32

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 PORTS,PINS,DATA DIRECTION REGISTERS OF
ATMEGA 32

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 PORTS,PINS,DATA DIRECTION REGISTERS OF
ATMEGA 32

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 PORTS,PINS,DATA DIRECTION REGISTERS OF
ATMEGA 32

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 PULL UP RESISTORS

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 PULL UP RESISTORS

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 PIN READING

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 PIN READING

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 OUTLINE
1 basic principle of operations
2 microprocessor and memory
3 Memory Structure
4 Bus lines
5 Types of Memory
6 Memory Structure and Organization
7 AVR Architecture Memory Layout
8 FLASH MEMORY LAYOUT
9 DATA MEMORY
10 GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS
11 SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS
12 Memory Mapping
13 PORTS,PINS,DDR
14 REGISTERS
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 GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS

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 I/O-REGISTERS/SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS

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 REGISTER (SP)

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 REGISTER (SP)

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 REGISTER (STACK POINTER)

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 REGISTER (PROGRAM COUNTER)

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 REGISTER (STATUS REGISTERS)

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 REGISTER (STATUS REGISTERS)

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 REGISTER (STATUS REGISTERS)

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 REGISTER (STATUS REGISTERS)

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 REGISTER (STATUS REGISTERS)

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 REGISTER (STATUS REGISTERS)

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 Computer Languages Classification
Lecturer 3
Embedded Systems

Eng George Mugala

THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

December 17, 2017

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 OUTLINE
1 Computer Languages Classification
2 Explanations
3 Middle Level language
4 High Level Language
5 Summary
6 Introduction to Assembley Language
7 Avr Assembley
8 AVR-Assembley language Template format
9 PORT PROCESSING INSTRUCTIONS
10 Avr Programming Examples and Code Explanations
11 Solutions

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 OUTLINE
1 Computer Languages Classification
2 Explanations
3 Middle Level language
4 High Level Language
5 Summary
6 Introduction to Assembley Language
7 Avr Assembley
8 AVR-Assembley language Template format
9 PORT PROCESSING INSTRUCTIONS
10 Avr Programming Examples and Code Explanations
11 Solutions

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 Computer Languages

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 OUTLINE
1 Computer Languages Classification
2 Explanations
3 Middle Level language
4 High Level Language
5 Summary
6 Introduction to Assembley Language
7 Avr Assembley
8 AVR-Assembley language Template format
9 PORT PROCESSING INSTRUCTIONS
10 Avr Programming Examples and Code Explanations
11 Solutions

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 Computer Languages
.
Low level language

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 Computer Languages
.
Low level language
I Only language which can be understood by a computer

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 Computer Languages
.
Low level language
I Only language which can be understood by a computer
I Binary(0,1) is example of low level language

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 Computer Languages
.
Low level language
I Only language which can be understood by a computer
I Binary(0,1) is example of low level language
I Computer can directly understand binary language

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 Computer Languages
.
Low level language
I Only language which can be understood by a computer
I Binary(0,1) is example of low level language
I Computer can directly understand binary language
I As the CPU directly understands the binary language instructions, it
does not requires any translater

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 Computer Languages
.
Low level language
I Only language which can be understood by a computer
I Binary(0,1) is example of low level language
I Computer can directly understand binary language
I As the CPU directly understands the binary language instructions, it
does not requires any translater
I CPU directly starts executing the binary language instructions, and
takes very less time to execute the instructions as it does not
requires any translation
I Advantages
F A computer can easily understand the low level language
F Low level language instructions are executed directly without any
translation
F Low level language instructions require very less time for thier
execution

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 Disadvantages of Low level Languages

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 Disadvantages of Low level Languages

Low level language instructions are very difficult to use and

understand

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 Disadvantages of Low level Languages

Low level language instructions are very difficult to use and

understand
Low level language instructions are machine dependent, that means
a program written for a

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 Disadvantages of Low level Languages

Low level language instructions are very difficult to use and

understand
Low level language instructions are machine dependent, that means
a program written for a
particular machine does not executes on other machine.

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 Disadvantages of Low level Languages

Low level language instructions are very difficult to use and

understand
Low level language instructions are machine dependent, that means
a program written for a
particular machine does not executes on other machine.
In low level language, there is more chance for errors and it is very
difficult to find errors, debug and modify

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 OUTLINE
1 Computer Languages Classification
2 Explanations
3 Middle Level language
4 High Level Language
5 Summary
6 Introduction to Assembley Language
7 Avr Assembley
8 AVR-Assembley language Template format
9 PORT PROCESSING INSTRUCTIONS
10 Avr Programming Examples and Code Explanations
11 Solutions

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 Middle level language Introduction

Middle Level language introduction

Middle level language is a computer language in which the
instructions are created using symbols such as letters, digits and
special characters. Assembly language is an example of middle level
language. In assembly language, we use predefined words called
mnemonics. Binary code instructions in low level language are
replaced with mnemonics and operands in middle level language.
But computer can not understand mnemonics, so we use a
translator called Assembler to translate mnemonics into binary
language. Assembler is a translator which takes assembly code as
input and produces machine code as output. That means,
computer can not understand middle level language, so it needs to
be translated into low level language to make it understandable by
the computer. Assembler is used to translate middle level language
to low level language.

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 Advantages
ADVANTAGES
I Writing instructions in middle level language is easier than writing
instructions in low level language.
I Middle level language is more readable compared to low level
language.
I Easy to understand, find errors and modify.
Disadvantages
I Middle level language is specific to a particular machine architecture,
that means it is machine dependent.
I Middle level language needs to be translated into low level language.
I Middle level language executes slower compared to low level
language.

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 OUTLINE
1 Computer Languages Classification
2 Explanations
3 Middle Level language
4 High Level Language
5 Summary
6 Introduction to Assembley Language
7 Avr Assembley
8 AVR-Assembley language Template format
9 PORT PROCESSING INSTRUCTIONS
10 Avr Programming Examples and Code Explanations
11 Solutions

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 Introduction to High level Language
High level language is a computer language which can be understood by
the users. High level language is very similar to the human languages
and have a set of grammar rules that are used to make instructions
more easily. Every high level language have a set of predefined words
known as Keywords and a set of rules known as Syntax to create
instructions. High level language is more easier to understand for the
users but the computer can not understand it. High level language
needs to be converted into low level language to make it understandable
by the computer. We use Compiler or interpretor to convert high level
language to low level language. Languages like COBOL, FORTRAN,
BASIC, C ,C++, JAVA etc., are the examples of high level languages.
All these programming languages use human understandable language
like english to write program instructions. These instructions are
converted to low level language by the compiler so that it can be
understood by the computer.

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 Advantages
Advantages
I Writing instructions in high level language is more easier
I High level language is more readable and understandable
I The programs created using high level language runs on different
machines with little change or no change
I Easy to understand, create programs, find errors and modify
Disadvantages
I High level language needs to be translated to low level language.
I High level language executes slower compared to middle and low
level languages

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 OUTLINE
1 Computer Languages Classification
2 Explanations
3 Middle Level language
4 High Level Language
5 Summary
6 Introduction to Assembley Language
7 Avr Assembley
8 AVR-Assembley language Template format
9 PORT PROCESSING INSTRUCTIONS
10 Avr Programming Examples and Code Explanations
11 Solutions

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 Summary of Discussion

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 OUTLINE
1 Computer Languages Classification
2 Explanations
3 Middle Level language
4 High Level Language
5 Summary
6 Introduction to Assembley Language
7 Avr Assembley
8 AVR-Assembley language Template format
9 PORT PROCESSING INSTRUCTIONS
10 Avr Programming Examples and Code Explanations
11 Solutions

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 Introduction to Assembley Language
.

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 OUTLINE
1 Computer Languages Classification
2 Explanations
3 Middle Level language
4 High Level Language
5 Summary
6 Introduction to Assembley Language
7 Avr Assembley
8 AVR-Assembley language Template format
9 PORT PROCESSING INSTRUCTIONS
10 Avr Programming Examples and Code Explanations
11 Solutions

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 Avr Assembley Programing
The process of developing a program consists of the following steps

1 Select a particular AVR chip and construct the program flow chart
2 Write the program(Using Note pad,Avr studio or any development
software)
3 Assemble the Program
4 Simulate or Emulate the program to see whether or not it works
5 Program the AVr(Feeds what you have written into the actual chip)

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 OUTLINE
1 Computer Languages Classification
2 Explanations
3 Middle Level language
4 High Level Language
5 Summary
6 Introduction to Assembley Language
7 Avr Assembley
8 AVR-Assembley language Template format
9 PORT PROCESSING INSTRUCTIONS
10 Avr Programming Examples and Code Explanations
11 Solutions

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 AVR-Assembley language Template format

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 OUTLINE
1 Computer Languages Classification
2 Explanations
3 Middle Level language
4 High Level Language
5 Summary
6 Introduction to Assembley Language
7 Avr Assembley
8 AVR-Assembley language Template format
9 PORT PROCESSING INSTRUCTIONS
10 Avr Programming Examples and Code Explanations
11 Solutions

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 SOME USEFUL PORT PROCESSING INSTRUCTIONS
Sbi ioregister,bit; this instruction sets bit mentioned high
I Sbi PORTB,0 set portb0 high
Cbi ioregister,bit;this instruction clears bit mentioned and it
becomes low
I cbi PORTB,0 set portb0 low
Sbic ioregister,bit; this tests a bit in an I/O register and skips the
next instruction if the bit is cleared
I Sbic PIND,0 ; skip the next instruction if the bit in PORTD 0 is
cleared
Sbis ioregister,bit; this tests a bit in an I/O register and skips the
next instruction if the bit is set
I Sbis PIND,0 ; skip the next instruction if the bit in PORTD 0 is set
ldi Register,number ; this loads the immediate number into the
register;note this for register R16-R31

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 PORT PROCESSING INSTRUCTIONS
CONTINUATION
clr Register; this clears the contents of Register. it moves zero into
it
ser Register; this sets the contents of Register. it moves ones into
it.this works with Register R16-R31
out ioreg,Register; this moves the number out from a register and
moves it into IOregister.
in Register,ioreg; this copies the number from I/O Register into a
working register

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 OUTLINE
1 Computer Languages Classification
2 Explanations
3 Middle Level language
4 High Level Language
5 Summary
6 Introduction to Assembley Language
7 Avr Assembley
8 AVR-Assembley language Template format
9 PORT PROCESSING INSTRUCTIONS
10 Avr Programming Examples and Code Explanations
11 Solutions

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 Avr Programming Examples and Explanations
1 Example 1
Write a Simple program in AVR STUDIO to Program an ATMEGA32
to constantly Switch on an LED connected to PORTB 0.
I Develop the flow chart
I Write the code in avr studio 6
I Simulate in Avr Studio
I Load the Generated HEX file in proteus to test functionality

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 OUTLINE
1 Computer Languages Classification
2 Explanations
3 Middle Level language
4 High Level Language
5 Summary
6 Introduction to Assembley Language
7 Avr Assembley
8 AVR-Assembley language Template format
9 PORT PROCESSING INSTRUCTIONS
10 Avr Programming Examples and Code Explanations
11 Solutions

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 Solution to Question One

flow chart

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 PUSH BUTTON
Testing Inputs
Controlling Outputs

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 Testing Inputs Controlling SevenSegmentDisplay Using
Indirect Addressing
1 Write a simple program in AVR studio 6.0 in which a Button
connected PC0 when pressed causes a Zero to be displayed on the
Seven Segment display connected to PORTD

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 Parametor Initialization

R20 = 0b00111111 contains code for Zero

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 Main Code

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 Proteus Simulation

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 Modified Code

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 Modified code

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 Modified programe to display One

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 TIMERS AND COUNTERS
Timing without a timer
Write a program to blink on and off an LED connected to PORTDO
every one second

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 solution

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 Continuation

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 Continuation

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 Explanation
Since the Atmega32 has an internal clock frequency of 1MHz, 1MHz
clock means 1000000 cycles per second. So 1 cycle equals 1/1000000
seconds or 1us. To get 1 second delay, you need 1000000 cycles of 1us,
so it means that you have to create an algorithm of 1000000 cycles.
Building on the example, a 1 sec delay @ 1MHz clock would be as
shown above in the written code

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 Code Explanation
In this case there is the internal loop Delay3 that is 4 cycles long
because DEC=1, NOP=1 and BRNE=2 when jumping to Delay3.
So, 4 cycles repeated 250 times (the value of dly3) are 1000 cycles
or 1000us = 1ms.
Then the loop Delay2 repeats the Delay3 125 times (the value of
dly2). So the accumulated delay in this case is 125ms.
And finally, the loop Delay1 repeats the Delay2 8 times (the value
of dly1). So the accumulated delay in this case is 1000ms or 1
second

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 Introduction to Instruction Set Architecture
Lecture 3
Embedded Systems

Eng George Mugala

THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

October 9, 2017

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ArchitectureLecture 3 Embedded
October
Systems
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 OUTLINE

1 Introduction to ISA

2 kinds of instruction

3 Addressing Modes

4 Data Indirect with Displacement LDD/STD

5 Data Indirect LD/ST

6 Data Indirect LD/ST

7 Data Indirect with Pre-decrement

8 Data Indirect with Post-increment

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 Introduction to Instruction Set Architecture

Instruction Set Architecture- Description of the computer from

view of the programmer/compiler
There are 2 types of Instruction Set Design
CISC
I Complex Instruction Set Computer
I A single instruction performs complex operation involving several
action
I A single instruction performs a complex operation involving several
actions
RISC
I Reduced Instruction Set Computer
I Each Instruction performs only a single operation

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Systems
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 OUTLINE

1 Introduction to ISA

2 kinds of instruction

3 Addressing Modes

4 Data Indirect with Displacement LDD/STD

5 Data Indirect LD/ST

6 Data Indirect LD/ST

7 Data Indirect with Pre-decrement

8 Data Indirect with Post-increment

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Instruction
OF Set
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October
Systems
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 Instruction Set of a RISC

Instruction Set Architecture

Each instruction Set Architecture has the instruction Manual
The ISA Manual Includes specification of

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 Instruction Set of a RISC

Instruction Set Architecture

Each instruction Set Architecture has the instruction Manual
The ISA Manual Includes specification of
1 Different types of Instructions available(Instruction Set)

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 Instruction Set of a RISC

Instruction Set Architecture

Each instruction Set Architecture has the instruction Manual
The ISA Manual Includes specification of
1 Different types of Instructions available(Instruction Set)
2 How operands are specified(Addressing Modes)

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Systems
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 Instruction Set of a RISC

Instruction Set Architecture

Each instruction Set Architecture has the instruction Manual
The ISA Manual Includes specification of
1 Different types of Instructions available(Instruction Set)
2 How operands are specified(Addressing Modes)
3 What each instruction looks like(Instruction format)

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ArchitectureLecture 3 Embedded
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Systems
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 OUTLINE

1 Introduction to ISA

2 kinds of instruction

3 Addressing Modes

4 Data Indirect with Displacement LDD/STD

5 Data Indirect LD/ST

6 Data Indirect LD/ST

7 Data Indirect with Pre-decrement

8 Data Indirect with Post-increment

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 Kinds of Instructions

1 Arithmetic/logic instruction
I Add,subract,Multiply,Divide,Compare
I OR,AND,NOT, XOR
I Shift(Left/right,arithmetic/logical),rotate

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 Kinds of Instructions

1 Arithmetic/logic instruction
I Add,subract,Multiply,Divide,Compare
I OR,AND,NOT, XOR
I Shift(Left/right,arithmetic/logical),rotate
2 Data transfer Instruction
I Load(Copy data to a Register from Memory)
I Store(Copy Data to a Memory location from a Register)
I Move
3 Control transfer functions
I Jump,Conditional Branch,function call,Return
4 Other type of instructions
I e.g halt instruction

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 ADD,SUBTRACT,MULTIPLY,DIVIDE,COMPARE
EXAMPLES IN AVR STUDIO 6
Add,Multiply,Subtract,Divide numbers found in Registers and place
results in R16
I R16 = 5, R17 = 10

I
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 CONTENTS OF THE REGISTER AFTER
COMPILATION

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 RESULTS OF R16 AFTER ADDITION

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 OR,AND,NOT, XOR IN AVR STUDIO 6
Question, Using the And Operator show the effect of the And
Operation between PORTB = 0b11100011 and
Registervalue = 0b00000000 Show the status of the ports after the
and Operation in Avr studio.

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 Shift Left/right,arithmetic/logical),rotate
Question, Using the And Operator show the effect of the And
Operation between PORTB = 0b11100011 and
Registervalue = 0b00000000 Show the status of the ports after the
and Operation in Avr studio.

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Introduction to
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Instruction
OF Set
ENGINEERING)
ArchitectureLecture 3 Embedded
October
Systems
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 OUTLINE

1 Introduction to ISA

2 kinds of instruction

3 Addressing Modes

4 Data Indirect with Displacement LDD/STD

5 Data Indirect LD/ST

6 Data Indirect LD/ST

7 Data Indirect with Pre-decrement

8 Data Indirect with Post-increment

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 Addressing Modes
Operands to an instruction
I Source: Input value to an instruction
I Destination: Where results go
Addressing Modes
I How the source of operand to an instruction is specified
An operand can be either in
I in a Memory Location
I in a Register

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 Operand in Registers

Types of Addressing Modes

1 Register Direct Addressing Mode
Operand is specified in the specified general purpose Registers
Example: if we take R0,R1,R2 e.t.c as general purpose registers
then example of an Instruction
ADD R1,R2,R3 / R1 = R3+R2

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 Operand in Registers

Types of Addressing Modes

1 Register Direct Addressing Mode
Operand is specified in the specified general purpose Registers
Example: if we take R0,R1,R2 e.t.c as general purpose registers
then example of an Instruction
ADD R1,R2,R3 / R1 = R3+R2
2 Immediate Addressing Modes
Operand value is included within the instruction
ADD R1 R2,7 /R1 = R2+7

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 Addressing Mode: Operands in Memory
1 Data Direct LDS/STS
The LDS instruction loads a single byte of data from the data space
to a register and depending on whether it uses an 8 or 16 bit address
the Opcode size is either 16-bit or 32-bit respectively.To transfer a
single byte of Data from Register to Memory STS is used

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 Example of LDS and STS

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 OUTLINE

1 Introduction to ISA

2 kinds of instruction

3 Addressing Modes

4 Data Indirect with Displacement LDD/STD

5 Data Indirect LD/ST

6 Data Indirect LD/ST

7 Data Indirect with Pre-decrement

8 Data Indirect with Post-increment

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 Data Indirect with Displacement LDD/STD
Loads or stores a single byte of data to or from data memory and a
register.

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 OUTLINE

1 Introduction to ISA

2 kinds of instruction

3 Addressing Modes

4 Data Indirect with Displacement LDD/STD

5 Data Indirect LD/ST

6 Data Indirect LD/ST

7 Data Indirect with Pre-decrement

8 Data Indirect with Post-increment

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 Data Indirect LD/ST
This instruction is similar to the Data Indirect with Displacement except
it doesn’t use a displacement but instead loads indirectly using the X, Y
or Z registers

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 OUTLINE

1 Introduction to ISA

2 kinds of instruction

3 Addressing Modes

4 Data Indirect with Displacement LDD/STD

5 Data Indirect LD/ST

6 Data Indirect LD/ST

7 Data Indirect with Pre-decrement

8 Data Indirect with Post-increment

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 SAMPLE CODE

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 OUTLINE

1 Introduction to ISA

2 kinds of instruction

3 Addressing Modes

4 Data Indirect with Displacement LDD/STD

5 Data Indirect LD/ST

6 Data Indirect LD/ST

7 Data Indirect with Pre-decrement

8 Data Indirect with Post-increment

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 Data Indirect with Pre-decrement
Similar to the Data Indirect instruction this instruction decrements the
X, Y or Z register before the data is accessed and like the Data Indirect
instruction it allows the registers to be used.

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 OUTLINE

1 Introduction to ISA

2 kinds of instruction

3 Addressing Modes

4 Data Indirect with Displacement LDD/STD

5 Data Indirect LD/ST

6 Data Indirect LD/ST

7 Data Indirect with Pre-decrement

8 Data Indirect with Post-increment

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 Data Indirect with Post-increment

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 TIMERS AND COUNTERS
Lecturer 4
Embedded Systems

Eng George Mugala

THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

February 25, 2018

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 OUTLINE

1 TIMING WITHOUT A COUNTER

2 TIMING WITH TIMERS/COUNTER

3 TIMER/COUNTER 0

4 EXAMPLES WITH TIMER/COUNTER 0

5 TIMERS/COUNTER PROGRAMING STEPS

6 PROGRAMING EXAMPLES

7 CLEAR TIMER ON COMPARE MATCH(CTC)

8 TIMER/COUNTER1

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 OUTLINE

1 TIMING WITHOUT A COUNTER

2 TIMING WITH TIMERS/COUNTER

3 TIMER/COUNTER 0

4 EXAMPLES WITH TIMER/COUNTER 0

5 TIMERS/COUNTER PROGRAMING STEPS

6 PROGRAMING EXAMPLES

7 CLEAR TIMER ON COMPARE MATCH(CTC)

8 TIMER/COUNTER1

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 TIMING WITHOUT A COUNTER
Question
Write a program to blink on and off an LED connected to PORTDO
every one second

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 solution

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 Continuation

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 Continuation

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 Explanation
Since the Atmega32 has an internal clock frequency of 1MHz, 1MHz
clock means 1000000 cycles per second. So 1 cycle equals 1/1000000
seconds or 1us. To get 1 second delay, you need 1000000 cycles of 1us,
so it means that you have to create an algorithm of 1000000 cycles.
Building on the example, a 1 sec delay @ 1MHz clock would be as
shown above in the written code

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 Code Explanation
In this case there is the internal loop Delay3 that is 4 cycles long
because DEC=1, NOP=1 and BRNE=2 when jumping to Delay3.
So, 4 cycles repeated 250 times (the value of dly3) are 1000 cycles
or 1000us = 1ms.
Then the loop Delay2 repeats the Delay3 125 times (the value of
dly2). So the accumulated delay in this case is 125ms.
And finally, the loop Delay1 repeats the Delay2 8 times (the value
of dly1). So the accumulated delay in this case is 1000ms or 1
second

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 SOLUTION

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 OUTLINE

1 TIMING WITHOUT A COUNTER

2 TIMING WITH TIMERS/COUNTER

3 TIMER/COUNTER 0

4 EXAMPLES WITH TIMER/COUNTER 0

5 TIMERS/COUNTER PROGRAMING STEPS

6 PROGRAMING EXAMPLES

7 CLEAR TIMER ON COMPARE MATCH(CTC)

8 TIMER/COUNTER1

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 TIMING WITH TIMERS/COUNTER-WAIT FOR
TIMER-NORMAL MODE
A computer timer/counter is used to perform a task at a set interval. A
timer that increments a counter once every second could be used to
make a realtime clock by keeping track of the hours, minutes and
seconds that have elapsed.

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 ATMEGA32 TIMERS/COUNTERS
General View: A counter Register that counts events on the clock
input
I Timer:Count System Clock(Constant Cycle Time)
I Counter:Count external events
I Can be checked and cleared by software

I
I flag is set when the counter overflows
F can be checked and cleared by software
I Atmega32 has 3 timers
F TIMER 0,TIMER1 and TIMER2

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 ATMEGA32 TIMERS/COUNTERS

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 OUTLINE

1 TIMING WITHOUT A COUNTER

2 TIMING WITH TIMERS/COUNTER

3 TIMER/COUNTER 0

4 EXAMPLES WITH TIMER/COUNTER 0

5 TIMERS/COUNTER PROGRAMING STEPS

6 PROGRAMING EXAMPLES

7 CLEAR TIMER ON COMPARE MATCH(CTC)

8 TIMER/COUNTER1

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 TIMER/COUNTER 0

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 TIMER COUNTER CONTROL REGISTER 0(TCCR0)

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 TIMER/COUNTER INTERRUPT FLAG
REGISTER(TIFR)

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 OUTLINE

1 TIMING WITHOUT A COUNTER

2 TIMING WITH TIMERS/COUNTER

3 TIMER/COUNTER 0

4 EXAMPLES WITH TIMER/COUNTER 0

5 TIMERS/COUNTER PROGRAMING STEPS

6 PROGRAMING EXAMPLES

7 CLEAR TIMER ON COMPARE MATCH(CTC)

8 TIMER/COUNTER1

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 EXAMPLES WITH TIMER/COUNTER 0

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 OUTLINE

1 TIMING WITHOUT A COUNTER

2 TIMING WITH TIMERS/COUNTER

3 TIMER/COUNTER 0

4 EXAMPLES WITH TIMER/COUNTER 0

5 TIMERS/COUNTER PROGRAMING STEPS

6 PROGRAMING EXAMPLES

7 CLEAR TIMER ON COMPARE MATCH(CTC)

8 TIMER/COUNTER1

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 TIMERS/COUNTER PROGRAMING STEPS

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 OUTLINE

1 TIMING WITHOUT A COUNTER

2 TIMING WITH TIMERS/COUNTER

3 TIMER/COUNTER 0

4 EXAMPLES WITH TIMER/COUNTER 0

5 TIMERS/COUNTER PROGRAMING STEPS

6 PROGRAMING EXAMPLES

7 CLEAR TIMER ON COMPARE MATCH(CTC)

8 TIMER/COUNTER1

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 PROGRAMING EXAMPLES
3 Question-Using Timers/Counter 0 Write a programe to switch on/off
an LED connected to PortC3 with a delay of 1.75µs. Use the internal
clock frequency of 8MHZ .

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 First Solution Step is to find the Timer Value
1 Calculate the period of Timer Clock T = 1/FTimerClock
2 divide desired time delay D by T (n = D/T )
3 perform dd = 256 − n
4 convert the results to hex(XX)
5 set TCNT0 =XX

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 Following steps
Solution
Since the microcontroller is using 8MHZ of Clock frequence and there is
no prescalar.
1
Tclkstep = 8000000 = 0.125µs meaning counter counts up per clock time
with no prescalar
TclkstepFinal = Tclkstep ∗ prescalar = 0.125µs
1.75µs
We need to wait 0.125µs = 14clocks
dd = 256 − 14
Results in hex =0xF2
Therefore TCNT0 =0xF2

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 Written Code

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 Proteus Simulation

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 Example
Question
Write a program to generate a square wave with a period of 12.5µs on
PORTC3 in normal mode
solution
Since the period is 12.5µs then Delay = 1/2 ∗ Period = 6.25µs
knowing our desired time delay lets calculate as following the steps
n = 6.25/0.125 = 50
dd = 256 − 50 = 206
ddhex = 0xCE

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 Written Code

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 Proteus Simulation

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 Example
Question
Modify the previous Example to generate a square wave form of 16Khz
solution
T = 0.125µs
Desiredperiod = 1/16000 = 62.5µs
DesiredTimeDelay = Desiredperiod/2 = 31.25µs
n = 31.25/0.125= 250
dd =256-250 =6
ddHex =0x6 to be loaded into TCNT0
Write the program Yourselvs and simulate in proteus!!

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 MORE EXAMPLES
Question
Assume XTAL = 8MHZ (a) Find the clock period fed into Timer0 if a
prescalar option of 1024 is chosen
(b)Show what is the largest time delay we can get using this prescalar
option
a) 8*1/1024 =7812.5Hz and Period T = 1/7812.5 = 128µs
b) To get the largest delay we make TCNT0 zero.Making TCNT0=0
means that the counter will count from 0 to 0xFF, and then roll over to
raise the TOV0 flag. As a result it goes through a total states of 256.
Were delay = (256 − 0) ∗ 128µs
This is equal =0,032768seconds

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 Examples
Question
Write a program to generate a square wave of 125Hz Use Timer Zero,in
normal mode and prescalar of 256
Look at the following steps
T =1/125 =8ms the period of the square waveform
half of the high and low portion T/2 =4ms as the delay
n = 4ms/(0.125x256) = 125
dd =256-125=131 in decimal
ddHx =0x83
TCNT0=0x83

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 Written Code

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 Continuation

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 Proteus Simulation

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 OUTLINE

1 TIMING WITHOUT A COUNTER

2 TIMING WITH TIMERS/COUNTER

3 TIMER/COUNTER 0

4 EXAMPLES WITH TIMER/COUNTER 0

5 TIMERS/COUNTER PROGRAMING STEPS

6 PROGRAMING EXAMPLES

7 CLEAR TIMER ON COMPARE MATCH(CTC)

8 TIMER/COUNTER1

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 CLEAR TIMER ON COMPARE MATCH(CTC)

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 Question:
Create a square waveform on portB3 of 50% percent duty cycle.PortB3
should switch on and off every 640µs. Timer Zero should be used to
generate this.Write the code in Avr studion and Show the simulation
with proteus. Take clock frequency of 1MHZ with a prescalar of 64

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 Written Code

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 Written Code continuation

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 Calculation of Generated Delay and Explanation
Since the microcontroller is using 1MHZ of Clock frequence and a
prescalar of 64.
1
Tclkstep = 1000000 = 1µs
with prescalar of 64 clock step will change to
TclkstepFinal = 64 ∗ Tcklstep = 64µs
But Since the OCR0 is loaded with 9. It means TCNT0 overflows and
OCF0 is set after 10 Clock cycles.
TotalT imeDelay = 10 ∗ Tclkstepfinal = 640µs
The PORTB3 toggles therefore every 640µs.
due to the command
EOR temp2,temp
OUT PORTB,temp2
plse Prove this!!

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 Graph For Delay Explanation

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 Proteus Simulation

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 MORE QUESTIONS
Assuming XTAL = 8MHZ ,write a program to Generate a delay of 25.6ms
on PORTC5.Use Timer0,CTC mode with prescalar =1024. Write the
code in Avr studio and simulate the results in proteus.

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 SOLUTION
Since the microcontroller is using 8MHZ of Clock frequence and a
prescalar of 1024.
1
Tclkstep = 8000000 = 0.125µs
with prescalar of 1024 clock step will change to
TclkstepFinal = 64 ∗ Tcklstep = 128µs
Thus in order to generate a delay of 25.6ms
We need to wait 25.6ms
128µs = 200clocks
Therefore the OCR0 should be loaded with 200-1 =199

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 Program Code

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 Program Code

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 Proteus Simulation

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 MORE EXAMPLES
Assuming XTAL = 8MHZ Write a program to generate a delay of 1ms.
Use Timer0 with a prescalar of 64. Since the microcontroller is using
8MHZ of Clock frequence and a prescalar of 64.
8
Tclkstep = 1000000 = 0.125µs
with prescalar of 64 clock step will change to
TclkstepFinal = 64 ∗ Tcklstep = 8µs
Thus in order to generate a delay of 1ms
We need to wait 1ms
8µs = 125clocks
We need to load OCR0 with 125-1 = 124

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 Written Code

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 CONTINUATION

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 Proteus Simulation

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 OUTLINE

1 TIMING WITHOUT A COUNTER

2 TIMING WITH TIMERS/COUNTER

3 TIMER/COUNTER 0

4 EXAMPLES WITH TIMER/COUNTER 0

5 TIMERS/COUNTER PROGRAMING STEPS

6 PROGRAMING EXAMPLES

7 CLEAR TIMER ON COMPARE MATCH(CTC)

8 TIMER/COUNTER1

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 TIMER/COUNTER1

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 TIMER/COUNTER DESCRIPTIONS

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 TIMER/COUNTER INTERRUPT REGISTER

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 TCCR1A-TIMER/COUNTER CONTROL REGISTER
FOR CHANNEL A

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 TCCR1B-TIMER/COUNTER CONTROL REGISTER
FOR CHANNEL B

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 TOVI and OCIA

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 Examples on Timer 1

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 Example

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 Writing a Program
Use Timer1,Write a program to switch on and off an LED connected to
PC3 every 1ms.Use XTAL = 8MHZ ,CTC Mode,no prescalar
Solution
Since the microcontroller is using 8MHZ of Clock frequence and no
prescalar.
8
Tclkstep = 1000000 = 0.125µs
with no prescalar
TclkstepFinal = 0.125µs
Thus in order to generate a delay of 1ms
1ms
We need to wait 0.125µs = 8000clocks
We need to load OCR1AL with 8000-1 = 7999

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 Written Code

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 Written Code

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 Proteus Simulation

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 Example
Use Timer1,Write a program to switch on and off an LED connected to
PC3 every 1ms.Use XTAL = 8MHZ ,Normal Mode,no prescalar
Solution
Since the microcontroller is using 8MHZ of Clock frequence and no
prescalar.
1
Tclkstep = 8000000 = 0.125µs
with no prescalar
TclkstepFinal = 0.125µs
Thus in order to generate a delay of 1ms
1ms
We need to wait 0.125µs = 8000clocks
We need to load TCNT1 with 65536-8000

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 Written Code

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 Written Code

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 Proteus Simulation

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 Example

Use Timer1,Write a program to switch on and off an LED connected to

PC3 every 1s.Use XTAL = 8MHZ ,CTC Mode,Choose a prescalar of 256
Solution
Since the microcontroller is using 8MHZ of Clock frequence and has
prescalar of 256.
1
Tclkstep = 8000000 = 0.125µs
with no prescalar
TclkstepFinal = Tclkstep ∗ 256 = 32µs
Thus in order to generate a delay of 1s
1s
We need to wait 32µs = 31250clocks
We need to load OCR1AL with (31250-1)

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 Written code

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 Written code

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 Proteus Simulation

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 Example

Use Timer1,Write a program to switch on and off an LED connected to

PC3 at a frequency 1Hz .Use XTAL = 8MHZ ,CTC Mode,Choose a
prescalar of 64
Solution
Since the microcontroller is using 8MHZ of Clock frequence and has
prescalar of 64.
1
Tclkstep = 8000000 = 0.125µs
with no prescalar
1Hz = 1second = 1/2delay
TclkstepFinal = Tclkstep ∗ 64 = 8µs
Thus in order to generate a delay of 0.5s
We need to wait 0.5s
8µs = 62500clocks
We need to load OCR1AL with (62500-1)

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 Written Code

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 Written Code

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 Proteus Simulation

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 Assembley Programmes and Examples
Lecturer 5
Prime Width Modulation(PWM)

Eng George Mugala

THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

March 27, 2018

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 OUTLINE

1 INTRODUCTION TO PWM WITH ATMEGA32

2 Types of PWM generated with ATMEGA32

3 Data sheet Explanations TIMER0

4 Examples of PWM with Timer0

5 Phase correct PWM

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 OUTLINE

1 INTRODUCTION TO PWM WITH ATMEGA32

2 Types of PWM generated with ATMEGA32

3 Data sheet Explanations TIMER0

4 Examples of PWM with Timer0

5 Phase correct PWM

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 INTRODUCTION TO PWM WITH ATMEGA32

Take a look at the above circuit and PWM graph

if the switch in above figure is closed continuously over a period of
time then the bulb will continuously on during that time

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 INTRODUCTION TO PWM WITH ATMEGA32
If the switch is closed for 8ms and opened for 2ms over a cycle of
10ms, then the bulb will be ON only in the 8ms time

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 INTRODUCTION TO PWM WITH ATMEGA32
If the switch is closed for 8ms and opened for 2ms over a cycle of
10ms, then the bulb will be ON only in the 8ms time
Now the average terminal over across the over a period of
Ton 8
10ms = (Ton+Toff ) , this is called duty cycle and is of 80%, (8+2) , so
the average output voltage will be 80% of the battery voltage.

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 INTRODUCTION TO PWM WITH ATMEGA32
If the switch is closed for 8ms and opened for 2ms over a cycle of
10ms, then the bulb will be ON only in the 8ms time
Now the average terminal over across the over a period of
Ton 8
10ms = (Ton+Toff ) , this is called duty cycle and is of 80%, (8+2) , so
the average output voltage will be 80% of the battery voltage.
In the second case, the switch is closed for 5ms and opened for 5ms
over a period of 10ms, so the average terminal voltage at the
output will be 50% of the battery voltage. Say if the battery
voltage is 5V and the duty cycle is 50% and so the average
terminal voltage will be 2.5V

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 INTRODUCTION TO PWM WITH ATMEGA32
If the switch is closed for 8ms and opened for 2ms over a cycle of
10ms, then the bulb will be ON only in the 8ms time
Now the average terminal over across the over a period of
Ton 8
10ms = (Ton+Toff ) , this is called duty cycle and is of 80%, (8+2) , so
the average output voltage will be 80% of the battery voltage.
In the second case, the switch is closed for 5ms and opened for 5ms
over a period of 10ms, so the average terminal voltage at the
output will be 50% of the battery voltage. Say if the battery
voltage is 5V and the duty cycle is 50% and so the average
terminal voltage will be 2.5V
In the third case the duty cycle is 20% and the average terminal
voltage is 20% of the battery voltage.
In ATMEGA32 we have four PWM channels, namely OC0, OC1A,
OC1B, and OC2. Here we are going to use OC0 PWM channel to vary
the brightness of the LED
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 OUTLINE

1 INTRODUCTION TO PWM WITH ATMEGA32

2 Types of PWM generated with ATMEGA32

3 Data sheet Explanations TIMER0

4 Examples of PWM with Timer0

5 Phase correct PWM

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 Types of PWM generated with ATMEGA32
In ATMEGA32 there are a couple of ways to generate PWM
Phase correct PWM

In here the pulses occurs in the middle

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 FAST PWM

Fast PWM

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 FAST PWM ON (OCO-PB3)

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 OUTLINE

1 INTRODUCTION TO PWM WITH ATMEGA32

2 Types of PWM generated with ATMEGA32

3 Data sheet Explanations TIMER0

4 Examples of PWM with Timer0

5 Phase correct PWM

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 Data sheet Explanations

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 TCCR0 Register
Now to get the FAST PWM of 50Hz clock out of the ATMEGA, we
need to enable the appropriate bits in TCCR0 register. This is the only
register we need to bother, for getting 8bit FAST PWM

1 CS00, CS01, CS02 (YELLOW)-select the appropriate

prescalar(divider) for choosing the counter clock.
Below is the table showing different prescalars

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 TABLE OF PRESCALARS

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 WGM01,WGM00
WGM01,WGM00 are altered to change waveform generation mode
for Fast PWM we have WGM01=WGM00=1

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 COM01,COM00

1 Now we know that PWM is a signal with different duty ratio or

different turn ON turn OFF times. Until now we have chosen
frequency and type of PWM. For getting different duty ratio, we
are going to choose a value between 0 and 255 because of 8 bit.
Say we choose a value 180, as the counter start counting from 0
and reaches the value 180, the output response may be triggered.
This trigger may be inverting or non inverting. That is the output
can be told to pulled up on reaching the count, or it can be told to
pulled down on reaching the count.
This selection of pulling up or down is chosen by CM00 and CM01
bits.

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 COM01,COM00 Table

As shown in table, for the output to go high on compare and the output
will stay high until max value (as shown in figure at bottom). We have
to choose inverting mode to do that, so COM00=1; COM01=1.

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 Further Explanation
As shown in below figure, OCR0 (Output Compare Register 0) is the
byte which stores the user chosen value. So if we change OCR0=180,
the controller triggers the change (high) when counter reaches 180 from
0

Now for varying the brightness of LED we have to change the DUTY
RATIO of PWM signal. In order to change duty ratio, we need to
change the OCR0 value. When we change this value of OCR0, the
counter takes different time, to reach the OCR0. So the controller pulls
the output high at different times.

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 OUTLINE

1 INTRODUCTION TO PWM WITH ATMEGA32

2 Types of PWM generated with ATMEGA32

3 Data sheet Explanations TIMER0

4 Examples of PWM with Timer0

5 Phase correct PWM

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 Registers to configure TIMER0
Here we are going to keep everything simple, So we are going to use
FAST PWM method to generate the PWM signal
Question
Generate a PWM Signal on PB3 with 50percent duty cycle from a
clock frequency of 1MHZ . Connect two buttons to PC0,PC1 and to
PB3 connect the motor such that when a button on PC0 is
pressed, Motor runs without PWM, and when button on PC1 is
pressed motor runs with PWM.

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 CIRCUIT SET UP AND SOLUTION

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Assembley Programmes
SCHOOL OFandENGINEERING)
ExamplesLecturer 5Prime WidthMarch
Modulation(PWM)
27, 2018 20 / 29
 Written code for fast PWM

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ExamplesLecturer 5Prime WidthMarch
Modulation(PWM)
27, 2018 21 / 29
 Written code continuation

Eng George Mugala ( THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

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ExamplesLecturer 5Prime WidthMarch
Modulation(PWM)
27, 2018 22 / 29
 SIMULATION WITHOUT PWM ON PB3

notice simulation of the signal on PB3 without PWM in yellow is just

high and not a PWM signal.

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ExamplesLecturer 5Prime WidthMarch
Modulation(PWM)
27, 2018 23 / 29
 SIMULATION WITH PWM ON PB3

notice simulation of the signal on PB3 with PWM in yellow is

alternating between high and low. Very importantly this is a set on
compare match. because the signal is set up and clears on low as
programed
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ExamplesLecturer 5Prime WidthMarch
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27, 2018 24 / 29
 OUTLINE

1 INTRODUCTION TO PWM WITH ATMEGA32

2 Types of PWM generated with ATMEGA32

3 Data sheet Explanations TIMER0

4 Examples of PWM with Timer0

5 Phase correct PWM

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27, 2018 25 / 29
 PULSES OCCUR IN THE MIDDLE

The center of the wave is normally out sync in fast PWM for different
duty cycles, however in phase correct phase is maintained. This for
some applications such as server motors, it may be very important to
run the motors in phase correct and not Fast PWM

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ExamplesLecturer 5Prime WidthMarch
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27, 2018 26 / 29
 Examples
Question
Generate a PWM Signal on PB3 with 50percent duty cycle from a
clock frequency of 1MHZ . Connect two buttons to PC0,PC1 and to
PB3 connect the motor such that when a button on PC0 is
pressed, Motor runs without PWM, and when button on PC1 is
pressed motor runs with PWM but in phase Correct Mode. Show
your simulations in Proteus

to change into phase correct mode,we need to to set WGM00 and

clear WGM01 in TCCR0. Other settings may remain as per
requirement.

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ExamplesLecturer 5Prime WidthMarch
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27, 2018 27 / 29
 t
SOLUTION

TCCR0 = 0b01110001
this sets WGM00 to 1 which is bit 6 and clears WGM01 which is
bit bit 3, bit 0 is 1 to mean no prescalar and normal mode

Eng George Mugala ( THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

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ExamplesLecturer 5Prime WidthMarch
Modulation(PWM)
27, 2018 28 / 29
 Written Code

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27, 2018 29 / 29
 Results with phase correct

Eng George Mugala ( THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

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ExamplesLecturer 5Prime WidthMarch
Modulation(PWM)
27, 2018 30 / 29
 Analog to Digital Convension with Microcontrollers
Lecturer 5
Embedded Systems

Eng George Mugala

THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

March 25, 2018

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 OUTLINE
1 INTRODUCTION FOR ADC
2 ANALOG-DIGITAL TERMINOLOGIES
3 ADC BASIC PRINCIPLES
4 QUANTIZATION
5 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
6 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS EXAMPLE
7 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
EXAMPLE(ENCODING)
8 ATMEGA32 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION FOR ADC
9 PRINCIPLE OF CIRCUIT OPERATIONS
10 Starting a Conversion
11 Prescaling and Conversion Timing
12 ADC PROGRAMMING EXAMPLES
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 OUTLINE
1 INTRODUCTION FOR ADC
2 ANALOG-DIGITAL TERMINOLOGIES
3 ADC BASIC PRINCIPLES
4 QUANTIZATION
5 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
6 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS EXAMPLE
7 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
EXAMPLE(ENCODING)
8 ATMEGA32 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION FOR ADC
9 PRINCIPLE OF CIRCUIT OPERATIONS
10 Starting a Conversion
11 Prescaling and Conversion Timing
12 ADC PROGRAMMING EXAMPLES
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 INTRODUCTION FOR ADC
.
ADC- Analog to digital conversion
I Conversion of an Analog signal to a Digital Signal

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 OUTLINE
1 INTRODUCTION FOR ADC
2 ANALOG-DIGITAL TERMINOLOGIES
3 ADC BASIC PRINCIPLES
4 QUANTIZATION
5 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
6 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS EXAMPLE
7 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
EXAMPLE(ENCODING)
8 ATMEGA32 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION FOR ADC
9 PRINCIPLE OF CIRCUIT OPERATIONS
10 Starting a Conversion
11 Prescaling and Conversion Timing
12 ADC PROGRAMMING EXAMPLES
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 Analog to digital conversion terminologies
Analog:Continuiosly valued signal such as temperature,speed,with
infinit possible values in the middle.
Digital:discretely valued signal, such as integers, encoded in binary
ADC-CONVERTER:ADC, A/D, A2D;converts an analog signal to
a digital signal

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 OUTLINE
1 INTRODUCTION FOR ADC
2 ANALOG-DIGITAL TERMINOLOGIES
3 ADC BASIC PRINCIPLES
4 QUANTIZATION
5 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
6 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS EXAMPLE
7 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
EXAMPLE(ENCODING)
8 ATMEGA32 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION FOR ADC
9 PRINCIPLE OF CIRCUIT OPERATIONS
10 Starting a Conversion
11 Prescaling and Conversion Timing
12 ADC PROGRAMMING EXAMPLES
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 ADC BASIC PRINCIPLES
Basic principle:Use a Comparator principle to determine whether or
not to turn on a particular bit of the binary number output
It is typical for an ADC to use a digital-to analog converter (DAC)
to determine one of the inputs to the comparator

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 OUTLINE
1 INTRODUCTION FOR ADC
2 ANALOG-DIGITAL TERMINOLOGIES
3 ADC BASIC PRINCIPLES
4 QUANTIZATION
5 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
6 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS EXAMPLE
7 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
EXAMPLE(ENCODING)
8 ATMEGA32 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION FOR ADC
9 PRINCIPLE OF CIRCUIT OPERATIONS
10 Starting a Conversion
11 Prescaling and Conversion Timing
12 ADC PROGRAMMING EXAMPLES
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 Quantization
Quantization
I Quantization is the process of converting the sampled
continuous-Valued signals into discrete-valued data

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 Quantizing
The number of possible states that the converter can output is:
N = 2n
where n is the number of bits in the AD converter
Example: For a 3 bit A/D converter, N = 23 = 8.
(Vmax −Vmin ) (10−0)
Analog quantization size:Q = N = 8 = 1.25V

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 OUTLINE
1 INTRODUCTION FOR ADC
2 ANALOG-DIGITAL TERMINOLOGIES
3 ADC BASIC PRINCIPLES
4 QUANTIZATION
5 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
6 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS EXAMPLE
7 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
EXAMPLE(ENCODING)
8 ATMEGA32 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION FOR ADC
9 PRINCIPLE OF CIRCUIT OPERATIONS
10 Starting a Conversion
11 Prescaling and Conversion Timing
12 ADC PROGRAMMING EXAMPLES
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 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
Quantizing:breaking down analog value to a set of finit states
Encoding:assigning a digital word or number to each state and
matching it to the input signal

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 OUTLINE
1 INTRODUCTION FOR ADC
2 ANALOG-DIGITAL TERMINOLOGIES
3 ADC BASIC PRINCIPLES
4 QUANTIZATION
5 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
6 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS EXAMPLE
7 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
EXAMPLE(ENCODING)
8 ATMEGA32 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION FOR ADC
9 PRINCIPLE OF CIRCUIT OPERATIONS
10 Starting a Conversion
11 Prescaling and Conversion Timing
12 ADC PROGRAMMING EXAMPLES
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 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
EXAMPLE(QUANTIZATION)

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 OUTLINE
1 INTRODUCTION FOR ADC
2 ANALOG-DIGITAL TERMINOLOGIES
3 ADC BASIC PRINCIPLES
4 QUANTIZATION
5 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
6 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS EXAMPLE
7 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
EXAMPLE(ENCODING)
8 ATMEGA32 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION FOR ADC
9 PRINCIPLE OF CIRCUIT OPERATIONS
10 Starting a Conversion
11 Prescaling and Conversion Timing
12 ADC PROGRAMMING EXAMPLES
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 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
EXAMPLE(ENCODING)

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 OUTLINE
1 INTRODUCTION FOR ADC
2 ANALOG-DIGITAL TERMINOLOGIES
3 ADC BASIC PRINCIPLES
4 QUANTIZATION
5 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
6 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS EXAMPLE
7 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
EXAMPLE(ENCODING)
8 ATMEGA32 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION FOR ADC
9 PRINCIPLE OF CIRCUIT OPERATIONS
10 Starting a Conversion
11 Prescaling and Conversion Timing
12 ADC PROGRAMMING EXAMPLES
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 ATMEGA32 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION FOR ADC

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 OUTLINE
1 INTRODUCTION FOR ADC
2 ANALOG-DIGITAL TERMINOLOGIES
3 ADC BASIC PRINCIPLES
4 QUANTIZATION
5 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
6 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS EXAMPLE
7 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
EXAMPLE(ENCODING)
8 ATMEGA32 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION FOR ADC
9 PRINCIPLE OF CIRCUIT OPERATIONS
10 Starting a Conversion
11 Prescaling and Conversion Timing
12 ADC PROGRAMMING EXAMPLES
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 PRINCIPLE OF CIRCUIT OPERATIONS
Atmega32 features 10-bit successful approximation ADC.
The ADC is connected to and 8-channel Analog Multiplexer which
allows 8 single-ended voltage inputs constructed from the pins of
Port A. The single-ended voltage inputs refer to 0V (GND)
The minimum value represents GND and the maximum value
represents the voltage on the AREF pin minus 1 LSB. Optionally,
AVCC or an internal 2.56V reference voltage may be connected to
the AREF pin by writing to the REFSn bits in the ADMUX Register
The analog input channel and differential gain are selected by
writing to the MUX bits in ADMUX
Any of the ADC input pins, as well as GND and a fixed bandgap
voltage reference, can be selected as single ended inputs to the
ADC
A selection of ADC input pins can be selected as positive and
negative inputs to the differential gain amplifier
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 ADC:The ADC generates a 10-bit result which is presented in the
ADC Data Registers, ADCH and ADCL
By default, the result is presented right adjusted, but can optionally
be presented left adjusted by setting the ADLAR bit in ADMUX
ADCL is read first then ADCH
The ADC has its own interrupt which can be triggered when a
conversion completes. When ADC access to the Data Registers is
prohibited between reading of ADCH and ADCL, the interrupt will
trigger even if the result is lost.

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 OUTLINE
1 INTRODUCTION FOR ADC
2 ANALOG-DIGITAL TERMINOLOGIES
3 ADC BASIC PRINCIPLES
4 QUANTIZATION
5 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
6 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS EXAMPLE
7 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
EXAMPLE(ENCODING)
8 ATMEGA32 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION FOR ADC
9 PRINCIPLE OF CIRCUIT OPERATIONS
10 Starting a Conversion
11 Prescaling and Conversion Timing
12 ADC PROGRAMMING EXAMPLES
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 Starting a Conversion
Conversion:Single conversion started by wrting 1 to the ADC Start
Conversion bit, ADSC.
ADSC stays high for as long as conversion is in progress.Will be
cleared by hardware when conversion is complete
If a different data channel is selected while a conversion is in
progress, the ADC will finish the current conversion before
performing the channel change
Auto Triggering is enabled by setting the ADC Auto Trigger Enable
bit, ADATE in ADCSRA
The trigger source is selected by setting the ADC Trigger Select
bits, ADTS in SFIOR

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 ADC Timing Diagram, First Conversion (Single
Conversion Mode)

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 ADC Timing Diagram, First Conversion (Single
Conversion Mode Second time)

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 OUTLINE
1 INTRODUCTION FOR ADC
2 ANALOG-DIGITAL TERMINOLOGIES
3 ADC BASIC PRINCIPLES
4 QUANTIZATION
5 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
6 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS EXAMPLE
7 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
EXAMPLE(ENCODING)
8 ATMEGA32 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION FOR ADC
9 PRINCIPLE OF CIRCUIT OPERATIONS
10 Starting a Conversion
11 Prescaling and Conversion Timing
12 ADC PROGRAMMING EXAMPLES
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 Prescaling and Conversion Timing

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 Prescaling and Conversion Timing

By default, the successive approximation circuitry requires an input

clock frequency between 50kHz and 200kHz to get maximum
resolution
The ADC module contains a prescaler, which generates an
acceptable ADC clock frequency from any CPU frequency above
100kHz. The prescaling is set by the ADPS bits in ADCSRA.
The prescaler starts counting from the moment the ADC is
switched on by setting the ADEN bit in ADCSRA

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 Voltage Reference Selections for ADC

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 OUTLINE
1 INTRODUCTION FOR ADC
2 ANALOG-DIGITAL TERMINOLOGIES
3 ADC BASIC PRINCIPLES
4 QUANTIZATION
5 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
6 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS EXAMPLE
7 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER STEPS
EXAMPLE(ENCODING)
8 ATMEGA32 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION FOR ADC
9 PRINCIPLE OF CIRCUIT OPERATIONS
10 Starting a Conversion
11 Prescaling and Conversion Timing
12 ADC PROGRAMMING EXAMPLES
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 ADC PROGRAMMING EXAMPLES
Question:Write a program to read an analog signal from channel 0
and display the digital signal results on portc Use the internal
reference voltage of 2.56V. The set up of the circuit is shown below

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 SOLUTION
1 First initialise ADMUX Register for relevant bits

I
I Since we are using internal reference of 2.56V, REFS1 and REFS0 =1
I Since we are using channel 0, MUX1 to MUX4 = 0
I ADLAR We shall wrt 0 since we want the result to be right justified.
I Binary number to be loaded:0b11000000

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 2 Initialize the ADCSRA Register
I

I We need to enable ADC,therefore ADEN =1

I set ADSC =0 since we are only initializing
I Set ADATE=0 since we dont have automatic trigger
I Set ADIF =0 since the interrupt will only happen automatically
I set ADIE =0; since we are not using in automatic mode
I set ADPS0 to ADPS2 =1; to assign the prescalar of 128
I Binary number to be loaded:0b10000111

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 PRESCALER SELECTION TABLE

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 Written Code

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 Proteus Simulation Results

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 ADC Conversion Results
For single Ended Conversion according to the datasheet
ADC = VIN∗1024
Vref wher in this case Vref = 2.56 and VIN is the
voltage appearing at the analog input pin
Going by our proteus results lets prove the conversion
ADC = 0.105∗1024
2.56 = 42
this decimal result in binary is 101010
but because the first two upper bits are zero,the results will now be
00101010. which is exactely what our proteus shows
Testing the results at 0.5V the binary equivalent gave 11001000
which is true with proteus simulation!! prove this

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