EF451

Modelling in Frequency Domain

 After completing this lecture, the
student will be able to :
• Find the Laplace transform of time functions and the inverse Laplace
transform
• Find the transfer function from a differential equation and solve the
differential equation using the transfer function
• Find the transfer function for linear, time-invariant electrical networks
• Find the transfer function for linear, time-invariant translational
mechanical systems
• Find the transfer function for linear, time-invariant rotational mechanical
systems
• Find the transfer function for linear, time-invariant electromechanical
systems
• Produce analogous electrical and mechanical circuits
 Modelling
• In Modelling, analysis and design sequence normally includes;
Step 1: Transform Requirements Into a Physical System
e.g. in the antenna azimuth position control system, the requirements would state the desire to position
the antenna from a remote location and describe such features as weight and physical dimensions.
Using the requirements, design specifications, such as desired transient response and steady-state
accuracy, are determined. Perhaps an overall concept,
Step 2: Draw a Functional Block Diagram
The designer now translates a qualitative description of the system into a functional block diagram that
describes the component parts of the system (that is, function and/or hardware) and shows their
interconnection.
An example of a functional block diagram for the antenna azimuth position control system. It indicates
functions such as input transducer and controller, as well as possible hardware descriptions such as
amplifiers and motors. At this point the designer may produce a detailed layout of the system, from
which the next phase of the analysis and design sequence, developing a schematic diagram, can be
launched.
Step 3: Create a Schematic
To obtain a schematic, the control systems engineer must often make many simplifying assumptions in
order to keep the ensuing model manageable and still approximate physical reality.
Step 4: Develop a Mathematical Model (Block Diagram)
Once the schematic is drawn, the designer uses physical laws, such as Kirchhoff‘s laws for electrical
networks and Newton's law for mechanical systems, along with simplifying assumptions, to model the
system mathematically.
 Developing a Mathematical Model (Block Diagram)

Kirchhoffs and Newton's laws lead to mathematical models that describe the relationship between the
input and output of dynamic systems. One such model is the linear, time-invariant differential equation,
Eq. (1.)

• Many systems can be approximately described by this equation, which relates the output, c(t), to the
input, r(t), by way of the system parameters, ai, and bj.

• Simplifying assumptions made in the process of obtaining a mathematical model usually leads to a
low-order form of Eq. (1.)
• In addition to the differential equation, the transfer function is another way of mathematically modeling
a system.
• The model is derived from the linear, time-invariant differential equation using Laplace transform
functions.
– These can be used only for linear systems, yielding more intuitive information than the differential
equation. We will be able to change system parameters and rapidly sense the effect of these
changes on the system response.
• The transfer function is also useful in modeling the interconnection of subsystems by forming a block
diagram but with a mathematical function inside each block.
• Still another model is the state-space representation. One advantage of state space methods is that
they can also be used for systems that cannot be described by linear differential equations.
 Modelling

Step 5: Reduce the Block Diagram

Subsystem models are interconnected to form block diagrams of larger systems, where each block has
a mathematical description.
In order to evaluate system response in such a case, we reduce this large system's block diagram to a
single block with a mathematical description that represents the system from its input to its output, as
shown in below

Once the block diagram is reduced, we are ready to analyze and design the system

Step 6: Analyze and Design

The next phase of the process, following block diagram reduction, is analysis and design.
In this phase, the engineer analyzes the system to see if the response specifications and performance
requirements can be met by simple adjustments of system parameters.
If specifications cannot be met, the designer then designs additional hardware in order to effect a
desired performance.
 Modelling

• Generally when modelling, we would prefer a mathematical representation such as that shown in figure
(a) below, where the input, output, and system are distinct and separate parts.

• Also, we would like to represent conveniently the interconnection of several subsystems. For example,
we would like to represent cascaded interconnections, as shown in figure (b) where a mathematical
function, called a transfer function, is inside each block, and block functions can easily be combined to
yield Figure (a) for ease of analysis and design - this convenience cannot be obtained with the
• differential equation.
Laplace Table
Laplace Table
 Laplace Transform Theories

• In addition to the Laplace transform table, Laplace transform theorems can be used to assist in
transforming between f(t) and F(s).
 Laplace Transform Theories

• In addition to the Laplace transform table, Laplace transform theorems can be used to assist in
transforming between f(t) and F(s).
 Inverse Laplace Transform

Partial-Fraction Expansion
• To find the inverse Laplace transform of a complicated function, we can convert the function to a sum
of simpler terms for which we know the Laplace transform of each term.
• The result is called a partial-fraction expansion.
• If F(s) = N(s)/D(s), where the order of N(s) is less than the order of D(s), then a partial-fraction
expansion can be made.
• If the order of N(s) is greater than or equal to the order of D(s), then N(s) must be divided by D(s)
successively until the result has a remainder whose numerator is of order less than its denominator.
• For example,

• we must perform the indicated division until we obtain a remainder whose numerator is of order less
than its denominator. Hence,

• Taking the inverse Laplace transform, using Item 1 of Table 2.1, along with the differentiation theorem
and the linearity theorem (Item 3 of Laplace Theorem Table), we obtain
 Inverse Laplace Transform

Partial-Fraction Expansion cont.

• Using partial-fraction expansion, we will be able to expand functions like F(s) = 2/(s2 +s + 5) into a
sum of terms and then find the inverse Laplace transform for each term. We will now consider three
cases and show for each case how an F(s) can be expanded into partial fractions.
• Case 1.
Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Real and Distinct An example of an F(s) with real and
distinct roots in the denominator is

• The roots of the denominator are distinct, since each factor is raised only to unity power. We can write
the partial-fraction expansion as a sum of terms where each factor of the original denominator forms
the denominator of each term, and constants, called residues, form the numerators. Hence,

• To find K1 we first multiply Eq. by (s + 1), which isolates K1. Thus

• Letting s approach - 1 eliminates the last term and yields K1= 2. Similarly, K2 can be found by
multiplying Eq. by (s + 2) and then letting s approach -2; hence, K2 = -2
• Each component part of Eq. is an F(s) in Table 2.1. Hence, f(t) is the sum of the inverse Laplace
transform of each term, or
 Laplace Transform

Laplace Transform Solution of a Differential Equation

Example
Given the following differential equation, solve for y(t) if all initial conditions are zero. Use the Laplace
transform.

SOLUTION:
Substitute the corresponding F(s) for each term in Eq. using Item 2 in Table 2.1 (Laplace Transform
table), Items 7 and 8 in Laplace theorems Table), and the initial conditions of y(t) and dy(t)/dt given by
y(0) = 0 and y(0) = 0, respectively. Hence, the Laplace transform of Eq. is

Solving for the response, Y(s), yields

To solve for y(t), we notice that Eq. (2.16) does not match any of the terms in Table 2.1. Thus, we form
the partial-fraction expansion of the right-hand term and match each of the resulting terms with F(s) in
Table 2.1. Therefore,
 Laplace Transform

Laplace Transform Solution of a Differential Equation

Example
Given the following differential equation, solve for y(t) if all initial conditions are zero. Use the Laplace
transform.

SOLUTION cont.

Hence,
 Laplace Transform

Laplace Transform Solution of a Differential Equation

Example
Given the following differential equation, solve for y(t) if all initial conditions are zero. Use the Laplace
transform.

SOLUTION cont.
Since each of the three component parts of Eq. is represented as an F(s) in Table 2.1, y(t) is the sum
of the inverse Laplace transforms of each term.
• Hence,
 Inverse Laplace Transform

Partial-Fraction Expansion cont.

• Case 2.
Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Real and Repeated
• An example of an F(s) with real and repeated roots in the denominator is

• The roots of (s + 2) in the denominator are repeated, since the factor is raised to an integer power
higher than 1.
• In this case, the denominator root at - 2 is a multiple root of multiplicity 2.
• We can write the partial-fraction expansion as a sum of terms, where each factor of the denominator
forms the denominator of each term.
• In addition, each multiple root generates additional terms consisting of denominator factors of reduced
multiplicity. For example, if

• Can be shown that

 Inverse Laplace Transform

Partial-Fraction Expansion cont.

Case 3.
Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Complex or Imaginary An example
• An example of F(s) with complex roots in the denominator is

• This function can be expanded in the following form:

• K1 is found in the usual way to be 3/5. K2 and K3 can be found by first multiplying Eq. by the lowest
common denominator, s(s2+2s + 5), and clearing the fractions. After simplification with K1= 3/5, we
obtain

• Balancing coefficients, (K2 + 3/5) = 0 and (K3+6/5) = 0. Hence K2 = -3/5 and K3 = -6/5. Thus,

……………….. (1)
 Inverse Laplace Transform

Partial-Fraction Expansion cont.

Case 3.
Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Complex or Imaginary An example
• The last term can be shown to be the sum of the Laplace transforms of an exponentially damped sine
and cosine. Using Item 7 in Laplace transform Table and Items 2 and 4 in Laplace Theorem Table, we
get

……………………………(2)

• Similarly,
……………………………(3)

Adding Eqs. (1) and (2), we get

……(4)

• We now convert the last term of Eq. (1) to the form suggested by Eq. (4) by completing the squares in
the denominator and adjusting terms in the numerator without changing its value. Hence,
 Inverse Laplace Transform
Partial-Fraction Expansion cont.
Case 3.

• Using laplace tables, i.e. comparing Eq. above to Table 2.1 and Eq. (4), we find

• Another method that follows the technique used for the partial-fraction expansion of F(s) with real roots
in the denominator can be used for complex and imaginary roots.
• However, the residues of the complex and imaginary roots are themselves complex conjugates. Then,
after taking the inverse Laplace transform, the resulting terms can be identified as

……. (5) and ………(6)

• For example, the previous F(s) can also be expanded in partial fractions as
 Inverse Laplace Transform
Partial-Fraction Expansion cont.
Case 3.
• Finding K2,

• Similarly, K3 is found to be the complex conjugate of K2, and K1 is found as previously described.
Hence,

• From which

• Using eqn (5) and (6) we get

• where ɸ = arctan0.5 = 26.57°.

 The Transfer Function
• Transfer functions are a viable definition for a function that algebraically relates a system's output to its
input.
• This function allow separation of the input, system, and output into three separate and distinct parts,
unlike the differential equation.
• The function allows us to algebraically combine mathematical representations of subsystems to yield a
total system representation.
• A general nth-order, linear, time-invariant differential equation is as given below,

• where c(t) is the output, r(t) is the input, and the ai's, bj‘s, and the form of the differential equation
represent the system. Taking the Laplace transform of both sides,

𝒂𝒏 𝒔𝒏 𝑪 𝒔 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒔𝒏−𝟏 𝑪 𝒔 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝟎 𝑪 𝒔 + 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄 𝒕

= 𝒃𝒎 𝒔𝒎 𝑹 𝒔 + 𝒃𝒎−𝟏 𝒔𝒎−𝟏 𝑹 𝒔 + ⋯ + 𝒃𝟎 𝒀 𝒔 + 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒓 𝒕

• If we assume that all initial conditions are zero, the equation reduces to

(𝒂𝒏 𝒔𝒏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒔𝒏−𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝟎 )𝑪 𝒔 = (𝒃𝒎 𝒔𝒎 + 𝒃𝒎−𝟏 𝒔𝒎−𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝒃𝟎 )𝒀 𝒔

• the ratio of the output transform, C(s), divided by the input transform, R(s):

𝑪(𝒔) 𝒃𝒎 𝒔𝒎 + 𝒃𝒎−𝟏 𝒔𝒎−𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝒃𝟎

=𝑮 𝒔 =
𝑹(𝒔) (𝒂𝒏 𝒔𝒏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒔𝒏−𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝟎
 The Transfer Function
• The transfer function can be represented as a block diagram, as shown in below, with the input on the
left, the output on the right, and the system transfer function inside the block
• the denominator of the transfer function is identical to the characteristic polynomial of the differential
equation

• we can find the output, C(s) by using

𝑪 𝒔 = 𝑹 𝒔 𝑮(𝒔)
• The above output can be used to find the response of the system.

Example;
• Find the transfer function represented by

Sol;
• Taking the Laplace transform of both sides, assuming zero initial conditions, we have

• The transfer function, G(s), is

 The Transfer Function
• Using the result of Example above, we can find the response, c(t) to an input, r{t) = u(t), a unit step,
assuming zero initial conditions. Since r(t) = u(t), R(s) = 1/s, from Laplace transform Table

• Expanding by partial fractions, we get

• Finally, taking the inverse Laplace transform of each term yields

Practice Examples;
1. Find the transfer function, G(s) = C(s)/R(s), corresponding to the differential equation

2. Find the differential equation corresponding to the transfer function

Summary
• In general, a physical system that can be represented by a linear, time-invariant differential equation
can be modeled as a transfer function
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
• Transfer function can be formally applied to the mathematical modeling of electric circuits including
passive networks and operational amplifier circuits
• Equivalent circuits for the electric networks consist of three passive linear components: resistors,
capacitors, and inductors
• The Table below summarizes the components and the relationships between voltage and current,
and between voltage and charge under zero initial conditions.
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Simple Circuits via Mesh Analysis
• Transfer functions can be obtained using Kirchhoff's voltage law and summing voltages around loops
or meshes. This method is called loop or mesh analysis and can be demonstrated in the following
example.

Example
• Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, Vc(s), to the input voltage, V(s) in Figure below.

SOLUTION:
• In any problem, the designer must first decide what the input and output should be. In this network,
several variables could have been chosen to be the output—for example, the inductor voltage, the
capacitor voltage, the resistor voltage, or the current.
• The problem statement, however, is clear in this case: We are to treat the capacitor voltage as the
output and the applied voltage as the input.
• Summing the voltages around the loop, assuming zero initial conditions, yields the integro-differential
equation for this network as
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Simple Circuits via Mesh Analysis
Example cont.
• Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, Vc(s), to the input voltage, V(s) in Figure below.

SOLUTION:

• Changing variables from current to charge using i(t) — dq{t)/dt yields

• From the voltage-charge relationship for a capacitor in Table above,

• Substituting for q(t) in above equation yields

• Taking the Laplace transform assuming zero initial conditions, rearranging terms, and simplifying yields
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Simple Circuits via Mesh Analysis
Example cont.
• Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, Vc(s), to the input voltage, V(s) in Figure below.

SOLUTION:
• Solving for the transfer function, Vc(s)/V(s), we obtain

• This can be shown as shown in block diagram format as shown below

 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Simple Circuits via Mesh Analysis
• The approach to solving above example can be simplified as below;
– First, take the Laplace transform of the equations in the voltage-current column of Table assuming
zero initial conditions.
– For the capacitor,

– For the resistor,

– For the inductor,

– Then define the following transfer function:

• This function is similar to the definition of resistance, that is, the ratio of voltage to current. But, unlike
resistance, this function is applicable to capacitors and inductors and carries information on the
dynamic behavior of the component, since it represents an equivalent differential equation.
• This particular transfer function is called impedance.
• The impedance for each of the electrical elements is shown in relationship Table
• The concept of impedance simplifies the solution for the transfer function.
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Simple Circuits via Mesh Analysis
• The Laplace transform of first equation in the solution, assuming zero initial conditions, is

• Notice that above transform is in the form

[Sum of impedances]I(s)) = [Sum of applied voltages]
• This suggests the series circuit shown in Figure below;

• The circuit above could have been obtained immediately from the initial circuit simply by replacing each
element with its impedance. This altered circuit is called the transformed circuit.
• Finally, the transformed circuit leads immediately to transformed equation above if we add impedances
in series as we add resistors in series. Thus, rather than writing the differential equation first and then
taking the Laplace transform, we can draw the transformed circuit and obtain the Laplace transform of
the differential equation simply by applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to the transformed circuit.
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Simple Circuits via Mesh Analysis
• We summarize the steps as follows:
1. Redraw the original network showing all time variables, such as v(t), i(t), and vc(t), as Laplace
transforms V(s), I(s), and Vc{s), respectively.
2. Replace the component values with their impedance values. This replacement is similar to the case of
dc circuits, where we represent resistors with their resistance values.

PROBLEM: Repeat above Example using mesh analysis and transform methods without writing a
differential equation.
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Simple Circuits via Nodal Analysis
• Transfer functions also can be obtained using Kirchhoff's current law and summing currents flowing
from nodes. We call this method nodal analysis. This principle can be demonstrated by redoing above
using Kirchhoff's current law and the transform methods just described to bypass writing the differential
equation.

Example
• Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, Vc(s), to the input voltage, V(s) in Figure below.
using nodal analysis and without writing a differential equation.

SOLUTION:
• The transfer function can be obtained by summing currents flowing out of the node whose voltage is
Vc(s) in Figure. We assume that currents leaving the node are positive and currents entering the node
are negative. The currents consist of the current through the capacitor and the current flowing through
the series resistor and inductor. From V(s)/I(s)=Z(s), each I(s) = V(s)/Z(s). Hence,
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Simple Circuits via Nodal Analysis
• i.e.

• where Vc(s)/1/Cs is the current flowing out of the node through the capacitor, and [Vc(s) - V(s)]/(R - Ls)
is the current flowing out of the node through the series resistor and inductor. Solving above equation
for the transfer function, Vc(s)/V(s), yields same result as above.
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Simple Circuits via Voltage Divisioni.e.
• The above example can yet be solved directly by using voltage division on the transformed network.
This technique can be demonstrated.

PROBLEM:
• Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, Vc(s), to the input voltage, V(s) in Figure below.
using voltage division and the transformed circuit.

SOLUTION: The voltage across the capacitor is some proportion of the input voltage, namely the
impedance of the capacitor divided by the sum of the impedances. Thus,

Solving for the transfer function, Vc (s)/V(s), yields

the same result
• Which method do you think is easiest for this circuit?
• The previous example involves a simple, single-loop electrical network. Many electrical networks
consist of multiple loops and nodes, and for these circuits we must write and solve simultaneous
differential equations in order to find the transfer function, or solve for the output.
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Complex Circuits via Mesh Analysis.
• To solve complex electrical networks - those with multiple loops and nodes using mesh analysis, we
can perform the following steps:
1. Replace passive element values with their impedances.
2. Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace transform.
3. Assume a transform current and a current direction in each mesh.
4. Write Kirchhoff's voltage law around each mesh
5. Solve the simultaneous equations for the output.
6. Form the transfer function.

• Let us look at an example.

PROBLEM: Given the network of Figure (a) below, find the transfer function, I2(s)/V(s).

SOLUTION: The first step in the solution is to convert the network into Laplace transforms for impedances
and circuit variables, assuming zero initial conditions. The result is shown in Figure (b). The circuit with
which we are dealing requires two simultaneous equations to solve for the transfer function. These
equations can be found by summing voltages around each mesh through which the assumed currents, I1(s)
and I2(s), flow. Around Mesh 1, where I1(s) flows,
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Complex Circuits via Mesh Analysis.

• Around Mesh 2, where I2(s) flows,

• Combining terms from the loop currents we get the simultaneous equations in I1(s) and I2(s):

• We can use Cramer's rule (or any other method for solving simultaneous equations) to solve the above
equation for I2(s). Hence,

where
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Complex Circuits via Mesh Analysis.

• Forming the transfer function, G(s), yields

• The network is now modeled as the transfer function of shown in figure (c) above. Notice a pattern first
illustrated by equations of the mesh currents. These form the simultaneous equations, and this is
illustrated as follows

• Recognizing the form will help us write such equations rapidly; for example, mechanical equations of
motion have the same form.
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Complex Circuits via Nodal Analysis
• Often, the easiest way to find the transfer function is to use nodal analysis rather than mesh analysis.
• The number of simultaneous differential equations that must be written is equal to the number of nodes
whose voltage is unknown.
• In the previous example we wrote simultaneous mesh equations using Kirchhoff's voltage law. For
multiple nodes we use Kirchhoff's current law and sum currents flowing from each node. Again, as a
convention, currents flowing from the node are assumed to be positive, and currents flowing into the
node are assumed to be negative.
• For convenience, we work with admittance, Y(s), which is defined as the reciprocal of impedance, or

• When writing nodal equations, it can be more convenient to represent circuit elements by their
admittance. Admittances for the basic electrical components are shown in Table (showing Voltage-
current, voltage-charge, and impedance relationships for capacitors, resistors, and inductors).
• Consider the following Example;

PROBLEM: Find the transfer function, Vc(s)/V(s), for the circuit in Figure below. Use nodal analysis.
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Complex Circuits via Nodal Analysis

SOLUTION: For this problem, we sum currents at the nodes rather than sum voltages around the meshes.
From the figure given, the sum of currents flowing from the nodes marked VL(S) and Vc(s) are,
respectively,

• Rearranging and expressing the resistances as conductances, G1= 1/R1 and G2 = 1/R2, we obtain,

• Solving for the transfer function, Vc(s)/V(s), yields

 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Complex Circuits via Nodal Analysis
• Another way to write node equations is to replace voltage sources by current sources. A voltage
source presents a constant voltage to any load; conversely, a current source delivers a constant
current to any load.
• Practically, a current source can be constructed from a voltage source by placing a large resistance in
series with the voltage source. Thus, variations in the load do not appreciably change the current,
because the current is determined approximately by the large series resistor and the voltage source.
• Theoretically, we rely on Norton's theorem, which states that a voltage source, V(s), in series with an
impedance, Zs(s), can be replaced by a current source, I(s) — V(s)/Zs(s), in parallel with Zs(s).
• In order to handle multiple-node electrical networks, we can perform the following steps:
1. Replace passive element values with their admittances.
2. Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace transform.
3. Replace transformed voltage sources with transformed current sources.
4. Write Kirchhoffs current law at each node.
5. Solve the simultaneous equations for the output.
6. Form the transfer function.

• Consider the following example

 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Complex Circuits via Nodal Analysis

PROBLEM:
For the network of Figure below, find the transfer function, Vc(s)/V(s), using nodal analysis and a
transformed circuit with current sources.

(a) (b)
SOLUTION: Convert all impedances to admittances and all voltage sources in series with an impedance to
current sources in parallel with an admittance using Norton's theorem.
Redrawing Figure (a) to reflect the changes, we obtain Figure (b), where G1 = 1/R1, G2 = 1/R2, and the node
voltages (the voltages across the inductor and the capacitor) have been identified as VL(s) and Vc(s),
respectively.
Using the general relationship, I(s) = Y(s)V(s), and summing currents at the node VL(s),

Summing the currents at the node Vc(s) yields

 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Complex Circuits via Nodal Analysis

PROBLEM:
• Combining terms, to get simultaneous equations in Vc(s) and V1 (s), lead to the same solution as in
earlier example.
• An advantage of drawing this circuit lies in the form of the earlier equation (shown below) and its direct
relationship to Figure (b) above, namely
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Complex Circuits via Nodal Analysis
• In all of the previous examples, we have seen a repeating pattern in the equations that we can use to
our advantage.
• If we recognize this pattern, we need not write the equations component by component; we can sum
impedances around a mesh in the case of mesh equations or sum admittances at a node in the case of
node equations.

Mesh Equations via Inspection

PROBLEM:
Write, but do not solve, the mesh equations for the network shown in Figure below
 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
SOLUTION:
Each of the previous problems has illustrated that the mesh equations and nodal equations have a
predictable form. We use that knowledge to solve this three-loop problem. The equation for Mesh 1 will
have the following form:

Similarly, Meshes 2 and 3, respectively, are

 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
SOLUTION:
Substituting the values from from given figure;
 Operational Amplifiers
• Up to this point, passive electrical circuits have been discussed. We now now consider a class of
active circuits that can be used to implement transfer functions. These are circuits built around an
operational amplifier.
• An operational amplifier, Shown bin figure below, is an electronic amplifier used as a basic building
block to implement transfer functions. It has the following characteristics:

• Differential input, V2(t) – V1t)

• High input impedance, Zi = ∞ (ideal)
• Low output impedance, Z0 = 0 (ideal)
• High constant gain amplification, A = ∞ (ideal)
• The output, v0(t), is given by
vo(t) = A(v2(t) – v1(t))

Inverting Operational Amplifier

• If v1(t) is grounded, the amplifier is called an inverting operational amplifier, as shown in Figure below.
For the inverting operational amplifier, we have

vo(t) = – Av1(t))
 Operational Amplifiers
• If two impedances are connected to the inverting operational amplifier as shown in Figure below, we
can derive an interesting result if the amplifier has the characteristics mentioned earlier. If the input
impedance to the amplifier is high, then by Kirchhoff's current law, Ia(s) = 0 and I1(s) = -I2(s)

• Also, since the gain A is large, v1(t) ≈ 0 .

Thus, I1(s) = Vi(s)/Z1(s), and –I2(s) = -Vo(s)/Z2(s).
• Equating the two currents,
-Vo(s)/Z2(s) = Vi(s)/Z1(s),
• or the transfer function of the inverting operational amplifier configured as shown above is
 Operational Amplifiers
Transfer Function—Inverting Operational Amplifier Circuit
PROBLEM:
Find the transfer function, V0(s)/Vi(s), for the circuit given below

SOLUTION:
The transfer function of the operational amplifier circuit is given by

• Since the admittances of parallel components add, Z1(s) is the reciprocal of the sum of the
admittances, or

• For Z2(s) the impedances add, or

 Operational Amplifiers
Transfer Function—Inverting Operational Amplifier Circuit

SOLUTION:
The transfer function of the operational amplifier circuit is given by

• The resulting circuit is called a PID controller and can be used to improve the performance of a control
system.
 Operational Amplifiers
Noninverting Operational Amplifier

• Another circuit that can be analyzed for its transfer function is the noninverting operational amplifier
circuit shown below

Transfer Function—Inverting Operational Amplifier Circuit

• We see that
• But, using voltage division,

• Therefore,

• For large A, we disregard unity in the denominator and equation becomes

 Operational Amplifiers
Noninverting Operational Amplifier

PROBLEM:
Find the transfer function, V0(s)/Vi(s), for the circuit given below

SOLUTION:
We find each of the impedance functions, Z1(s) and Z2(s), and then substitute them into

and

• Therefore,
 Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
• Like Electrical systems, the table below summarizes the components and the relationships for
mechanical systems
 Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
• Mechanical systems, like electrical networks, have three passive, linear components.
• Two of them, the spring and the mass, are energy-storage elements;
• one of them, the viscous damper, dissipates energy.
• The two energy-storage elements are analogous to the two electrical energy-storage elements, the
inductor and capacitor.
• The energy dissipator is analogous to electrical resistance. The mechanical elements shown in table
above, K, fv, and M are called spring constant, coefficient of viscous friction, and mass,
respectively
• The following nalogies between electrical and mechanical systems can be created by comparing the
respective tables
– Comparing the force-velocity column to the voltage-current column, we see that mechanical force
is analogous to electrical voltage and mechanical velocity is analogous to electrical current.
– Comparing the force-displacement column with the voltage-charge column leads to the analogy
between the mechanical displacement and electrical charge.
• We also see that the spring is analogous to the capacitor, the viscous damper is analogous
to the resistor, and the mass is analogous to the inductor.
• Thus, summing forces written in terms of velocity is analogous to summing voltages written
in terms of current, and the resulting mechanical differential equations are analogous to
mesh equations.
• If the forces are written in terms of displacement, the resulting mechanical equations
resemble, but are not analogous to, the mesh equations. This model will be used for
mechanical systems so that we can write equations directly in terms of displacement.
– Another analogy can be drawn by comparing the force-velocity column to the current-voltage
column in reverse order. Here the analogy is between force and current and between velocity and
voltage.
 Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
• Comparisons of mechanical systems and Electrical Systems
 Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
• The following nalogies between electrical and mechanical systems can be created by comparing the
respective tables
– Also the spring is analogous to the inductor, the viscous damper is analogous to the resistor,
and the mass is analogous to the capacitor.
– Thus, summing forces written in terms of velocity is analogous to summing currents written in
terms of voltage and the resulting mechanical differential equations are analogous to nodal
equations.
• To find transfer functions for translational mechanical systems. Consider figure below which is similar
to the simple RLC network.

• The mechanical system requires just one differential equation, called the equation of motion, to
describe it.
– We assuming a positive direction of motion, for example, to the right. This assumed positive
direction of motion is similar to assuming a current direction in an electrical loop. Using our
assumed direction of positive motion, we first draw a free-body diagram, placing on the body all
forces that act on the body either in the direction of motion or opposite to it.
– Next we use Newton's law to form a differential equation of motion by summing the forces and
setting the sum equal to zero.
– Finally, assuming zero initial conditions, we take the Laplace transform of the differential equation,
separate the variables, and arrive at the transfer function.
 Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
PROBLEM:
Find the transfer function, X(s)/F{s), for the system of Figure below

SOLUTION:
Begin the solution by drawing the free-body diagram shown in Figure below

• Place on the mass all forces felt by the mass. We assume the mass is traveling toward the right. Thus,
only the applied force points to the right; all other forces impede the motion and act to oppose it.
Hence, the spring, viscous damper, and the force due to acceleration point to the left.
• We now write the differential equation of motion using Newton's law to sum to zero all of the forces
shown on the mass in Figure above
 Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
PROBLEM:
Find the transfer function, X(s)/F{s), for the system of Figure below

SOLUTION:
Taking the Laplace transform, assuming zero initial conditions,

Or

Solving for the transfer function yields

 Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
• Now can we parallel our work with electrical networks by circumventing the writing of differential
equations and by defining impedances for mechanical components? If so, we can apply to mechanical
systems the problem-solving techniques discussed earlier
• Taking the Laplace transform of the force-displacement column in Table, we obtain
• for the spring,
• for the viscous damper,
• and for the mass,
• If we define impedance for mechanical components as

• and we arrive at the impedances of each component as summarized in the table

• Replacing each force in Figure below by its Laplace transform, which is in the format

• we obtain the transformed Figure from which we could have obtained

immediately without writing the differential equation.
• Finally, notice that the equation is of the form
 Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
• Many mechanical systems are similar to multiple-loop and multiple-node electrical networks, where
more than one simultaneous differential equation is required to describe the system.
• In mechanical systems, the number of equations of motion required is equal to the number of linearly
independent motions. Linear independence implies that a point of motion in a system can still move if
all other points of motion are held still. Another name for the number of linearly independent motions is
the number of degrees of freedom.
• This discussion is not meant to imply that these motions are not coupled to one another; in general,
they are.
• For example, in a two-loop electrical network, each loop current depends on the other loop current, but
if we open-circuit just one of the loops, the other current can still exist if there is a voltage source in that
loop. Similarly, in a mechanical system with two degrees of freedom, one point of motion can be held
still while the other point of motion moves under the influence of an applied force.
• In order to work such a problem, we draw the free-body diagram for each point of motion and then use
superposition.
• For each free-body diagram we begin by holding all other points of motion still and finding the forces
acting on the body due only to its own motion.
• Then we hold the body still and activate the other points of motion one at a time, placing on the original
body the forces created by the adjacent motion.
• Using Newton's law, we sum the forces on each body and set the sum to zero. The result is a system
of simultaneous equations of motion.
• As Laplace transforms, these equations are then solved for the output variable of interest in terms of
the input variable from which the transfer function is evaluated.
 Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
PROBLEM:
• Find the transfer function, X2(s)/F(s), for the system of Figure below
 Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
PROBLEM:
• Find the transfer function, X2(s)/F(s), for the system of Figure below

SOLUTION:
• The system has two degrees of freedom, since each mass can be moved in the horizontal direction while the
other is held still. Thus, two simultaneous equations of motion will be required to describe the system. The two
equations come from free-body diagrams of each mass. Superposition is used to draw the freebody diagrams.
• For example, the forces on M1 are due to (1) its own motion and (2) the motion of M2 transmitted to M1
through the system. We will consider these two sources separately.
• If we hold M2 still and move M1 to the right, we see the forces shown in Figure (a) below. If we hold M1 still and
move M2 to the right, we see the forces shown in Figure (b) below. The total force on M1 is the superposition,
or sum, of the forces just discussed. This result is shown in Figure (c).
• For M2, we proceed in a similar fashion: First we move M2 to the right while holding M1 still; then we move M1
to the right and hold M2 still. For each case we evaluate the forces on M2, The results appear in Figure (d).

(d)
 Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
PROBLEM:
• Find the transfer function, X2(s)/F(s), for the system of Figure below

Block Diagram
SOLUTION:
• The Laplace transform of the equations of motion can now be written from Figures (e) and (f) as

(e) (f)

• From this, the transfer function, X2(s)/F(s), is

• as shown in in the block diagram where

 Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
• Notice again, that the form of the equations is similar to electrical mesh equations:

PROBLEM: Find the transfer function, G(s) = X2{s)/F(s), for the translational mechanical system shown in
below

(d)
 Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
PROBLEM:
• Write, but do not solve, the equations of motion for the mechanical network of Figure below

SOLUTION:
• The system has three degrees of freedom, since each of the three masses can be moved
independently while the others are held still. The form of the equations will be similar to electrical mesh
equations. For M1,
 Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
SOLUTION:
• The system has three degrees of freedom, since each of the three masses can be moved
independently while the others are held still. The form of the equations will be similar to electrical mesh
equations. For M1,
 Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
PROBLEM:
• Write, but do not solve, the equations of motion for the mechanical network of Figure below

SOLUTION:
• M1 has two springs, two viscous dampers, and mass associated with its motion. There is one spring
between M1 and M2 and one viscous damper between M1 and M3. Thus,

Similarly,

And

• The above equations are the equations of motion and can solved for any displacement, X1(s), X2(s), or
X3(s), or transfer function.
 Rotational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
• Rotational mechanical systems are handled the same way as translational mechanical systems, except
that torque replaces force and angular displacement replaces translational displacement.
• The mechanical components for rotational systems are the same as those for translational systems,
except that the components undergo rotation instead of translation.
• Table below shows the components along with the relationships between torque and angular velocity,
as well as angular displacement.
• Notice that the symbols for the components look the same as translational symbols, but they are
undergoing rotation and not translation.
 Rotational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
• Also notice that the term associated with the mass is replaced by inertia. The values of K, D, and J are
called spring constant, coefficient of viscous friction, and moment of inertia, respectively.
• The impedances of the mechanical components are also summarized in the last column of Table
above. The values can be found by taking the Laplace transform, assuming zero initial conditions, of
the torque-angular displacement column of Table above.
• The concept of degrees of freedom carries over to rotational systems, except that we test a point of
motion by rotating it while holding still all other points of motion. The number of points of motion that
can be rotated while all others are held still equals the number of equations of motion required to
describe the system.
• Writing the equations of motion for rotational systems is similar to writing them for translational
systems; the only difference is that the free-body diagram consists of torques rather than forces. We
obtain these torques using superposition.
– First, we rotate a body while holding all other points still and place on its free-body diagram all
torques due to the body's own motion.
– Then, holding the body still, we rotate adjacent points of motion one at a time and add the torques
due to the adjacent motion to the free-body diagram.
– The process is repeated for each point of motion.
– For each free-body diagram, these torques are summed and set equal to zero to form the
equations of motion.
• The following examples demonstrate the solution of rotational systems. The first one uses free-body
diagrams; the second uses the concept of impedances to write the equations of motion by inspection.
 Rotational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
PROBLEM:
• Find the transfer function, θ2(s)/T(s), for the rotational system shown in Figure below (a). The rod is
supported by bearings at either end and is undergoing torsion. A torque is applied at the left, and the
displacement is measured at the right..

SOLUTION:
• First, obtain the schematic from the physical system. Even though torsion occurs throughout the rod in
Figure above, we approximate the system by assuming that the torsion acts like a spring concentrated
at one particular point in the rod, with an inertia J2 to the left and an inertia J2 to the right.
• We also assume that the damping inside the flexible shaft is negligible. The schematic is shown in
below.

• There are two degrees of freedom, since each inertia can be rotated while the other is held still. Hence,
it will take two simultaneous equations to solve the system.
 Rotational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
SOLUTION:
• Next, draw a free-body diagram of J1, using superposition. Figure (a) below shows the torques on J1 if
J2 is held still and J1 rotated. Figure (b) shows the torques on J1 if J1 is held still and J2 rotated. Finally,
the sum of figures (a) and (b) is shown in figure (c), the final free-body diagram for J1.

• The same process is repeated in figure below for J2

 Rotational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
SOLUTION:
• Summing torques respectively from all the figures (c) we obtain the equations of motion,

• from which the required transfer function is found to be

• Where

• Notice that from the equations of motion we have that now well-known form
 Rotational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
PROBLEM:
• Write, but do not solve, the Laplace transform of the equations of motion for the system shown in
Figure below.
 Rotational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
PROBLEM:
• Write, but do not solve, the Laplace transform of the equations of motion for the system shown in
Figure below.

SOLUTION:
• The equations will take on the following form, similar to electrical mesh equations:
 Rotational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
PROBLEM:
• Write, but do not solve, the Laplace transform of the equations of motion for the system shown in
Figure below.

SOLUTION:
• Hence,
 Electric Circuit Analogs
• Mechanical systems can be represented by equivalent electric circuits.
• Similarities exist between the equations resulting from Kirchhoff s laws for electrical systems and the
equations of motion of mechanical systems.
• This commonality is appreciated by producing electric circuit equivalents for mechanical systems. The
variables of the electric circuits behave exactly as the analogous variables of the mechanical systems.
• In fact, converting mechanical systems to electrical networks before writing the describing equations is
a problem-solving approach that you may want to pursue.
• An electric circuit that is analogous to a system from another discipline is called an electric circuit
analog.
• Analogs can be obtained by comparing the describing equations, such as the equations of motion of a
mechanical system, with either electrical mesh or nodal equations. When compared with mesh
equations, the resulting electrical circuit is called a series analog. When compared with nodal
equations, the resulting electrical circuit is called a parallel analog.

Series Analog
• Consider the translational mechanical system shown in Figure below,
 Electric Circuit Analogs
• Its equation of motion is
• Kirchhoff's mesh equation for the simple series RLC network shown in figure (b) is

• The above two equations are not directly analogous because displacement and current are not
analogous. We can create a direct analogy by converting displacement to velocity by dividing and
multiplying the left-hand side by s, yielding

• Comparing Kirchhoff’s mesh equation to F(s) above, we recognize the sum of impedances and draw
the circuit shown in figure (c) above. The conversions are summarized in figure (d) above.
• When we have more than one degree of freedom, the impedances associated with a motion appear as
series electrical elements in a mesh, but the impedances between adjacent motions are drawn as
series electrical impedances between the two corresponding meshes. Consider the following example.

PROBLEM:
• Draw a series analog for the mechanical system in Figure
 Electric Circuit Analogs
SOLUTION:
• Equations realized from figure (shown below) are analogous to electrical mesh equations after
conversion to velocity.

• Thus,

• Coefficients represent sums of electrical impedance. Mechanical impedances associated with M1 form
the first mesh, where impedances between the two masses are common to the two loops. Impedances
associated with M2 form the second mesh. The result is shown in Figure below, where v1 (t) and V2(t)
are the velocities of M1 and M2, respectively
 Electric Circuit Analogs
Parallel Analog
• A system can also be converted to an equivalent parallel analog. Consider the translational mechanical
system shown in figure (a), whose equation of motion is given by

• Kirchhoff's nodal equation for the simple parallel RLC network shown in figure (b) is

• Comparing above two equations, we identify the sum of admittances and draw the circuit shown in
figure (c). The conversions are summarized in figure (d)
• When we have more than one degree of freedom, the components associated with a motion appear as
parallel electrical elements connected to a node, but the components of adjacent motions are drawn as
parallel electrical elements between two corresponding nodes. Consider the following example.
 Electric Circuit Analogs
Problem:
• Draw a parallel analog for the mechanical system of Figure below.

SOLUTION:
• Equation below, is also analogous to electrical node equations.

• Coefficients represent sums of electrical admittances. Admittances associated with M1 form the
elements connected to the first node, where mechanical admittances between the two masses are
common to the two nodes. Mechanical admittances associated with M2 form the elements connected to
the second node. The result is shown in Figure below, where v1(t) and v2(t) are the velocities of M1 and
M2, respectively
 Electric Circuit Analogs
Problem:
• Draw a parallel analog for the mechanical system of Figure below.

SOLUTION: