» MODULE ONE

CELLS AS THE BASIS

OF LIFE
2 Cell structure and technologies

3 Cell function
Shutterstock.com/Sebastian Kaulitzki

32 9780170407281
 2 Cell structure and technologies
Students:
• investigate different cellular structures, including but not limited to:
INQUIRY QUESTION – examining a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells (ACSBL032, ACSBL048) ICT
What distinguishes one – describe a range of technologies that are used to determine a cell’s structure and function ICT
cell from another? • investigate a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structures, including but not limited to:
– drawing scaled diagrams of a variety of cells (ACSBL035) ICT N
– comparing and contrasting different cell organelles and arrangements CCT
– modelling the structure and function of the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane (ACSBL045) CCT ICT
Biology Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017

iStock.com/Ugreen

9780170407281 33
 When you think about it, living organisms are amazing

Alamy Stock Photo/blickwinkel/Guenther

a
things. The secrets of their functioning have intrigued
many generations of scientists over many hundreds
of years. It has only been since the development of
technology such as the microscope that the details of
the structure and functioning of living things have been
determined. This started with the discovery of the cell as
the basic unit of all living things.
Since then, it has been found that even though cells
share some similarities, not all cells are the same. They
differ in their structure, function and organisation.
Some organisms consist of only one cell that has

iStock.com/hrabar
b
to perform all functions. Other organisms contain
many different cells, each with a specific structure and
function, organised to work together to ensure effective
functioning.

2.1 Types of cells

Even though there are many different types of cells in
organisms, they can be classified as either prokaryotic

Imagefolk/Minden Pictures
c
or eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are ‘primitive’ cells
and have a much simpler structure than eukaryotic
cells. There are many more prokaryotic cells on Earth
than there are eukaryotic cells. Although these two
types of cells have many differences, they share basic
similarities, with each possessing a cell membrane,
cytoplasm and ribosomes (structures that produce FIGURE 2.1 Cells are the basic structural and
proteins in the cell). functional unit of the diverse range of all living
things. a Amoeba; b roses; c animals of the Great
Barrier Reef
Prokaryotic cells
With the word derived from the Greek pro (before) and karyon (nucleus), prokaryotic cells range in
diameter from 0.1 to 5.0 μm (micrometres). The four main structures that all prokaryotic cells possess
are the cell membrane, the cytoplasm, ribosomes and genetic material. The cell (plasma) membrane
is responsible for controlling what goes into and out of the cell.
There is no membrane surrounding the genetic material and therefore no nucleus. Most of the
genetic material forms a large loop called the bacterial chromosome, with the rest in small circular
rings called plasmids. The structures inside prokaryotic cells are not surrounded by membranes – they
simply float in the fluid-like cytoplasm, as does the genetic material. Structures that are present in some
prokaryotic cells are a cell wall, pili (singular: pilus), flagella (singular: flagellum) and a capsule. Pili are
hair-like structures on the surface of some cells that allow them to adhere to nearby substances. Flagella
are whip-like tails that provide the cell with locomotion. The cell wall protects the cell and provides
structural support. The substances it is composed of differ depending on the type of cell. The capsule is a
layer composed of complex carbohydrates outside the cell wall and protects the cell.
Most organisms that are composed of prokaryotic cells are unicellular – a single cell. Some bacterial
species clump together as a colony of prokaryotic cells that work together.

34 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 Figure 2.2 shows a generalised three-dimensional diagram and a scientific two-dimensional line
drawing of a typical prokaryotic cell.

a Cell wall Ribosomes

Pili

b Pili Chromosome: Cell wall Ribosomes Plasmid:

DNA DNA

Bacterial
flagellum

Cytoplasm
Capsule Chromosome: Cell Plasmid: Bacterial
DNA membrane DNA flagellum Capsule Cytoplasm Cell membrane

FIGURE 2.2 a A generalised diagram of bacteria – a prokaryotic cell; b a scientific line drawing of the cell

Prokaryotic organisms (or prokaryotes) can be divided into two main groups: bacteria and archaea.
The cells in these groups are similar in both shape and size, but differ chemically in terms of their genetic
material and proteins. Bacteria can be found in many different environments and can be either beneficial
or harmful to living organisms (Fig. 2.3a). Archaea (Fig. 2.3b) are unicellular organisms that are found in
extreme and harsh environments, such as hydrothermal vents and hot springs.
Visuals Unlimited, Inc./Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution

a
Imagefolk/Kateryna Kon/

b
Science Photo Library

FIGURE 2.3 a Different types of bacteria; b Archaea are prokaryotes found in harsh environments such as
hydrothermal vents as shown here. Archaea are found in the water where the hot fluid is escaping.

Eukaryotic cells
The different
‘Eukaryotic’ is derived from the Greek eu (‘true’ or ‘proper’) and karyon ( ‘nucleus’). types of
These cells range in size from 10 to 100 μm and are much more complex than prokaryotic cells. organelles and
their function are
Eukaryotic cells are characterised by a membrane-bound nucleus containing the genetic material of the discussed later in
cell. All of the internal structures of these cells are membrane bound and are known as organelles. Each this chapter.
organelle has a specific function within the cell. Together these organelles carry out all of the biochemical
processes and reactions, such as respiration and photosynthesis, that are required for the successful
functioning of a living cell.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 2 » CELL STRUCTURE AND TECHNOLOGIES 35

 Living organisms that contain eukaryotic cells are known as eukaryotes. These organisms can
WS
be either unicellular or multicellular (containing many cells). Paramecium, Amoeba and Euglena are
Comparing examples of unicellular eukaryotes (Fig. 2.4).
types of cells

Science Photo Library/

DENNIS KUNKEL MICROSCOPY

Shutterstock.com/Lebendkulturen.de

Imagefolk/Hecker/Sauer
a b c

FIGURE 2.4 Examples of unicellular eukaryotes: a Paramecium; b Amoeba; c Euglena

Multicellular plants and animals are composed of a variety of different types of eukaryotic cells.

Different types
KEY CONCEPTS

of cells ● There are two types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic.

Summarise the
similarities and
● Prokaryotic cells exist as single cells and have no membrane-bound nucleus or organelles.
differences between ● Bacteria and Archaea kingdoms contain prokaryotic cells.
prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells. ● Eukaryotic cells have a membrane-bound nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

INVESTIGATION 2.1

A practical investigation to examine prokaryotic

and eukaryotic cells
Living cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, possess structures that allow them to carry out the biochemical
WS processes required for them to function effectively. These structures are organised differently in different types
of cells.
Practical
introduction
A variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells can be examined using a light microscope. Only certain
to using a structures (such as the cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm and chloroplasts) are large enough to be viewed
microscope
using the microscopes available in school laboratories. For more details of other structures in a cell, electron
micrographs need to be used.

AIM
To examine and compare a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells using a light microscope

MATERIALS

• Light microscope
• Microscope slides
• Coverslips
• Onion
• Knife/scalpel
• Forceps or dissecting needles
• Eye dropper (optional)

36 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 • Methylene blue stain with eye dropper
• Paper towelling
• 500 mL beaker of water for used microscope slides and coverslips
• Ambulia plant (or an alternative freshwater-oxygenating plant available from the local aquarium or
biological supplier)
• Plastic bag
• Disposable gloves
• Prepared slide of human cheek cells
• Prepared slide of bacteria
• Prepared slides of plant and animal tissues (for example root hairs, guard cells, frog blood cells, human
blood cells, sperm cells or neurons)
• Immersion oil

RISK ASSESSMENT

WHAT ARE THE WHAT RISK DOES THIS HAZARD HOW CAN YOU SAFELY MANAGE THIS RISK? !
HAZARDS? POSE? RISK
ASSESSMENT
Knife/scalpel Sharp edges can cause cuts Use knife/scalpel with care, hold by the handle and
keep fingers away from sharp edge of knife.

Microscope slides/ Sharp edges can cause injury if broken Handle with care. Push gently on coverslip. Always
coverslips focus by moving objective lens away from slide.

METHOD
A Plant cell: onion
1 Remove the onion skin, cut through the onion and separate the layers.
2 Carefully lift a thin section of onion tissue from the surface of one of the layers.
3 Prepare a wet mount of this tissue using the technique outlined in the following steps.
4 Cut a piece of onion tissue about 1 cm2 in area and place this in a drop of methylene blue stain on the glass
microscope slide. Be careful not to fold the tissue over on itself.
5 Using a dissecting needle, lower the coverslip carefully to avoid the formation of air bubbles (Fig. 2.5).
6 Place a piece of paper towel over the coverslip and microscope slide to dry any excess stain.

FIGURE 2.5 Diagram Dissecting needle

showing technique
for lowering coverslip
on to a wet mount

Onion skin

Microscope slide

Drop of stain

Coverslip

7 View under low power, then under high power.

A worked
8 Draw a scientific diagram of two or three cells. Use a sharp pencil and draw single, solid lines. Each diagram example to
should be large enough (approximately 6–7 cm in size) to clearly show all structures visible inside the cells. Each calculate total
magnification
diagram should have detailed and accurate labels. Label lines should be parallel if possible and should never is shown on
cross over each other. They should have no arrowheads and should touch the actual structure being labelled. page 39.
9 Label the nucleus, cell membrane and cytoplasm.
10 Total magnification should also be recorded.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 2 » CELL STRUCTURE AND TECHNOLOGIES 37

 B Plant cell: Ambulia – pond weed
11 Prepare a wet mount using a leaf from the tip of the plant.
12 Place the leaf on to a drop of water and gently lower the coverslip (see step 5 above).
13 View under low power, then under high power. Note any streaming movement of the cytoplasm and
chloroplasts.
14 Draw a diagram of one cell (see step 8 above). Label the cell wall, nucleus, chloroplasts and cytoplasm.
15 Record the total magnification.
C Animal cell: cheek cells
16 Observe a prepared slide of stained cheek cells under low power and then high power.
17 Draw a diagram of one of these cells and label the cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm and any other
structures you can identify.
18 Record the total magnification.
19 View prepared slides of other animal and plant tissue supplied by your teacher.
20 Identify any different cell structures observed.
D Prokaryotic cell
21 Observe a prepared slide of bacterial cells.
22 Use an oil immersion objective to give a higher magnification (to observe the bacteria). Place a drop of oil
on the coverslip above the specimen and centre the oil immersion objective lens over the oil. Use the fine
focus adjustment to obtain a clear image.
23 Draw one bacterial cell and record the magnification. Note the size of a bacterial cell compared to a cheek
cell.

RESULTS

1 Your results will include scientific diagrams including labels and total magnification of:
a an onion cell
b an Ambulia cell
c a cheek cell
d a bacterial cell
e two other cells you observed.
2 In a table, record the similarities and differences in size and structure between the cells you have observed
and drawn in the previous question:
i two plant cells: a and b
ii a plant cell and an animal cell: b and c
iii a plant cell and a bacterial cell: a and d
3 List the cells in order of size from smallest to largest.

DISCUSSION

1 Describe why methylene blue stain was used when preparing the wet mount of the onion cell.
2 Compare the size of a bacterial cell to the plant and animal cells you have seen so far.
3 Outline any cell detail seen inside the bacterial cells.
4 Identify two limitations of using a light microscope.
5 Using your observations of the cells, suggest two differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
6 Describe how the prepared slides that you used compare to the ones that you prepared yourself.
7 Describe how using oil immersion helped you to see the internal structure of the bacterial cell.

CONCLUSION
Write a summary statement that relates to the aim of this investigation. A brief summary of what you did
(variable changed) and what you found (variables observed) is required.

38 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 Calculating total magnification
To calculate the total magnification when using a light microscope, the magnification of the ocular
(eyepiece) lens is multiplied by the magnification of the objective lens being used:
total magnification 5 magnification ocular lens 3 magnification objective lens
Numeracy

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.1

Calculate the total magnification of a microscope when the magnification of the ocular lens is 103 and the
magnification of the objective lens is 103.

ANSWER LOGIC

5 10 3 10 • Multiply the magnification of ocular lens by the magnification

of objective lens.

5 1003 • Calculate the answer.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

Complete the following table.

OCULAR LENS MAGNIFICATION OBJECTIVE LENS MAGNIFICATION TOTAL MAGNIFICATION

103 203
103 403
123 4803
KEY
CONCEPTS

● You can use a light microscope to view cells.

● Total magnification is calculated by multiplying the magnification of the ocular lens by that of
the objective lens.

CHECK YOUR
1 State the two different types of cells, and list features of each. UNDERSTANDING
2 What features do the two different types of cells share?
3 Complete the following table to compare the features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. 2.1

CHARACTERISTIC PROKARYOTIC CELLS EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Membrane-bound nucleus
Membrane-bound organelles
Unicellular/multicellular
Examples

4 Draw a labelled scientific diagram of the following cells as seen through the light microscope:
• an onion cell
• a cheek cell.
5 Calculate the total magnification of a light microscope when a 123 ocular lens and a 203 objective lens
are used to view a sample. Show your working.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 2 » CELL STRUCTURE AND TECHNOLOGIES 39

 Technologies used to determine
2.2 cell structure

Scientists in the 1500s used handheld magnifying glasses to view objects

of interest. In the quest to see greater detail, scientists invented the
first compound microscope (Fig. 2.6). This microscope had two convex
lenses placed at either end of a barrel and was the precursor to the
light microscope. After much refining, this simple handheld device has
transformed into the microscopes that are commonly used in the school
laboratory.
After further developments were made to the structure of these
compound microscopes, such as placing them on a stand, adding focus
FIGURE 2.6 Hans and Zacharias Janssen invented the
first compound microscope. knobs and a light source, scientists were better able to determine the
structure of organisms. Robert Hooke, in the 1660s, was able to view and
draw the structure in cork that led to his use of the term ‘cella’, leading to
our term ‘cell’ (Fig. 2.7).

a
Alamy Stock Photo/Science History Images

Eyepiece

Getty Images/Print Collector

Fine adjustment
knob

Lens to
concentrate
light source

Stage to hold
specimen

FIGURE 2.7 a Hooke’s compound microscope; b Hooke’s drawing of cork, showing the compartments he called ‘cella’

Modern microscopes
Further refinements in the structure of compound microscopes continued over the succeeding years
until we have those that are in use today.

Light microscopes
Discovering In the compound light microscope such as those you use in the school laboratory, a light source passes
the principle of through a condenser lens and then through the thin specimen. This beam of light then passes through
a compound
microscope the convex objective lens, where the image is magnified and viewed through the ocular lens (Fig. 2.8).

40 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 Compound light microscopes can produce images with a magnification (increase in size of the image)
See page 44
up to 15003 depending on the lenses used. In microscopy, as well as magnification, resolution (or resolving for conventions
power) is also important in order to see the detail of structures. Resolution is the ability to distinguish regarding units of
measurement.
between two separate objects. It is the smallest distance between two objects where each can be observed
as separate. For a compound light microscope, the maximum resolution is 200 nm (nanometres). This
means that the best light microscopes will only be able to distinguish two Eye
separate structures if the distance between them is 200 nm or more. If the
distance between the objects is less than 200 nm, two distinct objects will Eyepiece

be seen as one object. Coarse Ocular lens

Both living and non-living specimens can be viewed using a compound adjustment

light microscope. Fine

adjustment

Fluorescence microscopes Objective lens

The fluorescence microscope is similar to the light microscope. It has

extra features that enable scientists to produce images of specific parts
of cells. Structures beyond the limit of resolution of the light microscope Specimen
can be seen using this microscope. Stage
Condenser lens
The sample to be viewed is labelled with a fluorescent substance that
will attach to the structures that the scientist wants to specifically observe. Condenser
adjustment Light source
The sample is illuminated with a high-intensity source of light that causes
the fluorescent substance to emit light. This fluorescent light is directed Base/foot
through filters that separate it from surrounding light and the viewer is able
FIGURE 2.8 The compound light microscope
to see only those areas of the sample that are fluorescing (Fig. 2.9).

a
Science Source/Ted Kinsman

iStock/defun
b

FIGURE 2.9 a A fluorescence microscope; b image of cells seen through a fluorescence microscope,
showing different parts of the cell exhibiting different colours of fluorescence

Electron microscopes
Since the 1950s, studies of microscopic organisms have been revolutionised by the development of the electron
microscope. This instrument uses an electron beam instead of light, and electromagnets instead of glass
lenses. The interaction between the electrons and the object forms a viewable image on a screen (Fig. 2.10).
The use of electrons instead of light gives much greater magnification. Electron microscopes also have a much
higher resolving power than light microscopes because electrons have a much shorter wavelength than light.
The electron microscope reveals structures at not only the cellular level, but also at the subcellular
level. Materials that were formerly believed to have little or no structure have been shown to have

9780170407281 CHAPTER 2 » CELL STRUCTURE AND TECHNOLOGIES 41

 elaborate internal organisation. Many parts of cells (organelles) were seen for the first time after the
invention of the electron microscope. Other parts previously seen with the light microscope can be
seen in far greater detail, providing increased knowledge of their internal structure. This has led to a
greater understanding of their functions in cells. Features as small as one-tenth of a nanometre (one
ten-billionth of a metre) can be seen, including individual atoms.
There are two main types of electron microscopes: the scanning electron microscope (SEM) and the
transmission electron microscope (TEM).
The electron microscope shown in Figures 2.10 and 2.11 is called a transmission electron microscope
(TEM) because the electrons are transmitted (pass through) the specimen. The TEM produces a two-
dimensional image. It is the most common form of electron microscope. It can magnify up to 1 500 000
times and has a resolution of about 2 nm.
A scanning electron microscope (SEM) bombards solid specimens with a beam of electrons, which
causes secondary electrons to be emitted from the surface layers of the specimen. The SEM has poorer
resolution (about 10 nm) than a TEM, but gives excellent three-dimensional images of surfaces (Fig. 2.12).

Getty Images/Javier Larrea

Source of
electrons
Zoom into the
micro world
Specimen

Electromagnetic
lenses
Virtual scanning
electron Eye
microscope
Try to get the best
possible image for
each specimen viewed
in the virtual scanning
microscope.

Final image
on screen
Information and
communication FIGURE 2.11 A transmission electron microscope (TEM)
technology FIGURE 2.10 The electron microscope currently used in biological research
capability
Getty Images/Don W Fawcett

Science Photo Library/Dr Richard Kessel & Dr

Randy Kardon, Visuals Unlimited

a b

FIGURE 2.12 a TEM image of kidney cells; b SEM image of the surface of the tongue. The resolution of the microscope is
high enough to show the individual taste buds.

42 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 Although there are many advantages in using an electron microscope, there are some disadvantages.
For example, the specimen must be placed in a vacuum for viewing, because air would interfere with the
flow of electrons. As a result, living tissue cannot be viewed.
The preparation of the specimen is very complicated and comes with a risk of introducing
artefacts into the image. An artefact is something that is introduced into the image that wouldn’t
normally be there. Comparing samples prepared in different ways can identify whether artefacts
are present.
The size, expense and maintenance costs are much larger in this type of microscope than in others.

Computer-enhanced technology to study cells

Digital processing of images produced by microscopes allows scientists to view cells in new ways.
WS
For example, cell scan software produces three-dimensional representations of cell structure, allowing
a much greater understanding of cell structure and function. Our knowledge about cells has been Technologies used
to study cells
helped by the development of advanced computer technologies to construct models that can be used
to determine how molecules interact in cellular reactions.
Confocal laser scanning microscopy can be used to highlight the three-dimensional structure of
samples being studied. A laser produces a narrow intense beam of light that is focused to a pinpoint
on the sample while all the surrounding, out-

From Jekle, M., Becker, T.: Wheat dough micro-

structure: The relation between visual structure and
mechanical behavior. Critical reviews in food science
and nutrition 55 (2015), 369–382
of-focus areas are not included in the image.
This focusing occurs many times through
the specimen at different levels. An image
reconstruction program puts together the
data from the images taken at different levels
and constructs a three-dimensional image
(Fig. 2.13). These microscopes are often used
to image the structural components of cells FIGURE 2.13 Confocal laser scanning microscope takes an
and have the advantage that the specimen image of the sample at many different levels. A computer
program is then used to construct a three-dimensional image.
remains intact.
KEY CONCEPTS

● Early microscopes allowed scientists to see cells for the first time.
● Magnification indicates how much an image has been increased in size.
● The resolution indicates the minimum distance objects need to be apart to be able to be seen
separately.
● Light microscopes pass light rays through thin specimens that are magnified by convex
glass lenses.
● Magnification in light microscopes can be up to 2000×, maximum resolution 200 nm.
● Living and non-living specimens can be viewed using a light microscope.
● Fluorescence microscopy targets specific structures and uses labelling of these structures with
fluorescent substances to see them.
● Electron microscopes use electron beams and electromagnets instead of light rays and lenses.
● Two types of electron microscopes are transmission electron microscopes (TEM) and scanning
electron microscopes (SEM). No living specimens can be viewed with an electron microscope.
● In a TEM, beams of electrons pass through a specimen and produce a two-dimensional image.
Very high magnification and resolution are possible (up to ten million times with some SEMs).
● In a SEM, electron beams bounce off surfaces and create a three-dimensional image.
● Confocal laser scanning microscopes use pinpoint laser beams to make images of many layers,
which are then combined into a three-dimensional model.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 2 » CELL STRUCTURE AND TECHNOLOGIES 43

 CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Explain the difference between the terms ‘magnification’ and ‘resolution’.
2 Outline how a light microscope works.
2.2 3 Identify two advantages and one disadvantage of using the light microscope to view specimens.
4 Outline the process used in fluorescence microscopy and provide one advantage over the use of a light microscope.
5 Explain how an image is created in an electron microscope.
6 Use a table to compare the TEM with the SEM. Features to use could be such things as the magnification,
resolution, the type of image formed and the way it is produced.
7 Identify two advantages and two disadvantages of using the electron microscope to view specimens.
8 Describe how a three-dimensional image is produced when using a confocal laser scanning microscope.

2.3 Sizes of cells

Advances in biology over the last decades have pushed our view of the microscopic world to ever-
decreasing sizes. Centimetres, millimetres and even micrometres or microns (μm) are often too large to
measure some objects. We are now in the ‘nano age’.
1 metre (m) 5 102 centimetres (cm) 1 cm 5 1/100 m
How big?
5 103 millimetres (mm) 1 mm 5 1/1000 m
Compare the size of a 6
human hair to that of 5 10 micrometres or microns (μm) 1 μm 5 1/ 1 000 000 m
a red blood cell and an
Ebola virus.
5 109 nanometres (nm) 1 nm 5 1/1 000 000 000 m
Figure 2.14 demonstrates the size of the objects seen by the naked eye, a light microscope and electron
microscope.

1m 1 dm 1 cm 1 mm 100 μm 10 μm 1 μm 100 nm 10 nm 1 nm 0.1 nm

1m –1
10 m –2
10 m –3
10 m –4
10 m 10–5 m 10–6 m 10–7 m 10–8 m 10–9 m 10–10 m

Eye

Light microscope

Electron microscope

Height of a Width Width Thickness Size of a Size of a Size of a Size of a

Size of a
5-year-old of a of a of a human red blood virus DNA glucose An atom
bacterium
child hand finger hair cell particle molecule molecule

FIGURE 2.14 Size and comparison of images seen by the naked eye, light microscope and electron microscope

44 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 Drawing scaled diagrams Numeracy

When drawing different types of cells, such as those viewed in Investigation 2.1, it is useful to draw these
cells to scale. This allows a more accurate representation of the size of these cells.
Diagrams that are drawn to scale will always contain a ‘scale bar’, which indicates the scale to which
the diagram is drawn.
The scale bar represents a specific whole number of μm and is often 1–5 cm in length. In order to
draw the scale bar:
1 Determine the actual length of the object to be drawn.

2 When the actual length of the object determined above is divided by the length of the proposed
WS
drawing, a whole number should be obtained.
For example: How to approach
length of cell 5 8 μm drawings in
biology
length of drawing 5 4 cm
Actual length 8 μm
5
Length of drawing 4 cm
2μm
Scale 5
1cm

Therefore, a scale bar 1 cm in length would represent 2 μm

or a scale bar 2 cm in length would represent 4 μm, and so on.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.2

A human cheek cell, as observed in Investigation 2.1 and shown in Figure 2.15, has a diameter of
approximately 60 μm. Its nucleus has a diameter of 6 μm. Draw a scaled diagram of the human cheek cell
and its nucleus.

Science Photo Library/Biophoto Associates

FIGURE 2.15 A human cheek cell with nucleus

9780170407281 CHAPTER 2 » CELL STRUCTURE AND TECHNOLOGIES 45

 ANSWER LOGIC

Actual diameter of cell 5 60 μm • Extract data from question.

Diameter of cell to be drawn 5 5 cm

60 μm Actual diameter
Scale 5 •
5 cm Diameter of drawing
12 μm
5
1 cm

A scale bar of 1 cm represents 12 μm.

• Measure 5 cm both across and down the centre of the area
where the diagram is to be drawn.
• Remembering the guidelines for biological drawings, draw one
solid line in a roughly circular shape with the 5 cm diameter.
(Note: the cheek cell is not perfectly circular)
The nucleus is 6 μm, which would be equivalent to 0.5 cm. • According to our scale 1 cm represents 12 μm.
• Calculate the diameter to draw for the nucleus.

• Draw in the nucleus with a diameter of 0.5 cm (5 mm).

• Include the scale bar at the base of the drawing.

Nucleus

12 mm Cheek cell

FIGURE 2.16 Scaled diagram of human cheek cell

TRY THESE YOURSELF

Draw a scaled diagram of the following cells.
1 Onion cell that is oblong in shape with a length of 30 μm and a width of 12 μm.
2 A red blood cell with a diameter of 8 μm.
KEY CONCEPTS

● 1 cm 5 10 mm
● 1 mm 5 1000 μm
● 1 μm 5 1000 nm
● Scaled diagrams must always contain a scale bar.
● The scale to be used can be calculated by dividing the actual size of the cell by the length of the
diagram to be drawn.

46 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 CHECK YOUR
The size of different types of cells (not drawn to scale) are shown in Figure 2.17. UNDERSTANDING

2.3

Trypanosoma
Chlamydomonas (protozoan)
(green alga) 25 μm long
5–6 μm HIV (AIDS
virus)
100 nm

T4 bacteriophage
225 nm long

Human red
blood cell Polio virus
7–8 μm 30 nm
diameter

Typical plant cell

10–100 μm

Escherichia coli (bacterium) Tobacco mosaic virus

1–5 μm long 300 nm long

FIGURE 2.17 Measurements of biological specimens (not drawn to scale)

1 Using the measurement given for each cell,

Alamy Stock Photo/Scott Camazine

list the cells in order from the smallest to
the largest.
2 State which of the cells are prokaryotes and
which are eukaryotes.
3 What does the statement ‘not drawn to scale’
mean?
4 What is the size of the typical plant cell
in mm?
5 Which is larger, a T4 bacteriophage or an
E. coli bacterium? Explain your answer.
6 Convert the following measurements:
a 2 cm to mm FIGURE 2.18 SEM image of a red blood cell with a scale bar

b 0.013 mm to μm
c 4000 nm to μm
d 0.080 μm to nm.
7 Using a ruler and the scale provided, determine the actual size of the full cell shown in Figure 2.18. Show
the formula you have used and all workings.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 2 » CELL STRUCTURE AND TECHNOLOGIES 47

 2.4 Organelles in cells
All eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound internal structures called organelles, each with a specific
structure and function. Different organelles share the common feature of having internal structures
that are enclosed by their own membrane. The membrane may be either double or single in structure.
Although each organelle has a different structure and function, they all work together to contribute to the
effective functioning of a cell as a unit. Many organelles have maximised the amount of surface area they
have available to carry out their particular functions.
One of the differences between organelles is their size. Some organelles, such as the nucleus, vacuoles
and chloroplasts, can be seen with a light microscope. Details of other organelles, such as mitochondria
and ribosomes, can be seen only by using an electron microscope (see Table 2.1).

TABLE 2.1 Comparison of the structures visible using light and electron microscopes

SCHOOL LIGHT MICROSCOPE ADVANCED LIGHT MICROSCOPE ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

(10–4003) (800–20003) (60–1 500 0003)
• cell wall All structures in previous column All structures in previous two columns
• nucleus and nuclear membrane as well as: as well as:
• chloroplast • cell membrane • endoplasmic reticulum
• vacuole: tonoplast and cell sap • Golgi body • ribosomes
• cytoplasm • mitochondria • lysosomes
• nucleolus. • centrosome
Special staining required for all • cytoskeleton (special staining is
needed to see this).

The arrangement of organelles also varies depending on whether the cell is a plant or animal
cell. A generalised diagram and line drawing of a eukaryotic animal cell is shown in Figure 2.19 and
a plant cell in Figure 2.20.
Plant and animal cells contain many of the same organelles. The plant cell, however, possesses a cell
wall, chloroplasts and a large vacuole that the animal cell does not.
Figure 2.21 summarises the organelles that are found in both plant and animal cells. It also shows the
organelles specific to plant cells and those that are only present in animal cells.

Membranes – selective boundaries

The cell membrane (alternative names are plasma membrane, cytoplasmic membrane and plasmalemma)
surrounds the cell contents in all cells and separates the cell contents from their surroundings. It controls
the passage of water and other chemical substances into and out of cells. It is a selective barrier, permitting
the passage of only certain molecules into or out of cells. This property gives the cell membrane the
feature of being selectively permeable (sometimes referred to as semipermeable). Both plant and animal
cells have a cell membrane. The membranes surrounding organelles are also selective in allowing only
certain substances to pass between the cytoplasm and the organelle.

Protoplasm
It is in the protoplasm of cells that the functions essential to life, such as making cellular products and
respiration, are carried out. The protoplasm is the living content of a cell that is surrounded by the cell
membrane. The protoplasm is composed of the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm (that part of
the protoplasm outside the nucleus) consists of a liquid called the cytosol in which there are dissolved
chemical substances (for example, ions such as chloride ions), suspended organelles and insoluble
granules. Approximately 90 per cent of the cytoplasm is water – the medium in which all cell chemicals
are dissolved or suspended.

48 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 Science Photo Library/RUSSELL KIGHTLEY
a Eukaryotic animal cell
Cell membrane: outermost
barrier of the cell (selectively allows Temporary vacuole: a
some substances to pass through it) temporary storage sac

Golgi apparatus: system of

Cytoplasm: fluid material membranes that package and
where activities of the store substances before their
cell occur release

Endoplasmic
reticulum: intracellular
and intercellular
transport system

Mitochondrion:
site of cellular
respiration

Ribosomes: sites of
protein synthesis

Nucleus: coordinates all the

Nucleolus: involved activities of the cell
in the manufacture
of ribosomes within
the cell

b Endoplasmic
reticulum Cell membrane

Temporary
vacuole

Cytoplasm

Golgi
apparatus

Mitochondrion

Ribosomes

Nucleolus Nucleus

FIGURE 2.19 a A eukaryotic animal cell showing its nucleus and organelles; b a scientific line drawing of the cell

9780170407281 CHAPTER 2 » CELL STRUCTURE AND TECHNOLOGIES 49

 a Eukaryotic plant cell

Science Photo Library/RUSSELL KIGHTLEY

Cell membrane: selectively
allows some substances to
pass through it
Chloroplast: site of
photosynthesis

Cytoplasm: fluid
Nucleolus: involved material where
in the manufacture activities of the cell
of ribosomes within occur
the cell

Nucleus:
coordinates all
the activities of
the cell Cell wall: provides
extra support and
protection to plant
cells

Large permanent vacuole:

a fluid-filled space that Mitochondrion: site of
stores various materials cellular respiration

b Cell membrane
Chloroplast
Cell wall

Large
permanent
vacuole
Nucleus

Nucleolus Cytoplasm

Mitochondrion

FIGURE 2.20 a A eukaryotic plant cell showing its nucleus, cell wall and other organelles; b a scientific line drawing of the cell

Nucleus – the control and information centre

The nucleus (plural: nuclei) appears as a large, spherical or oval structure in the cytoplasm (Fig. 2.22).
It is colourless, transparent and slightly more jelly-like than the rest of the cell. Most organisms have
one nucleus per cell. The nucleus stores the information needed to control all cell activities. It is
therefore essential for the nucleus to be able to communicate with the surrounding cytoplasm. Electron
micrographs reveal that the nucleus is surrounded by a double nuclear membrane or nuclear envelope,
pierced by tiny pores. These pores regulate the passage of substances between the nucleus and cytoplasm,
allowing communication between them.

50 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 FIGURE 2.21
Summary of
structures found in
plant and animal cells

Cell wall

Chloroplasts Cell membrane Centrioles

Cytoplasm Lysosomes
Large, permanent
vacuole Cytoskeleton
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi body
Ribosomes

Plant cell Animal cell

Both

a Nucleoplasm b

Science Source/Alfred Pasieka

Chromatin material Ribosomes
(DNA + protein)

Nuclear pore

Nucleolus

Double nuclear
membrane Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
FIGURE 2.22 a Diagram of nucleus showing nucleolus, nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm, chromatin material and associated endoplasmic reticulum
and ribosomes; b electron micrograph image of nucleus

The nucleoplasm or nuclear sap is the liquid part of the nucleus in which the chromatin material
is found. Chromatin is made up of protein and nucleic acid. The deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA, is stored
in the nucleus. It is a very large chemical that holds, in a coded form, all the genetic information (the
‘blueprint’) necessary to control the cell’s function. This DNA contains the hereditary information of
an organism that gets passed from one generation to the next. Within one organism, the information
stored in the DNA of each cell is the same. Before a cell divides, the information on the DNA must be
copied so that it can be transmitted (passed on) to newly formed cells. The chromatin separates into
short, thick separate rod-shaped structures called chromosomes, which become visible in dividing
cells (from the Greek chromo (coloured) and soma (body), so named because chromosomes take up
stains easily when being prepared for microscopy). Each species of organism has its own particular
number of chromosomes; for example, humans have 46 chromosomes, a platypus has 52, a lettuce has
18 and a camel has 70.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 2 » CELL STRUCTURE AND TECHNOLOGIES 51

 The nucleolus is a dense, granular region commonly seen within the nucleoplasm. It contains
a large amount of nucleic acid; some DNA, but mostly RNA. The nucleolus is responsible for the
manufacture of organelles called ribosomes, the essential ‘machinery’ of the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum – transport and processing

of proteins and lipids
The outer nuclear membrane is usually continuous with a network of flattened, interconnected
FIGURE 2.23 Rough
ER studded with
membranes – the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The ER provides a connection of pathways between
ribosomes the nucleus and the cell’s environment, allowing intracellular transport (transport within a cell). The
immense folding of the sheets of membrane increases its surface area.
ER may have ribosomes attached (rough ER; Fig. 2.23) or may have no ribosomes (smooth ER).
The main function of ER is transport, but it also plays a role in processing cell products: rough ER folds
and processes proteins made by the cell and it can also synthesise lipids. Smooth ER is the main site of
lipid production, essential for membrane repair and manufacture. ER may also transport substances from
one cell to another in plant cells, passing through channels called cell pits in the cell wall.

Ribosomes – protein synthesis

Ribosomes are small organelles that appear as dense, rounded granules in electron micrographs of cells.
Their small size increases their surface area. Each is made of the chemicals RNA and protein, and they
are the ‘machinery’ that carries out the genetically coded instructions of DNA to produce any proteins
necessary for cell functioning and structure. Amino acids are joined in order to form polypeptides, the
structural unit of proteins.
Ribosomes may be found free in the cytoplasm or scattered over the surface of ER. Newly synthesised
proteins pass from the ribosomes into the ER, where the protein is folded.

Golgi bodies – packaging and sorting the products

The Golgi body (also known as Golgi apparatus) is also made of flat membranes, but it differs from ER
in that it does not have ribosomes attached and its membranes are arranged in stacks of four to 10. The
Golgi body (Fig. 2.24) is easily recognisable by its curved shape on one surface, where vesicles can be seen

b Nucleus Cell membrane

Nuclear pore Protein
Rough
endoplasmic expelled
reticulum

a Vesicles Secretory
vesicle

Forming face Cisternae

Ribosome

Cis face

Proteins Trans face

Transport
vesicle Golgi
Smooth apparatus
endoplasmic
reticulum

FIGURE 2.24 a Golgi body and vesicles; b diagram showing the relationship between the ER, Golgi body and the cell membrane

52 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 budding off. This surface is called the forming face and the vesicles are evidence of the secretory function
of Golgi bodies. The opposite surface may be convex or flat.
Golgi bodies process, package and sort cell products. They are involved in adding proteins and
carbohydrates to cell products and they also provide a membrane around the cell products to package
them. The membranes provided by Golgi bodies vary and serve as a packaging ‘label’. Features of the
membrane are used to sort these products, determining where they will end up – they may be transported
within the cell to wherever they are required or they may be secreted from the cell.

Lysosomes – digestion and destruction

Organelles within the cytoplasm of cells will eventually reach their ‘use-by date’ and wear out. Instead of
wasting the raw materials that make up these organelles, the cell has a clever method of recycling and
reuse. This is the job carried out by lysosomes (‘lysis’ 5 to break apart), special organelles found within
the cytoplasm of animal cells.
Lysosomes (Fig. 2.25) are formed by the Golgi body. They contain digestive enzymes that are
responsible for splitting complex chemical compounds into simpler ones, such as when proteins are
broken down into amino acids. These simpler molecules can then be used as building blocks for new
compounds and organelles. Sometimes lysosomes may destroy the entire cell. This process is known as
apoptosis or programmed cell death. It is a deliberate action by the cell to destroy old and damaged cells.
Under the direction of the cell, the lysosome membrane ruptures, releasing the enzymes, which then
digest the contents of the cell, killing it in the process.

Science Source/Don W. Fawcett

a Mitochondrion
Phospholipid
bilayer

Lysosomes
Buzzle.com

Golgi
complex

Proteins Enzyme complex

FIGURE 2.25 a Structure of a lysosome; b electron micrograph showing lysosomes and the Golgi body (apparatus)

Mitochondria – cellular respiration

Mitochondria (Fig. 2.26) are the ‘powerhouses’ of a cell, producing energy in the form of energy-rich
molecules by the process of cellular respiration. Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are usually rod-
shaped but may be round; they vary in both shape and size. Mitochondria are smaller than the nucleus
and chloroplasts but larger than ribosomes.
The number of mitochondria in a cell depends on how much energy the cell needs to carry out its
functions. Less active cells contain few mitochondria, whereas very active cells have hundreds or even
thousands of mitochondria. For example, active liver cells contain 1000 to 2000 mitochondria. Just
as machines in a factory need electrical energy in order to work, so cells need energy, in the form of
a chemical called ATP (adenosine triphosphate), to work. Mitochondria combine oxygen with sugars
during the process of cellular respiration to release energy in a form (ATP) that the cell can use.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 2 » CELL STRUCTURE AND TECHNOLOGIES 53

 Alamy Stock Photo/Science History Images
a Outer membrane b Outer membrane

Inner membrane
folded into cristae Cristae
Inner membrane
Cristae Matrix space

Particles on
outer membrane Inter-membrane space
Cytosol

Lumen or cavity
FIGURE 2.26 a Simplified diagram of mitochondrion in longitudinal section; b electron micrograph of a mitochondrion

A double membrane surrounds each mitochondrion. The outer membrane gives the mitochondria
their shape and allows the passage of small substances into and out of mitochondria. The inner
membrane is folded into fine, finger-like ridges or cristae, increasing the surface area for attachment of
groups of enzymes responsible for producing energy for the cell. These appear as knob-like particles on
the inside of the cristae. The central space in a mitochondrion is filled with fluid and is termed the matrix.
It contains mitochondrial DNA and enzymes that give mitochondria the unusual feature of being able
to replicate (make copies of) themselves. The mitochondria divide by pinching off and then growing,
something that usually occurs in very active cells or cells that are about to divide.

Vacuoles – storage and support

Vacuoles are large, permanent, fluid-filled sacs in the cytoplasm of mature plant cells. Each vacuole
consists of a watery solution called cell sap, surrounded by a single membrane, the tonoplast (Fig. 2.27).
Cell sap contains substances such as mineral salts, sugars and amino acids, dissolved in water. It may also
contain dissolved pigments that give cells their colour (for example the reds, pinks and purples seen in
some flower petals). Besides having a storage function, vacuoles play a very important role in providing
support to plant cells. By filling up with water, the vacuole pushes outwards with the cytoplasm, exerting

a Endoplasmic reticulum b

Science Photo Library/DR. JEREMY BURGESS

Nucleus Ribosome

Mitochondria
Cell wall
Vacuole

Cytoplasm
Chloroplast

Golgi complex Cell membrane

FIGURE 2.27 a Diagram of a generalised plant cell showing structures including a vacuole; b electron micrograph showing vacuole and tonoplast

54 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 a pressure on the cell wall, keeping it firm. As a result of the outward pressure of the cell contents and the
resistance of the cell wall, the cell becomes firm or turgid.
Small, temporary vesicles may sometimes be found in animal cells, but these do not play a role
in cell support, so permanent vacuoles that give turgidity are considered to be a feature exclusive to
plant cells.

Chloroplasts – photosynthesis
Chloroplasts are organelles that are green in colour, due to the presence of a pigment called
chlorophyll. Chloroplasts are responsible for photosynthesis – the manufacturing of sugar in plants,
using the energy of sunlight. Chloroplasts are not present in all plant cells; they are found only in
the green tissue of plants that can photosynthesise. Under the light microscope, they appear as
green, disc-shaped structures, smaller than the nucleus. An electron microscope is needed to see
the detailed interior.
Chloroplasts belong to a group of organelles called plastids, which are biconvex in shape. Plastids WS
contain either pigment or nutrients and vary in colour. Chloroplasts are green plastids. They are larger
Cell micrographs
than mitochondria but are similar in that they also contain their own DNA; the number of chloroplasts
per cell varies.
A double membrane surrounds chloroplasts. This allows substances to pass between the cytoplasm
and the chloroplast. Unlike mitochondria, the inner membrane of the chloroplast is not folded
(Fig. 2.28). The liquid part of the chloroplast is called the stroma and it is here that stacks of membranes
called thylakoids are found. Each stack or group of thylakoids is termed a granum (plural: grana) and the
chlorophyll is found on these membranes.

a Double b
membrane

Science Photo Library/DR. JEREMY BURGESS

Stroma Stroma
Stroma

Grana (stacked Cell cytoplasm

thylakoids)
Thylakoids – lamellae
containing chlorophyll

Granum Double
(a stack of lamellae membrane
Starch grain is a granum)
in stroma

FIGURE 2.28 a Diagram of chloroplast seen in longitudinal section; b electron micrograph of a chloroplast

The layering of the membranes increases the surface area over which chlorophyll occurs, allowing
a large amount of sunlight to be absorbed for the process of photosynthesis. This captured energy of
sunlight is then used by the plant to make simple sugars. All the enzymes needed for photosynthesis
are present in the stroma, and simple sugars made during photosynthesis are stored in the stroma as
starch grains.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 2 » CELL STRUCTURE AND TECHNOLOGIES 55

 Plant cell wall – shape and support
Science Photo Library/CLAUDIA STOCKER

Chromosome Centrioles
The cellulose cell wall that surrounds plant cells differs from the cell
membrane inside it. The cell wall is not selective in terms of what substances
it does or does not allow into the cell. Its structure allows it to provide
strength and support. The strands of cellulose fibres have a little elasticity
and are somewhat flexible so they can resist pressure. Some cell walls are
thickened with additional chemicals that make the walls hard and woody (for
example, in tree trunks) or that provide waterproofing (for example, in cork
Spindle
or the waxy cuticle of leaves). Cell walls are permeable to most molecules.
FIGURE 2.29 Centrioles forming the spindles,
which hold the chromosomes in a dividing cell Centrioles – spindle production in cell division
A dense, granular structure, the centrosome, is often found near the nucleus
Science Photo Library/DR TORSTEN WITTMANN

in animal cells. It consists of two centrioles, which play an important role in

cell division, forming the spindle, which holds chromosomes in a dividing
cell (Fig. 2.29).

Cytoskeleton – keeps organelles in place

Organelles are not randomly scattered within a cell. Their distribution is
organised and they are held in place by a network of tiny microtubules,
microfilaments and intermediate filaments called the cytoskeleton
(Fig. 2.30) that extends throughout the cytoplasm. It is the framework
for the shape of the cell, cell movement, organelle movement and cell
FIGURE 2.30 Fluorescence image of a cell division.
showing the cytoskeleton in yellow
KEY CONCEPTS

● Organelles are membrane-bound internal structures, each with a specific function to ensure the
WS
efficient functioning of the cell.

Cell structure
● Most organelles have structures that maximise the surface area.
● Organelles and other cell structures vary in size, with only the cell membrane, cell wall, nucleus,
chloroplasts and vacuoles being big enough to be observed using a light microscope.
● The function of organelles and other cell structures is summarised in Table 2.2.

TABLE 2.2
ORGANELLE/ FUNCTION
CELL STRUCTURE
Membranes Selectively permeable boundaries, control the movement of substances into
and out of the cell/organelle
Protoplasm The living content of a cell that is surrounded by the cell membrane
Nucleus The control and information centre
Endoplasmic reticulum Transport and processing of proteins and lipids
Golgi bodies Packaging and sorting the products
Ribosomes Protein synthesis
Lysosomes Digestion and cell destruction
Mitochondria Cellular respiration – production and storage of energy (ATP)
Vacuoles Storage and support
Chloroplasts Photosynthesis
Plant cell wall Shape and support
Centrioles Spindle production in cell division
Cytoskeleton Cell shape, organelle placement and movement and cell division

56 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 CHECK YOUR
1 Identify the organelles/cell structures that can be seen using a light microscope. UNDERSTANDING
2 Draw a scientific diagram of a plant cell and an animal cell as seen under a light microscope. Label the
structures common to both in one colour and those that are only found in plant cells in a different colour. 2.4
3 Choose three of the organelles discussed on the previous page. Draw their structure as seen under a light
microscope, state their function and explain how their features may help them to carry out their function.
4 Construct a table to compare (similarities) and contrast (differences between) the organelles found in an
animal cell. Use headings such as ‘Membrane present’, ‘Folding or layers to increase surface area’, ‘Structure’
and ‘Function’.

2.5 Cell membranes – gateway to cells

The detailed molecular structure of a cell membrane cannot be seen, even with an electron microscope.
Many years of research have led to the development of a number of different models that have attempted
to explain the structure of the cell membrane. Our current accepted understanding is based on a model
proposed in 1972 by Singer and Nicolson, called the fluid mosaic model of cell membranes. See page 5 for
This model, with minor modifications over the years, has been accepted because the behaviour of a discussion of
models in science.
membranes, estimated surface area, chemical analysis and electron microscope studies are all compatible
with the model. It also accounts for most functions associated with cell membranes.

The fluid mosaic model

The cell membrane controls the exchange of material between the internal and external environments
of the cell. It is selectively permeable, meaning that it allows only certain molecules or ions into or out
of the cell. The structure of the cell membrane allows the concentration of substances inside cells to
remain fairly constant and different from the external environment. In the currently accepted model,
the structure of the selectively permeable cell membrane is described as a fluid mosaic. This fluid mosaic
model proposes a ‘lipid sea’ with ‘many and various proteins floating on and in it’.
The fluid mosaic model describes the cell membrane as a double layer of lipids, a lipid bilayer, with
the ability to flow and change shape, like a two-dimensional fluid. Specialised protein molecules are
embedded in the lipid in various patterns like a mosaic. Some of these proteins can move sideways, but
others are fixed in position. Both proteins and phospholipids help to control the exchange of materials
between the external and internal environments.

Lipid component Hydrophilic

The ‘fluid’ part of the cell membrane is composed of two layers of phospholipids forming a head containing
phosphate
phospholipid bilayer. Each phospholipid in these layers can be represented by a head and two
tails, as shown in Figure 2.31. A phosphate group on the head makes this end hydrophilic (able
to absorb water or dissolve in water), otherwise known as ‘water loving’. The fatty acid tails Hydrophobic tail
are hydrophobic (water avoiding or unable to dissolve in water) or ‘water hating’. made of fatty
When these molecules form a bilayer, the water-attracting heads are positioned facing acid side chains
outwards – towards the cytoplasm on one side and to the outside of the cell on the other side.
The water-repelling tails are positioned inwards – towards each other (Fig. 2.32). This layering
is termed a ‘bilayer’. It is not rigid in structure, hence the term ‘fluid’ mosaic.
FIGURE 2.31 A phospholipid
A type of lipid called cholesterol is interspersed among the phospholipid molecules molecule. The hydrophilic head
in animal cells. This makes the membrane more flexible. Membrane flexibility in plants is is attracted to water whereas the
hydrophobic tails repel water.
increased by a different lipid – phytosterol.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 2 » CELL STRUCTURE AND TECHNOLOGIES 57

 FIGURE 2.32 A
representation of the
Water
way phospholipids Hydrophilic
form a bilayer in head
membranes
Hydrophobic
tail
Phospholipid
bilayer

Water

The lipid components of all membranes allow them to be flexible and repair themselves. This means
that the cells can change shape and grow. Cell membranes are able to break and reassemble themselves
during processes such as cell division.
This structure forms the basis of the cell membrane and all other membranes within cells, such as
those surrounding organelles. Proteins are then interspersed throughout this structure.

Membrane proteins
Protein molecules are scattered throughout, and suspended in, the lipid bilayer. Some proteins penetrate
all the way through the bilayer, forming channels that allow some materials to cross the membrane.
Other proteins may be partly embedded in the membrane. It seems that some proteins are fixed in place,
while others travel about freely. The proteins are described as ‘floating’ in the lipid bilayer ‘like icebergs in
a lipid sea’, giving a mosaic effect (Fig. 2.33).

Extracellular environment

Protein Exterior surface of

Carbohydrate cellular membrane
Cholesterol

Transport Receptor Recognition Adhesion Phospholipid

protein protein protein protein bilayer

Intracellular environment
FIGURE 2.33 A view of the fluid mosaic model of part of the cell membrane, showing embedded proteins

58 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 Some proteins function as pores (temporary or permanent) or form active carrier systems or
channels for transport, while other proteins (glycoproteins) have carbohydrates attached for cell
recognition.
WS
These proteins enable cell-to-cell interaction and communication, and the exchange of substances
between the cell and the external environment. For example, in multicellular organisms, adhesion Cell membrane
proteins link cells together and help maintain the organism’s three-dimensional structure.
Transport proteins act like passageways that allow specific substances to move across the membrane.
Membrane proteins are also involved in cellular communication. Receptor proteins are different in
different types of cells. They cause the cells to respond only to certain signals from substances such as
hormones that bind to them, giving them specific functions. Cell membrane
Complete the
Membrane recognition proteins or glycoproteins are made up of a protein molecule with a interactive activity
carbohydrate molecule attached. These proteins identify the cell and are called antigens or marker and build a cell
membrane. Draw
molecules. They allow the immune system to distinguish between foreign particles (‘non-self ’) and the a labelled diagram
of your cell
body’s own (‘self ’) cells. This ensures that the immune system will destroy only foreign particles that membrane.
display ‘non-self ’ markers.

INVESTIGATION 2.2

Modelling the structure and function of the fluid mosaic model

Models are used in science for a number of reasons, including to simplify a concept or make a visual
representation of something that can’t be seen. There are many ways of modelling the structure and function
of a cell membrane.

AIM
To model the structure and function of the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane

MATERIALS
Structure:
• rectangular cake or polystyrene block approximately 20 cm 3 10 cm 3 10 cm
• knife
• icing sugar, food colouring or fondant or buttercream
• marshmallows
• liquorice or modelling chocolate
• selection of lollies
• labels/toothpicks
Function:
• 2 × tea strainers
• icing sugar
• lollies, such as Smarties
• elastic band
• coloured paper
• salt
• sugar granules
• tea leaves

9780170407281 CHAPTER 2 » CELL STRUCTURE AND TECHNOLOGIES 59

 RISK ASSESSMENT
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE WHAT RISK DOES THIS
ASSESSMENT HAZARDS? HAZARD POSE? HOW CAN YOU SAFELY MANAGE THIS RISK?

Knife/scalpel Sharp edges can cause cuts Use knife/scalpel with care and keep fingers away from sharp edge
of knife.

Traces of chemicals Contamination of table tops Do not eat the cake if it was prepared in a science laboratory.

METHOD
Structure
1 Trim cake to approximately the suggested size.
2 Using fondant or icing, completely coat the surface of the cake.
3 Place marshmallows to completely cover the top surface of the cake. Then place one line of marshmallows
along the top and bottom of all sides of the cake, lined up with the marshmallows on the top edge of the cake.
4 Using liquorice or modelling chocolate, make ‘tails’. Stick two of these tails per marshmallow onto the side
of the cake, leading from the marshmallow to the centre.
5 Using modelling chocolate or lollies, construct ‘proteins’ that penetrate the whole cell membrane layer, and
‘proteins’ that are only partially embedded in the membrane.
6 Attach lollies or modelling chocolate to some of these ‘proteins’ to represent the glycoproteins.
7 Use lollies or modelling chocolate to represent cholesterol and phytosterols.
8 Attach labels to all parts of the model.
Function
9 Place two teaspoons of icing sugar and two teaspoons of lollies into one of the tea strainers.
10 Tie the handles of the tea strainers together with the elastic band.
11 Shake the tea strainer over a piece of coloured paper.
12 Record in the table provided which substances pass through.
13 Repeat this process using a variety of other substances (those on the equipment list or others).

RESULTS
Structure
1 Draw a diagram or take a photo of your model.
2 Copy and complete Table 2.3 to indicate what each part of your model represents in the fluid mosaic model.

TABLE 2.3
WS
STRUCTURE IN FLUID MOSAIC MODEL REPRESENTATION IN YOUR MODEL

Investigation 2.2 Phospholipid

Function
1 Draw a diagram or take a photo of your model.
2 Complete Table 2.4 to indicate what each part of your model represents in the fluid mosaic model.

TABLE 2.4
SUBSTANCES IN MIXTURE SUBSTANCES THAT PASSED THROUGH HOLES IN TEA STRAINER
Icing sugar and lollies

60 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 DISCUSSION
Structure
1 Outline the purpose of your model.
2 What are the benefits of your model of the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane?
3 Discuss the limitations of your model.
4 Justify the validity of your model. See page 4 for a discussion of validity.
Function
5 Outline the purpose of your model.
6 What are the benefits of your model of the f luid mosaic model of the cell membrane?
7 Discuss the limitations of your model.
8 Justify the validity of your model. See page 4 for a discussion of validity.

CONCLUSION
Write a summary statement that relates to the aim of this investigation, including a brief summary of what you
did and what you found.
KEY CONCEPTS

● The cell membrane is selectively permeable and performs the function of controlling the
movement of substances into and out of the cell.
● The currently accepted model of the structure of the cell membrane is the fluid mosaic model.
● This model depicts a ‘fluid’ phospholipid bilayer with different types of proteins embedded in
it, creating a ‘mosaic’ effect. Proteins either penetrate from one side to the other or are only
partially embedded.
● Some membrane proteins form pores (temporary or permanent), some form active carrier
systems or channels for transport, and others (glycoproteins) have carbohydrates attached for
cell recognition.
● Cholesterol (in animals) or phytosterols (in plants) provide some flexibility to the membrane.
● Models are used in science for a number of reasons, including to simplify a concept, make a
visual representation of something that can’t be seen, or make predictions of expected results.
● Before a model is accepted, it needs to be validated – that is, certain predictions should be made
and, when tested using the model, should hold true.
● When modelling a concept in the laboratory, all parts of the model should be related to actual
parts of what is being modelled.
● The limitations of the model should also be documented.

CHECK YOUR
1 Explain the structure of a lipid bilayer. UNDERSTANDING
2 Outline the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane.
3 List the proteins found in the cell membrane and state the function of each.
2.5
4 Explain why models are used in science and how they are validated.
5 a Sketch a two-dimensional scientific diagram of the transverse section of a cell membrane.
b Label all the different parts.
c Outline the function of each part that you have labelled.
6 Explain why the cell membrane needs to be selectively permeable for a cell to function.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 2 » CELL STRUCTURE AND TECHNOLOGIES 61

 2 CHAPTER SUMMARY
Cell structure and technologies: What distinguishes one cell from another?

PROKARYOTIC CELLS Animal cell

• No nucleus
• Possess cytoplasm, cell membrane ribosomes and Endoplasmic reticulum: Transport Cell membrane: Controls the movement
and processing of proteins and lipids of substances into and out of the cell
genetic material

Cell wall Ribosomes Temporary vacuole

Pili
Cytoplasm

Golgi apparatus:
Packaging and
sorting the products

Mitochondrion:
Cellular respiration

Ribosomes:
Protein synthesis
Bacterial
flagellum
Nucleolus: Manufacture Nucleus: The control and
ribosomes information centre

Cytoplasm
Capsule Chromosome: Cell Plasmid: COMPARISON OF ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS
DNA membrane DNA

EUKARYOTIC CELLS Cell wall

• Membrane-bound nucleus Chloroplasts
Cell membrane Centrioles
• Membrane-bound organelles Cytoplasm Lysosomes
Large, permanent
Cytoskeleton
vacuole
Plant cell Nucleus
Mitochondria
Cell membrane Endoplasmic
Chloroplast
Cell wall reticulum
Golgi body
Large
Ribosomes
permanent
vacuole

Plant cell Both Animal cell

Nucleus

BIOLOGICAL DRAWING
Nucleolus

Cytoplasm Nucleus

Mitochondrion 12 mm
Cheek cell

62 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 FLUID MOSAIC MODEL OF CELL MEMBRANE
Controls the exchange of material between the internal and external environments of the cell.
• This model depicts a ‘fluid’ phospholipid bilayer with different types of proteins embedded in it, creating a ‘mosiac’ effect.
Proteins either penetrate from one side to the other, or are only partially embedded.
• Some membrane proteins
form pores (temporary or Extracellular environment
permanent). Some form
active carrier systems or Protein Exterior surface of
channels for transport. Carbohydrate cellular membrane
Others (glycoproteins) have Cholesterol
carbohydrates attached for
cell recognition.

Hydrophilic
head containing
phosphate

Hydrophobic tail
made of fatty
acid side chains
Transport Receptor Recognition Adhesion Phospholipid
protein protein protein protein bilayer

Intracellular environment

TECHNOLOGIES USED TO DETERMINE CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Light microscope Fluorescent microscope Electron microscope

Eye
Science Source/Ted Kinsman

Eyepiece Source of
Coarse electrons
adjustment Ocular lens
Fine
adjustment Specimen
Objective lens
Electromagnetic
lenses
Specimen
Stage Eye
Condenser lens
Condenser Light source
adjustment
Base/foot

Total magnification = Ocular magnification × Objective lens magnification

Confocal laser scanning microscope

Final image
Optional sectioning Three-dimensional reconstruction on screen

From Jekle, M., Becker, T.: Wheat dough microstructure: The relation between visual structure and mechanical behavior. Critical
reviews in food science and nutrition 55 (2015), 369–382

9780170407281 CHAPTER 2 » CELL STRUCTURE AND TECHNOLOGIES 63

 2 CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Qz

Review quiz

1 a Identify the features that are common to all cells. 9 Draw a scaled diagram of an animal cell that is circular and
b Outline the features that are unique to: has a diameter of 10 μm.
i prokaryotic cells 10 Copy and complete Table 2.5 to outline the structure and
ii eukaryotic cells. function of the organelles listed.

2 A large cell of 0.3 mm was observed. Ribosomes were

TABLE 2.5 The structure and function of some organelles
present in the cytoplasm, but no other organelles.
ORGANELLE STRUCTURE FUNCTION
a Do you think this would be a prokaryotic or eukaryotic
cell? Justify your answer. Endoplasmic
reticulum
b Identify further evidence that would be useful in
making your decision. Nucleus
Mitochondrion
3 When examining different types of cells, a student looks
at a human cheek cell under a light microscope. Which Lysosome
cellular structures would be visible? Chloroplast
4 a Identify whether the photograph in Figure 2.34 is of Golgi body
a cell viewed with an electron microscope or a light
microscope. Give your reasons. 11 Describe the relationship between the protoplasm and
b Some organelles may be present in this cell, but are not cytoplasm.
shown in the photograph. Suggest reasons why this
12 a Name the organelle that directs the activities of
might be the case.
eukaryotic cells.
c Figure 2.34 is a plant cell. Identify the organelles with
b Identify the substance present in this organelle that is
the arrows pointing to them.
responsible for this.
Getty Images/Dr. Martha J. Powell

13 State the function of ribosomes. Explain why you would

expect to find more ribosomes in a protein-producing cell
than a red blood cell.
14 Explain why you would expect human muscle cells to
i contain more mitochondria than a cell in the skin of your
ii big toe.
15 White blood cells engulf foreign particles in the body and
destroy them. Explain why there are a large number of
lysosomes present in white blood cells.

FIGURE 2.34 An unidentified cell 16 Identify the structures in the cell membrane that are
responsible for each of the following characteristics of the
cell membrane:
5 Outline how advances in technology have contributed to a flexibility
our knowledge about cells. b movement of ions into cells
6 Draw up a table to compare the following types of c ability to bind hormones.
microscopes. Headings that could be used in your table
could be: ‘Energy source’, ‘Focus’, ‘Specimen preparation’, 17 Outline the role of receptor proteins in cell membranes.
‘Magnification’, ‘Resolution’, ‘Can live specimens be viewed?’ 18 a In the model of the cell membrane, which section is
and ‘Advantages and disadvantages’. identified as the ‘fluid’ part and which is identified as
a Light microscope the ‘mosaic’ part?
b SEM b Explain why these terms are used.
c TEM 19 Using examples, describe how the structures of organelles
7 Outline the advantages of fluorescence microscopy. are related to their function.

8 Describe how a confocal laser scanning microscope

produces a three-dimensional image of a cell.

64 11 » »CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER ONE
MODULE CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281
 3 Cell function
INQUIRY
QUESTION Students:
How do cells • investigate the way in which materials can move into and out of cells, including but not limited to:
coordinate activities – conducting a practical investigation modelling diffusion and osmosis (ACSBL046) ICT
within their internal – examining the roles of active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis (ACSBL046)
– relating the exchange of materials across membranes to the surface area to volume ratio, concentration
environment and
gradients and characteristics of the materials being exchanged (ACSBL047) ICT N
the external
• investigate cell requirements, including but not limited to:
environment?
– suitable forms of energy, including light energy and chemical energy in complex molecules (ACSBL044)
– matter, including gases, simple nutrients and ions
– removal of wastes (ACSBL044)
• investigate the biochemical processes of photosynthesis, cell respiration and the removal of cellular products
and wastes in eukaryotic cells (ACSBL049, ACSBL050, ACSBL052, ACSBL053) ICT
• conduct a practical investigation to model the action of enzymes in cells (ACSBL050)
• investigate the effects of the environment on enzyme activity through the collection of primary or secondary
data (ACSBL050, ACSBL051) ICT N
Biology Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017

Cultura Creative (RF) / Alamy Stock Photo

9780170407281 65
 The development of technologies to view the internal structure of cells enabled scientists to determine
the different types of cells and the structures they possess. With this knowledge our curiosity about how
cells function grew. Further development of technologies led to the study of the biochemical processes
of photosynthesis and cellular respiration, which are carried out by cells in their internal environment to
ensure the efficient and successful functioning of the organism. In order for these biochemical processes
to occur, cells must obtain the materials necessary from their external environment and must be able to
remove any wastes produced from their internal environment (Fig. 3.1) and coordinate these activities.

FIGURE 3.1 Cell

iStock.com/micro_photo
requirements and
waste removal

Gas and wastes

Gas and nutrients

Coordination of the biochemical activities of the cell to ensure efficient cellular metabolism is the
responsibility of the nucleus. The cell membrane controls the movement of cellular requirements from
the external environment of the cell into the cell and the removal of cellular products and wastes from
the internal environment of the cell into the external environment.

Movement of materials
3.1
in and out of cells
For any cell to function effectively, it must interact with its surrounding environment and with the
cells that surround it. Substances required by cells for their functioning need to move into the internal
environment of cells and waste substances and cellular products need to pass out of cells into the external
environment. These substances move from the internal environment to the external environment by
passing through the cell membrane.
Substances needed by cells are gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide), nutrients (sugars, amino acids,
glycerol and fatty acids) and water, the main solvent in cells. Mineral salts dissolved in the water are also
required. Substances that must leave cells are wastes such as urea, uric acid and excess carbon dioxide.
They could also be products secreted by cells that may be needed to coat the outside of cells (for example,
mucus) or may pass to other cells (for example, hormones).
In both plant and animal cells, the cell membrane is in direct contact with the cytoplasm inside the
cell. The cell membrane is selectively permeable (or sometimes referred to as differentially permeable),
meaning it controls what passes across it (Fig. 3.2). The membrane controls the passage of water
and other molecules (many in a dissolved form) into or out of living cells. In contrast to the selectively

66 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 permeable nature of a cell membrane, a cellulose cell wall in plant cells is permeable – it is a non-selective
boundary that allows water and most molecules to pass freely inwards or outwards. The movement of
these molecules is restricted only when they come into contact with the cell membrane.

FIGURE 3.2 The

Based on an illustration that is © The McGraw Hill Companies, Inc.

Specific
cell membrane is
non-lipid-soluble Non-lipid-soluble selectively permeable,
molecules or ions molecules allowing some
Lipid-soluble materials through but
molecules not others.

Membrane
channel

Concentration
gradient

To understand how the cell membrane controls and regulates the movement of substances, biologists
examine the structure of the cell membrane and relate this to its functioning.

Movement of molecules across cell membranes

The permeability of a cell membrane to a molecule depends on the molecule’s:
◗ size
◗ electrical charge
◗ lipid solubility.
Small molecules can move across membranes quickly. Larger molecules have more difficulty moving
across membranes.
Water-soluble (hydrophilic) molecules have difficulty penetrating a membrane, whereas lipid-soluble
molecules do not. This is due to the phospholipid bilayer structure of the cell membrane. The lipid ‘tails’
impede the progress of hydrophilic molecules and enhance the movement of lipid-soluble molecules
such as urea and ethanol.
Electrically charged molecules, such as sodium and potassium ions, are not very soluble in lipids and
therefore have low membrane permeability. Neutral molecules such as carbon dioxide and oxygen gas are
soluble in lipids and have a high permeability.
Although water is a polar molecule that is not lipid-soluble, membranes have pores that make them
highly permeable to it. Water moves through special tiny hydrophilic pores in the membrane, called
aquaporins, by a process called osmosis.
Molecules that have low permeability rely on carrier proteins to transport them across membranes in
cells. This will be dealt with in more detail later in this chapter.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 67

 KEY CONCEPTS
● Substances move from the internal environment of the cell to the external environment (and
vice versa) by passing across the cell membrane.
● The cell membrane is selectively permeable and controls the movement of substances into and
out of the cell.
● Gases, nutrients, water and ions are required by the cell, while wastes and cellular products
need to be removed from the cell.
● The permeability of a membrane to a particular molecule depends on its size, electrical charge
and its lipid solubility.
● Plant cell walls are permeable to most substances.

Diffusion
The movement of materials into and out of cells takes place either passively or actively. Passive movement
requires no energy input and includes the processes of diffusion and osmosis.
Diffusion is the net movement of any molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of
low concentration of that substance, until equilibrium is reached (Fig. 3.3). Equilibrium is reached when
the there is no net movement of molecules in either direction – the molecules move equally in each
direction. This process does not require an energy input.

GIPhotoStock/Science Source
FIGURE 3.3 Diffusion of potassium permanganate in water from a region of high concentration until the potassium
permanganate is evenly distributed throughout the water.

For example, if someone sprays a burst of perfume in the back corner of a laboratory, the students
closest to the corner (where the perfume is the most concentrated) will smell it quickly. Students at
the front of the room (where the concentration of perfume particles is very low) will not smell it until
some time later. The perfume molecules will gradually move from the back of the room where it has
the highest concentration to the front of the room where it has the lowest concentration. This will
continue until the concentration is the same throughout the whole room (that is, it is in equilibrium).
The perfume is said to have diffused throughout the laboratory. No energy input has been required
for this process to occur.
Movement from a high concentration to a low concentration is described as movement along a
concentration gradient (a gradient is a slope). Molecules moving down a concentration gradient can be
likened to the movement of rocks rolling down a hill, needing no energy input.
The rate of diffusion changes depending on the concentration gradient. If there is a greater
difference in the concentration of substances, the concentration gradient will be steeper and diffusion
will occur faster.
Diffusion can also speed up or slow down, depending on the temperature: heat increases the rate of
diffusion because the kinetic energy of the particles increases.

68 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 INVESTIGATION 3.1

An investigation to model the process of diffusion

through the cell membrane
In this investigation you will model diffusion through the cell membrane using semipermeable dialysis tubing
to represent the selectively permeable nature of the cell membrane (Fig. 3.4). The starch solution is milky white
in colour and will be used to represent the contents of the cell. The iodide ions in the yellow iodine potassium
iodide (IKI) solution represent a cell requirement that will readily diffuse through the cell membrane.

FIGURE 3.4
Glass rod Investigation set-up

Starch solution
Dialysis
tubing

Water 1 iodine
potassium
iodide solution

AIM
To model the process of diffusion through the cell membrane

MATERIALS

• 2 3 800 mL beakers
• Starch solution
• Iodine potassium iodide (IKI) solution
• 2 3 20 cm section of dialysis tubing
• Filter funnel
• Fine string or cotton thread
• 50 mL measuring cylinder
• 2 3 glass rod
• Scissors

RISK ASSESSMENT
!
WHAT ARE THE HAZARDS? WHAT RISK DOES THIS HAZARD POSE? HOW CAN YOU SAFELY MANAGE THIS RISK? RISK
ASSESSMENT
Iodine potassium iodide Irritant to skin and eyes Do not ingest chemical.
solution Poisoning if ingested Do not use in confined spaces.
Irritant if inhaled Wear safety glasses.

Broken glass Cuts to skin Take care when using glassware.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 69

 METHOD

1 Use one of the beakers to soak the dialysis tubing in water for 5 minutes.
2 Fill the other beaker three-quarters full with tap water. Add 10 drops of IKI solution and mix.
3 Remove the tubing from the water and, under running water, rub the end of the tubing between your
fingers to separate the sides.
4 Tie one end very securely with string.
5 Measure 30–40 mL of starch solution into the measuring cylinder and pour into the tubing using a filter funnel.
6 Tie off the top end of the tubing very securely with string, leaving a length of string to secure the tubing
to the glass rod.
7 Wash the outside of the tubing.
8 Tie the end of the string to the middle of the glass rod.
9 Place the rod across the top of the beaker to suspend the tube containing the starch solution in the
water 1 iodine potassium iodide solution. Ensure that the tube is fully submerged.
10 Leave undisturbed for 15–20 minutes.
11 Observe and record any colour changes that occur.
12 Use the other beaker to set up a control, leaving out the iodine potassium iodide solution.

RESULTS

Record your observations in a table like Table 3.1 for the experiment and control.

TABLE 3.1
WS
SOLUTION INITIAL COLOUR FINAL COLOUR
Investigation 3.1
Starch

Water 1 iodine potassium iodide

Control

DISCUSSION

1 Copy and complete Table 3.2, which identifies the correlation between your model of diffusion and
diffusion across the cell membrane.

TABLE 3.2

DIFFUSION ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE COMPONENT OF MODEL

Selectively permeable membrane

Large molecules inside the cell

Small iodide ions

Lower concentration of required substances inside

the cell

2 Using the results obtained, copy and complete Table 3.3, which indicates the initial and final concentrations
of starch molecules and iodide ions both inside and outside the dialysis tubing. Use terms such as ‘highly
concentrated’, ‘none present’, ‘decreased concentration’, ‘increased concentration’, and ‘no change’.

70 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 TABLE 3.3

INITIAL CONCENTRATION FINAL CONCENTRATION

SUBSTANCE INSIDE TUBING OUTSIDE TUBING INSIDE TUBING OUTSIDE TUBING

Iodide ions

Starch molecules

3 Describe evidence from your investigation to support your conclusions in Table 3.3 about the change/no
change in the concentration of:
a iodide ions
b starch molecules.
4 Explain how this investigation has modelled the process of diffusion through the cell membrane. Use
the term ‘concentration gradient’ and ‘control’ and refer to the selectively permeable nature of the cell
membrane and to the size of the molecules.
5 Discuss the benefits and limitations of the model.

CONCLUSION
Write a conclusion to link your results to the aim of the investigation.

Diffusion across a cell membrane

Small uncharged particles such as carbon dioxide and oxygen move easily through the cell membrane
by simple diffusion (Fig. 3.5). These particles pass between the phospholipid molecules from a region of Diffusion
Watch the
high concentration to a region of low concentration. The concentration gradient is usually maintained animation and
for the diffusion of oxygen molecules because oxygen is removed for use in the cell. Oxygen is continually describe the
process of diffusion.
used in the process of cellular respiration, keeping its concentration low inside the cell. This promotes
the diffusion of oxygen from outside the cell where it is in high concentration. Roberts, Reiss & Monger (Nelson Thornes Ltd 2000)
Adapted from Biology: Prinicples & Processes by

High concentration

Lipid
bilayer Concentration
of cell gradient
membrane

Low concentration

FIGURE 3.5 Simple diffusion of small molecules through the cell membrane is dependent on the concentration gradient.

Facilitated
diffusion
Facilitated diffusion Watch the
Relatively large molecules (such as glucose and amino acids) and charged particles (such as sodium and animation about
facilitated diffusion
chloride ions) do not readily pass through the phospholipid bilayer. They require certain proteins called and create a dot
point summary of
carrier proteins and channel proteins in the cell membrane to assist them in diffusing into the cell. This the process.
process is called facilitated diffusion.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 71

 As shown in Figure 3.6, the carrier proteins bind to molecules on one side of the membrane. They
then change shape and release the substance on the other side. The direction of movement, whether into
or out of the cell, depends on the direction of the concentration gradient.

High concentration

Concentration
gradient

Carrier protein takes up Low concentration

particles on one side of the
… changes shape and releases
cell membrane …
them on the other side

FIGURE 3.6 Facilitated diffusion using a carrier protein in the cell membrane of a cell moves particles such as glucose along
the concentration gradient.

Small ions such as sodium ions diffuse rapidly through the cell membrane, from a high ion
concentration to a low ion concentration, via narrow passageways called channel proteins. These
channel proteins are specific for particular ions (Fig. 3.7).
Roberts, Reiss & Monger (Nelson Thornes Ltd 2000)
Adapted from Biology: Prinicples & Processes by

High concentration

Concentration
gradient

Channel protein Low concentration

Channel protein closed
open

FIGURE 3.7 Facilitated diffusion through a channel protein in the cell membrane of a cell. Movement is along the
concentration gradient.
KEY CONCEPTS

● Diffusion is the movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration until equilibrium is reached.
● At equilibrium, there is no net movement of particles in either direction.
● Diffusion does not require the input of energy.
● Diffusion occurs faster with a higher temperature or a steeper concentration gradient.
● Small, uncharged molecules such as oxygen and carbon dioxide will diffuse easily across the
cell membrane.
● Facilitated diffusion allows larger molecules and small electrically charged ions to diffuse
across the cell membrane aided by carrier or channel proteins.

72 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 Osmosis
Osmosis is a special type of diffusion. It is the net movement of solvent molecules from a region of high
solvent concentration to a region of low solvent concentration through a semipermeable membrane
(Fig. 3.8). When water is the solvent, just like diffusion the movement of water occurs along the
concentration gradient and does not require an energy input.

FIGURE 3.8
a b
Solute Solutions: a a
particles Solute concentrated
particles solution (low water
concentration – high
solute concentration);
b a dilute solution
(high water
concentration – low
Solvent solute concentration)
particles Solvent
(H2O) particles
(H2O)

Water is very important to living things. It is the medium in which many of the biochemical reactions
in cells occur. Water helps keep cells in shape, it forms the fluid that bathes tissues and it also transports
materials in solution.
A solution is formed when a solute (such as salt or sugar) dissolves in a solvent. The amount of solute
dissolved in a given quantity of solvent determines the concentration of the solution.
Water is the most common solvent in a solution. A concentrated solution contains a large amount of
solute in relation to the amount of water, so the water is said to be in low concentration. A dilute solution
contains a small amount of solute in relation to the amount of water and the water is said to be in high
concentration.
Osmosis is the process by which water moves through the cell membrane. Because water is not lipid-
soluble, the movement is not directly through the lipid bilayer. Water moves through special tiny protein
channels in cell membranes called aquaporins (‘water pores’).
◗ When water is more highly concentrated outside the cell (low solute concentration) than it is inside
the cell (high solute concentration), water will move by osmosis through the selectively permeable
cell membrane into the cell and the cell may swell up.
◗ Alternatively, if the concentration of water is lower outside the cell than inside, water will move out of
the cell by osmosis and the cell may shrink.
The pressure created by water moving across a semipermeable membrane due to osmosis is called
the osmotic pressure. The more water that moves across the membrane, the higher the osmotic pressure
created (Fig. 3.9).
If the fluids inside and outside a cell are of equal solute concentration, the external solution is said
to be isotonic (‘iso’ 5 same) to the cell contents; water molecules jostle on both sides of the membrane,
moving in both directions equally (Fig. 3.10). When cells are surrounded by a solution that contains a
lower solute concentration than their cytoplasm, the external solution is said to be hypotonic (‘hypo’ 5 Osmosis
lower) to the cell contents. Net movement of water molecules will be through the membrane into the Explain the process
of osmosis. Define
cells (Fig. 3.11). The reverse applies if the cells are surrounded by a solution of higher solute concentration: the terms ‘isotonic’,
the external solution is hypertonic (‘hyper’ 5 higher) to the cells and net movement of water molecules ‘hypertonic’ and
‘hypotonic’.
will be out of the cells.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 73

FIGURE 3.9 Diagram
showing the Semipermeable
concentration of membrane
water and solute
molecules (solute) Dilute sucrose solution Concentrated sucrose solution
on either side of (hypotonic) (hypertonic)
a semipermeable
membrane and the
resulting movement
of water molecules

Low concentration High concentration

of solute molecules of solute molecules
High concentration Low concentration
of water molecules of water molecules
Low osmotic High osmotic
pressure pressure

Net movement of water molecules

Key Water Sucrose

FIGURE 3.10
Isotonic solutions
separated by a
semipermeable
membrane will show
no net movement of
water molecules.

5% solute 5% solute 5% solute 5% solute

95% water 95% water 95% water 95% water
Isotonic Isotonic Equilibrium

FIGURE 3.11 Water

molecules will move
by osmosis through
a semipermeable
membrane from a
hypotonic solution
into a hypertonic
solution until
equilibrium is
reached.

5% solute 10% solute 7.5% solute 7.5% solute

95% water 90% water 92.5% water 92.5% water
Hypotonic Hypertonic Equilibrium

74 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 INVESTIGATION 3.2

An investigation to model the process of osmosis

In this model of osmosis, the semipermeable dialysis tubing represents the selectively permeable cell
membrane. The sucrose solution represents the cytoplasm of the cell and the distilled water represents the
extracellular fluid.

AIM
To model the process of osmosis

MATERIALS

• 3 3 600 mL beakers
• Distilled water
• Sucrose solution
• Fine string
• 2 3 glass rods
• 2 3 20 cm strips dialysis tubing
• 25 mL measuring cylinder
• 100 mL measuring cylinder
• Filter funnel
• Marking pen
• Plastic clingwrap
• Digital camera (optional)

RISK ASSESSMENT

WHAT IS THE HAZARD? WHAT RISK DOES THIS HAZARD POSE? HOW CAN YOU SAFELY MANAGE THE RISK?
!
RISK
Broken glass Injury to body Take care at all times when using glassware. ASSESSMENT

METHOD

1 Cut two pieces of dialysis tubing to 20 cm lengths and soak in a beaker of water for about 5 minutes.
2 Tie one end of each piece of tubing securely with a piece of string, leaving the other end untied.
3 Run the untied end of the tubing under water and rub it between your fingers to open it.
4 Using a filter funnel and a measuring cylinder, pour a measured volume (about 30–35 mL) of sugar solution
into the tubing so that the tubing is two-thirds full. (Record the exact volume of sugar solution used.)
5 Tie the top of the tubing with string. Attach it to a glass rod as shown in Figure 3.12. This is your
experimental apparatus.
6 Repeat the previous two steps, this time filling the tubing with distilled water instead of sugar solution. This
is your control apparatus.
7 Using a measuring cylinder, fill each beaker about half-full and record an accurate measurement of the
volume of water in each.
8 Suspend the experimental and the control apparatus each in a beaker of distilled water as shown in
Figure 3.12. Ensure that the tied ends of the dialysis tubing are just above the distilled water in the beaker
to prevent leakage. Do not have the tubing too far out of the water because evaporation may occur and
this will interfere with the accuracy of your results.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 75

 Glass rod or pencil

Dialysis tubing
(semipermeable Distilled
membrane) water
Sugar solution
Distilled water
Experiment Control

FIGURE 3.12 Investigation set-up

9 Mark the level of water in the beaker with a marking pen.

10 Cover the top of the experiment with plastic wrap to prevent the water in the beaker from evaporating.
Leave the apparatus to stand overnight.
11 Measure the volume of the solutions in each bag after they have been left overnight.
12 Record the volumes of the solutions in each dialysis bag and in each beaker at the end of the experiment.
Compare this with the volume recorded at the start of the experiment.
13 Also record the number of hours the experiment was left standing.
14 Observations such as the change in the fullness of the dialysis tubing and the changing water level
should also be recorded.

RESULTS
Your results will be both quantitative (measured quantities such as the volume of sucrose solution) and
qualitative (descriptive and with diagrams).
1 Draw up a suitable table to record your measurements.
2 Describe any change in water levels in both the beakers and the dialysis tubing. Diagrams are often useful
tools to aid descriptions.

DISCUSSION

1 Identify each of the following in your investigation:

a the independent variable
b the dependent variable
c the controlled variables.
2 Why was the dialysis tubing with distilled water used with the beaker with distilled water?
3 Complete Table 3.4, which identifies the correlation between your model of osmosis and osmosis across
the cell membrane.

TABLE 3.4

OSMOSIS ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE COMPONENT OF MODEL

Selectively permeable membrane

Hypertonic solution inside cell

Distilled water in beaker

76 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 4 Describe how your investigation has modelled the process of osmosis.
5 Outline any limitations of your model.
6 Discuss improvements that could be made to your model of osmosis.

CONCLUSION
Write a conclusion to link your results to the aim of the investigation.
KEY CONCEPTS

● A solution is formed when a solute dissolves in solvent.

● A concentrated solution has a high concentration of solute and a low concentration of water.
● A dilute solution has a low concentration of solute and a high concentration of water.
● Osmosis is the process by which water moves from a region of high concentration of water
(dilute – low solute) to a region of low concentration of water (concentrated – high solute).
● Osmosis requires no energy input.
● The more water that moves across the membrane, the higher the osmotic pressure created.
● Isotonic – fluids inside and outside a cell are of equal solute concentration – no net water
movement.
● Hypertonic – a solution of higher solute concentration (lower water concentration) that
surrounds a cell – net movement of water molecules will be out of the cell.
● Hypotonic – a solution of lower solute concentration (higher water concentration) that
surrounds a cell – net movement of water molecules will be into the cell.

Osmosis in animal cells

The cells of unicellular eukaryotes are surrounded only by a cell membrane. Hypertonic solutions, such
as fresh water, pose a problem because water moving into animal cells by osmosis can cause the cell to
swell and eventually burst the cell membrane, killing the organism.
Cells in most animals are not directly exposed to the external environment and are bathed in isotonic
extracellular fluid. This means that cells can function efficiently because water diffuses equally in both
directions, resulting in no net movement of water into or out of cells. The water concentration in animal
cells needs to be kept constant to coordinate biochemical reactions.

Osmosis in plant cells

Unlike animal cells, plant cells will not burst when soaked in fresh water (hypotonic solution), even
though water moves into the cells by osmosis.
Plant cells usually have large, fluid-filled vacuoles and firm, semipermeable cell walls that surround the
cell membrane. Plant cell vacuoles contain cell sap that has a high concentration of solutes and therefore
a low concentration of water. When a hypotonic solution surrounds a plant cell, water molecules move
by osmosis into the vacuole. This causes the vacuole to swell and pushes the cell membrane outwards
against the cell wall. The tough cell wall prevents the cell from bursting. When the cell wall stretches as
much as possible, no more water can enter and the cell is said to be turgid (Fig. 3.13a). In this state, the
osmotic pressure inside the cell is equal to the opposing pressure exerted by the cell wall.
If the plant cells were to be placed into a hypertonic solution, the water in the cell would leave the cell
by osmosis, the vacuole would shrink and cause the cell membrane to move away from the cell wall in a
process called plasmolysis (Fig. 3.13b).

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 77

Adapted from Biology: Prinicples & Processes by Roberts, Reiss & Monger (Nelson Thornes Ltd 2000)

Water enters vacuole

by osmosis
Vacuole expands,
a Cell placed in external
cytoplasm pushed outwards
solution whose solute
concentration is lower
than that of the cell sap

Cellulose wall Full turgor

Cytoplasm

Vacuole
containing
cell sap
Water leaves
Partially turgid vacuole by osmosis
plant cell

Vacuole shrinks,
b Cell placed in external cytoplasm moves inwards
solution whose solute
concentration is higher
than that of the cell sap

Full plasmolysis
FIGURE 3.13 The effect of immersing a partially turgid plant cell in a pure water (hypotonic solution) and b a high solute concentration (hypertonic solution)

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Draw a generalised diagram to represent a cell. On this diagram, indicate with arrows going into the cell
the substances that a cell requires. Also indicate the wastes that have to be removed from the cell, using
3.1a arrows pointing out of the cell.
2 Distinguish between a permeable membrane and a selectively permeable membrane.
3 a Identify and outline three characteristics of molecules that affect the permeability of the cell membrane
to them.
b Indicate whether each of the following substances can move easily through the cell membrane or not.
Justify each of your answers.
i Neutral molecules such as carbon dioxide and oxygen gas
ii Sodium and potassium ions
iii Water and ethanol
iv Large molecules such as proteins
4 A sugar solution is a mixture of sugar and water.
Identify the a solute and b solvent.
5 a Outline the process of diffusion.
b Identify two factors that could increase the rate of diffusion.
6 a Identify the substances that are able to move across the cell membrane by diffusion.
b Describe the process of facilitated diffusion.
c Which substances move across the cell membrane using this process?
7 a Describe the process of osmosis.
b What is the relationship between diffusion and osmosis?
c Define the terms ‘isotonic’, ‘hypotonic’ and ‘hypertonic’.

78 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 8 Refer to Figure 3.14. In which direction would water move in this situation? Explain your answer.
Getty Images/Dorling Kindersley

FIGURE 3.14

9 If salad greens such as celery are left on the kitchen bench for a period, they become limp. To restore their
crispness, you can soak them in cold water. Explain why this occurs.

Active transport
Active transport is the movement of molecules from a region of low concentration to a region of high
concentration, and requires the input of energy. This movement goes against the concentration gradient and
involves movement across a cell membrane that has receptors for the molecules.
Diffusion and osmosis both rely on a concentration gradient to direct the passive flow of substances from
regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration. Sometimes in living things, a chemical may need
to be moved against the concentration gradient, such as when kidney cells reabsorb glucose and amino acids
so they are not lost in urine. Active transport requires a carrier protein that spans the membrane to actively
move chemicals from a low to a high concentration, utilising cellular energy (Fig. 3.15).

When energy is provided,

carrier proteins take up particles on
one side of the plasma membrane …
Transport Outside cell
Low concentration
direction

Concentration
gradient

High concentration

Inside cell … and release them

Energy
on the other side.
(ATP)

FIGURE 3.15 Active transport via a carrier protein in the cell membrane of a cell. Energy is transferred to the carrier protein, enabling it to move the
particles against a concentration gradient.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 79

 A summary of the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport is shown in Figure 3.16.

Diffusion/facilitated diffusion Osmosis Active transport

Selectively permeable membrane Selectively permeable membrane
High concentration of
High concentration
particles (e.g. perfume) Low concentration
of water molecules
Low concentration Low concentration of solute
of particles of water molecules

Solute

High concentration
of solute

Movement along a Movement along a Movement against a

concentration gradient concentration gradient concentration gradient

Diffusion: the movement of any Osmosis: the movement of water Active transport: the movement
type of molecule from a high to molecules from a high of molecules from a low
a low concentration, until concentration of water to a low concentration to a high
equilibrium is reached concentration of water, through concentration through selectively
selectively permeable membrane permeable membrane

No energy required No energy required Energy required

Molecule to be transported
Carrier
proteins
Channel
Extracellular
protein Concentration
space
gradient

Lipid
bilayer

Cytoplasm
Energy
Simple Channel- Carrier-
diffusion mediated mediated
transport transport
Active transport
Passive transport
(facilitated diffusion)

FIGURE 3.16 Diffusion, osmosis and active transport across cell membranes
Comparing
processes
View the animation to
KEY
CONCEPTS

compare the processes ● Active transport is the movement of molecules from a region of low concentration to a region of
of diffusion, facilitated
diffusion and active high concentration.
transport. ● Active transport moves against the concentration gradient and requires the input of energy.

80 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 Endocytosis and exocytosis – transport of large molecules
Sometimes particles that are too large to move through the cell membrane by

TK
either diffusion or active transport need to enter or leave a cell.

Endocytosis
When a large particle has to be moved into a cell, the cell membrane can change
its shape to surround the particle and engulf it by the process of endocytosis.
If a solid particle is engulfed, the process is termed phagocytosis (‘cell eating’).
Sometimes fluid is engulfed and the process is then called pinocytosis (‘cell
drinking’).
One example of phagocytosis occurs when a unicellular amoeba feeds on
a smaller organism. The amoeba changes shape by sending out membrane
projections filled with cytoplasm that surround the prey. When the cell
membrane of the projections meets, membrane fusion occurs. This results in FIGURE 3.17 A scanning electron micrograph
of an amoeba surrounding its prey (Tetrahymena)
the formation of a vesicle, which then stores or transports the material within for ingestion
the cytoplasm (Figs 3.17 and 3.18).

Extracellular fluid Cytoplasm

Phagocytotic
Pseudopod vesicle
‘Food’ or other
solid particle

FIGURE 3.18 The process of phagocytosis

Pinocytosis occurs when the cell membrane engulfs a drop of extracellular fluid in much the same
way as phagocytosis (Fig. 3.19). Fat droplets found in the small intestine after a meal move into cells by
means of pinocytosis.

FIGURE 3.19
The process of
pinocytosis

Cytoplasm

Exocytosis
Specialised animal and plant cells produce a variety of substances, such as antibodies, neurotransmitters
and enzymes, that have important functions elsewhere in the organism. These substances are
contained within vesicles inside the cell. Cells also produce waste products that need to be moved
out of the cell. Exocytosis is the process by which these substances are transported to the external
environment of the cell.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 81

 During exocytosis, a membrane-bound vesicle moves to the cell membrane, fuses with it and then
releases its contents to the exterior of the cell (Fig. 3.20). The vesicle membrane becomes part of the cell
membrane.

FIGURE 3.20 The

WS
process of exocytosis
Cell membrane

Movement in and
out of cells

Cytoplasm
KEY CONCEPTS

● Endocytosis moves large molecules that cannot cross the cell membrane into a cell. It requires
the expenditure of energy.
● In endocytosis, the cell membrane changes shape and surrounds and engulfs the particle so
that it enters the cell.
● Phagocytosis is the process whereby solid particles are engulfed by the cell membrane.
● Pinocytosis is the engulfing of fluid substances by the cell membrane.
● Exocytosis involves a membrane-bound vesicle moving to the cell membrane, fusing with it and
then releasing its contents to the exterior of the cell.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Define the process of active transport and provide an example of where this occurs.
2 Distinguish between the processes of active transport and simple diffusion.
3.1b 3 Describe the process of endocytosis and provide an example of where it is used.
4 Describe how the cell membrane is involved in each process listed below and provide an example of the
use of each:
a exocytosis
b endocytosis.
5 Identify three types of substances that are removed from cells.

Factors affecting the exchange of materials across membranes

The characteristics of the cell membrane and the physical and chemical properties of the material will
determine whether it can move through the cell membrane.

Chemical factors
The chemical properties of a substance affect its transport across cell membranes. Many uncharged
molecules, such as ethanol, can easily penetrate the cell membrane because they can dissolve in the
Crossing the cell
membrane phospholipid bilayer. Hydrophilic, charged ions such as sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) cannot cross
View the animation the hydrophobic centre of the membrane. Channel proteins specific for each ion allow their movement
to determine how
different substances through the cell membrane.
cross the cell Water is not lipid-soluble and therefore cannot move through the hydrophobic ‘tails’ in the cell
membrane.
membrane. Water moves through the membrane through the special aquaporins.

82 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 Physical factors
The physical properties such as size and shape of the molecules affect the movement of substances
across the cell membrane. Small molecules are able to diffuse easily between the phospholipids.
Glucose and amino acids are examples of large molecules that use carrier proteins to move through
the cell membrane.
Very large molecules that need to be transported into or out of the cell are moved by the process of
endocytosis or exocytosis.

Concentration gradient
The relative concentration of the substance on either side of the membrane affects the rate of diffusion
of that substance. If the concentration gradient is high (that is, there is a large difference between
the concentrations on either side of the membrane), then the substance will diffuse rapidly. As the
concentration gradient decreases, the rate of diffusion will be slower. In order to maintain a rapid rate
of diffusion, cells need to maintain a high concentration gradient. When the concentration reaches
equilibrium, there will be no net movement across the cell membrane.
Plant cells carry out a process called cytoplasmic streaming, which involves organelles and cytosol
flowing around the cell in a circular movement. This enables the cell to maintain a steeper concentration
gradient as materials that diffuse into the cell are rapidly moved to another area of the cell.

Surface-area-to-volume ratio
The surface area (SA) divided by the volume (V) is called the surface-area-to-volume ratio (SA:V). This
also affects the movement of substances into and out of the cell through the cell membrane.
The surface area of a cell is the total area of the cell membrane that is around the cell. The volume of
the cell is the space taken up by the internal contents of the cell (that is, the cytoplasm and the nucleus).
A cell needs to have enough surface area to supply its volume with requirements and remove wastes.
The SA:V of a cell has a large impact on the movement of substances into and out of cells. A smaller
cell has more surface area in relation to its volume – a higher SA:V. Think of the distance from the surface
of a small cube to its centre. This distance is much less than the distance from the surface to the centre
in a large cube. Therefore, a smaller size allows a faster movement of substances between the centre and
the surface of the cell (that is, into or out of the cell). Anything that the cell needs can get to all parts of a
small cell quickly and wastes can be removed easily. This then allows the cell to perform at an optimum
level of functioning. Figure 3.21 illustrates SA:V for simplified cubic cells, but SA:V is important for the
movement of substances into and out of cells of any shape.

Surface-area-to-volume ratio FIGURE 3.21

The smaller the cell,
the higher the SA:V
and the more efficient
the exchange of
substances into and
out of the cell.

Nucleus
Nucleus
Nucleus

A larger cell has a smaller amount of surface area in relation to its volume – a lower SA:V (the centre
of the cell is further from the surface). This means the efficiency with which a cell obtains its nutrients
and removes its wastes is reduced as its size increases. A cell increasing in size reaches a point where the
inward movement of essential substances and the outward movement of wastes across the surface area
by diffusion are not fast enough to service the increasing volume of the cell. When a cell reaches this size,
if it is capable of dividing it will often do so. For this reason, individual cells tend to be very small.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 83

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.1

Calculate the SA:V of a cube 1 cm 3 1 cm 3 1 cm (Fig. 3.22).

Numeracy

Surface area
Area of one of cube 5 length 3 width 3 6
Area Height
side 5 length 3 width Length Volume of
cube 5 length × width 3 height Length
Width
Width

FIGURE 3.22 Calculating surface area and volume of a cube

ANSWER LOGIC

Surface area of a cube 5 6 3 length of side 3 width of cell • Insert the correct formula. (Note: a cube has six sides.)
Surface area 5 6 3 1 3 1 • Extract the data from the question and insert into the formula.
5 6 cm2 • Calculate the answer.

Volume of a cube 5 length 3 width 3 height • Insert the correct formula.

Volume 5 1 3 1 3 1 • Extract the data from the question and insert into the formula.
3
5 1 cm • Calculate the answer.

Surface area: volume (SA:V) 5 6 4 1 • Calculate SA:V. Insert the numbers into the formula.
5 6:1 • Calculate the answer.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

Calculate the SA:V of a:
a 2 cm cube b 3 cm cube.

The shape of the cell also makes a difference to the SA:V. Spherical cells have a relatively small SA:V
compared with cells of other shapes. Long, flat cells have a higher SA:V than a spherical cell with the
same volume.
Table 3.5 shows the SA:V for three hypothetical spherical cells. It demonstrates that the smaller cell
A with a diameter of 1 mm has a higher SA:V of 6:1 than the larger diameter cells B and C. Cell B has a
SA:V of 3:1 and cell C a SA:V of 2:1. This means that for each unit of volume, cell A has 6 units of surface
area, cell B has 3 units of surface area and cell C has 2 units of surface area. It then follows that the
inward movement of essential substances and the outward movement of wastes across the surface area
by diffusion would occur much more rapidly in cell A than in cell B and be slowest in cell C.

TABLE 3.5 SA:V of three hypothetical spherical cells

CELL A CELL B CELL C

Diameter (mm) 1.0 2.0 3.0

2
Surface area (mm ) 3.14 12.57 28.28

Volume (mm3) 0.52 4.19 14.14

SA:V 6:1 3:1 2:1

84 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 Cells often have specific features that ensure they have the highest SA:V possible. An example is seen
in the root hairs that cover the root tips of most plants. The long, thin extensions of the single cells
that form root hairs increase the surface area through which water and mineral salts can be absorbed SA:V
(Fig. 3.23). Explain in terms of
SA:V why cells are
limited to a very
small size.

KEY CONCEPTS
Getty Images/Science Photo
Library/Andrew Syred
● SA is calculated by finding the total area of the surface
of the shape.
● Volume is the total space that a shape takes up.
WS
● SA:V is calculated by dividing the surface area of an
object by its volume.
Surface-area-to-
● The surface-area-to-volume ratio (SA:V) of a cell will volume ratio
determine how efficiently substances move into and
out of a cell.
● A high SA:V allows the most efficient movement of
substances into and out of the cell.
FIGURE 3.23 Scanning electron ● Large cells have a low SA:V. Small cells have a large
micrograph of root hairs in oregano,
SA:V.
Origanum vulgare. The root hairs greatly
increase the surface area for absorption ● Long, flat cells have a higher SA:V than a spherical cell
of water. with the same volume.

CHECK YOUR
1 Explain how the following factors affect the movement of substances across cell membranes. Provide UNDERSTANDING
examples to support your explanation.
a Physical factors b Chemical factors 3.1c
2 Describe how the concentration gradient affects the rate of diffusion into and out of the cell.
3 a Define the following terms in relation to a cell:
i surface area ii volume iii SA:V.
b Describe the importance of SA:V in relation to the movement of substances into and out of a cell.
4 Explain how increasing the size of a cell affects the cell’s ability to obtain and remove substances by
diffusion.
5 Figure 3.24 represents two cells with the same volume: (a) a flattened cell and (b) a cube-shaped cell.

b Cube-shaped cell FIGURE 3.24

a A flattened cell;
w b a cube-shaped cell
l

h
a Flattened cell

w
l To calculate surface area (mm2)
h SA 5 6 3 (l 3 h)
To calculate volume (mm3)
To calculate surface area (mm2) V5l3w3h
SA 5 2 3 (l 3 w) 1 2 3 (w 3 h) 1 2 × (l 3 h) Example
To calculate volume (mm3)
V5l3w3h
Example 1 mm
1 mm
1 mm
2 mm 1 mm

0.5 mm

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 85

 a Use the information from Figure 3.23 to complete Table 3.6.

TABLE 3.6

CELL SURFACE AREA VOLUME SA:V

a Flattened cell

b Cube-shaped cell

b Which cell would be more efficient in obtaining nutrients and removing wastes? Explain your answer.

3.2 Cell requirements

Wherever life exists, it depends on a source of energy and a supply of matter. Cells need to obtain nutrients
in the form of organic substances such as glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol, nucleotides and
vitamins. Organic substances are synthesised by living things and contain carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Cells also need inorganic nutrients such as gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide), minerals (for example
phosphates, sodium ions and chloride ions) and water. These inorganic nutrients are part of the non-
living world and do not contain carbon and hydrogen in long chains.
The substances needed by living cells for their functioning, are used in two main ways:
1 as essential building blocks from which cells and living tissues are made
2 as a source of stored energy for the cell.
Organic nutrients are the main supply of stored energy in living things, but they are also used in the
structure of cells. Inorganic nutrients are essential as structural parts of cells and tissues.

Inorganic nutrients
Some inorganic nutrients that occur in cells are listed in Table 3.7.

TABLE 3.7 Inorganic nutrients in cells

INORGANIC NUTRIENT POSITION IN CELLS USES IN CELL ACTIVITIES

Water: 90% of the • The transport medium in cells and in organisms

• oxygen protoplasm • An important solvent for many molecules inside cells
• hydrogen (cytoplasm and • The medium in which all chemical reactions in cells take place;
nucleus) water may be used in the reactions

Mineral salts: chlorides, Dissolved as ions • Assist all chemical reactions

nitrates, phosphates in the cytoplasm • Are used in the synthesis of many macromolecules and
and carbonates of and in vacuoles in body tissues (e.g. calcium for bones and teeth, and iron in
sodium, magnesium, plant cells blood cells)
calcium, potassium • Sodium ions (Na1) and chloride ions (Cl2) assist in water
and ammonium (e.g. balance in cells and are essential for cell membrane
sodium chloride (NaCl)) functioning and the function of nerve and muscle cells.

Gases: Dissolved in the Carbon dioxide:

• carbon dioxide (CO2) protoplasm; used • used during the process of photosynthesis
• oxygen (O2) and/or produced • released as a product of aerobic cellular respiration (plants
in chloroplasts and animals).
and mitochondria Oxygen:
• used by all living organisms during aerobic cellular respiration
to release energy for cells to function
• released as a product of photosynthesis.

86 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 Organic compounds
Every living cell requires large organic molecules as part of their structure and to maintain the biochemical
processes involved in effective functioning. These large organic molecules are called biomacromolecules.
There are four main types based on their chemical composition and structure: complex carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins and nucleic acids (Fig. 3.25).

Lipid FIGURE 3.25 The

major types of
(e.g. triglyceride)
biomacromolecules

Carbohydrate
(e.g. starch)
Biomacromolecules

Nucleic acid
(e.g. DNA)
Protein
(e.g. enzyme)

Plants and other organisms that carry out photosynthesis absorb inorganic nutrients from the soil
and the air and use these to make their own organic nutrients. In contrast, organisms that do not carry
out photosynthesis need to ingest food to obtain organic nutrients for their cells.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are a group of organic molecules made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O)
atoms in the ratio of 1:2:1, giving the general formula for carbohydrates as (CH2O)x.
Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides (simple sugars), disaccharides and polysaccharides
(see Table 3.8) depending on how many monomers are linked. The product of photosynthesis, glucose, is
a monosaccharide.

TABLE 3.8 Classification and uses of carbohydrates

TYPE OF CARBOHYDRATE – DEFINITION DIAGRAM OF STRUCTURE AND EXAMPLES USES

Monosaccharides Monosaccharides Source of ‘quick energy’

(mono 5 1) in both plant and animal
6-carbon sugars
Simple sugars consisting of a cells
single monomer Glucose Galactose Fructose
5-carbon sugars
Ribose Deoxyribose

Disaccharides (di 5 2) Disaccharides

Complex sugars consisting of two
glu glu glu gal
monomers
Maltose Lactose (milk sugar)
glu fru
Sucrose (cane sugar)

Polysaccharides (poly 5 many) Polysaccharides Starch – stored energy in

Complex molecules consisting of plant cells
more than five and up to hundreds Cellulose – structural part
of monomers joined together Starch (plants) Different bonds of cell walls – strength
and support
Glycogen – stored energy
Cellulose
in animal cells

Glycogen (animal starch)

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 87

 Lipids H
Lipids contain many carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) atoms with a few |
H — C — O — fatty acid chain
oxygen (O) atoms. The fats and oils in the cells of organisms are typically |
composed of triglyceride molecules (Fig. 3.26). These atoms are arranged H — C — O — fatty acid chain
|
as a glycerol molecule to which three chains of fatty acids attach. H — C — O — fatty acid chain
Lipids are relatively insoluble in water and have an oily, greasy or |
H OR
waxy consistency.
In cells, lipids have three important functions:
1 energy storage (they store approximately twice the amount of energy
as carbohydrates) Glycerol Fatty acid

2 structural component of membranes

FIGURE 3.26 A triglyceride
3 essential structural parts of hormones, which are chemical molecule contains a glycerol
unit and three fatty acid chains.
messengers produced by cells (for example, steroids).

Proteins
Proteins are made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur. These
elements combine to form amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins.
There are about 20 different amino acids; they can be put together in chains of up to 300 amino acids
to form a peptide/polypeptide chain (Fig. 3.27). Proteins are made up of one or more of these polypeptide
chains twisted together into a particular shape. The DNA in the nucleus of the cell controls the sequence
and arrangement of the amino acids, and this determines the type of protein.

FIGURE 3.27 Amino

acids joined together
by peptide bonds
form the peptide/
polypeptide chains
that make up
proteins.

Amino acids Peptide Protein

Proteins have many roles in cells:

◗ They form structural components in cells and tissues.
◗ They are an important structural component of cell membranes.
◗ Some proteins have a functional role, such as enzymes, which control all of the metabolic (chemical)
reactions in the cell, and hormones, which control the functioning of other cells.
◗ Proteins occur suspended in the protoplasm of cells or combine with other macromolecules to form
an important structural part of all membranes within the cell.
WS Plant cells can synthesise their own amino acids. Animal cells produce most of the amino acids
required for protein production. Nine of the amino acids are called ‘essential’ because they cannot be
Chemicals in cells
synthesised by cells in the body and must instead be sourced as nutrients from the external environment,
such as in food.
WS
Nucleic acids
Types of organic
compounds Nucleic acids are very large biomacromolecules that contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen and phosphorus. There are two types of nucleic acids: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), and RNA
(ribonucleic acid).

88 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 ◗ DNA is a double-stranded molecule that stores the information that controls the cell. It is the main
chemical making up the nucleus. Small amounts are also found in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
◗ RNA is found in small amounts in the nucleus and in larger amounts in the cytoplasm.
The building blocks of DNA and RNA are called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a sugar, a
sub-unit called a base, and phosphate.
◗ DNA nucleotides contain the four bases adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine. They also contain
the sugar deoxyribose.
◗ DNA nucleotides are required by cells to make DNA during cell replication.
◗ RNA nucleotides contain the four bases adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil. They also contain the
sugar ribose.
◗ RNA nucleotides are required for cells to make ribosomes and to make RNA so that cells can make
proteins.

FIGURE 3.28
P Nucleotide
S B monomer, made
S B S B B S
up of phosphate
Nucleotide
P (P) – sugar (S) – base
P P (B), and segments
of RNA and DNA
S B S B B S biomacromolecules.
RNA usually consists
P P P
of a single chain,
whereas DNA consists
S B S B B S of two chains in
opposite directions.
P P P

S B S B B S

S B
DNA
P

S B

P
S B

RNA
KEY CONCEPTS

● The four main groups of biomacromolecules are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic
acids.
● These four groups of organic compounds are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms,
but they are in different proportions. Proteins also contain nitrogen and sometimes sulfur.
Nucleic acids also contain nitrogen and phosphorus.
● Autotrophic organisms can build their own organic compounds, whereas consumer organisms
must make their organic compounds from their food.
● Carbohydrates can be used as a source of energy, for storage of energy, and sometimes as a
structural component of the cell.
● Lipids are used for energy storage, structural parts of membranes and components of hormones.
● Proteins have a structural role in cells and tissues. Proteins such as enzymes also have a
functional role.
● The two types of nucleic acids are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).
● DNA contains chemical information that controls the cell activities and the production of
proteins. RNA assists in the manufacture of the proteins.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 89

 CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Outline the requirements of a cell.
2 Identify the four main types of biomacromolecules.
3.2 3 Outline:
a the chemical composition of a carbohydrate
b the types, structures and uses of carbohydrates.
4 State where in a cell you would expect to find DNA and RNA.
5 a Outline some of the uses of lipids in cells.
b Describe the uses of lipids in cells.
6 Distinguish between:
a organic and inorganic nutrients
b amino acids, polypeptides and proteins.
7 Explain why there are so many different kinds of protein.

3.3 Enzymes
Enzymes are protein molecules that control all metabolic reactions in living cells. Without enzymes,
the reactions that occur in cells would be so slow as to hardly proceed at all. Enzymes act as biological
catalysts, controlling the rate of each step of the complex chemical reactions that take place in cells.
Catalysts are chemical substances that can accelerate (speed up) chemical reactions, are unchanged at
the end of the reaction, and can be reused many times.
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions occurring within a living organism. Over 1000 different
reactions can take place in each cell. A specific enzyme catalyses each of these reactions. There are as
many enzymes in living organisms as there are types of chemical reactions.
Atoms and molecules are in constant motion and colliding. If the reactants are supplied with enough
energy, such as heat, to break their bonds, then the reaction will proceed and products will be formed.
The minimum amount of energy required to start the reaction is called the activation energy.
A1B → C1D
Reactants Products
Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction. They do this
by combining with the reactants and holding them in a way that makes the reaction more likely to occur
(Fig. 3.29).

FIGURE 3.29
a b Uncatalysed Activation
Scheme of activation
Energy supplied

energy required for energy in

chemical reactions: the presence
a without a catalyst, Activation
energy of of an enzyme
activation energy
must be supplied for uncatalysed Catalysed
a chemical reaction; reaction
b catalysts accelerate
specific reactions by
Energy released

lowering the amount Reactant Reactant

of activation energy
needed to initiate the
reaction.
Product Product

Progress of reaction Progress of reaction

90 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 Properties of enzymes
Enzymes are composed of protein molecules that are often highly folded to create a particular chemical
Enzymes
‘shape’. The surface of the enzyme with a specific shape is called the active site. It is here that the Watch this
reactants, also known as the substrates, in a chemical reaction temporarily bind. When this occurs, a animation and
draw a flow chart
substrate–enzyme complex is formed and the reaction proceeds. The products of the reaction are then of the way in which
enzymes function.
released from the active site of the enzyme. The enzyme remains unchanged. It is again available for the
same process to occur.
An enzyme is specific for a particular reaction as the shape of the active site will accommodate only
substrates that match that particular shape.

Models of enzyme activity

Two models have been developed to try to explain how the substrate binds at the active site to form the
substrate–enzyme complex.
First a lock-and-key model was proposed: it was thought that the active site is rigid and the small How enzymes
function
substrate molecule is reciprocally shaped and fits exactly into the active site, like a key into a lock. Once
Explain how
this substrate–enzyme complex has formed, the close proximity of the molecules allows the reaction to enzymes function.
be rapidly catalysed and the products of the reaction are released. To validate this model, predictions
were made and tested. The results led to the proposal of the currently accepted amended version of the
model, known as the induced-fit model. This model is based on the realisation that proteins are not rigid.
Evidence suggests that the binding of a substrate to the active site of an enzyme induces the enzyme to
alter its shape slightly, to fit more tightly around the substrate (Fig. 3.30).

Factors affecting enzyme activity

Enzymes require particular conditions in order to function at their optimal efficiency. Any change to
these conditions means the enzyme will either work very slowly or not at all.

Enzymes are temperature sensitive

Enzymes within cells function best at the body temperature of the organism in which they occur. In most
living things, enzymes function normally at temperatures up to 40°C (Fig. 3.31a). Some organisms that
live in hostile environments have optimal temperatures that are much lower or much higher than this.
In humans, the optimal temperature for the functioning of enzymes is 37°C.
As the temperature increases, the rate of reaction increases until the optimal temperature is reached,
at which point the enzyme activity is at its maximum level. Above this temperature, the enzyme activity
slows until it stops altogether at temperatures of approximately 50–60°C.
At high temperatures the motion associated with heat energy can make the protein structure bend
and flex so much that it changes the shape of the active site. This renders it incapable of accommodating
the substrate that would normally bind there. Therefore the enzyme will not function as it should. The
heat has caused the enzyme to denature. This change in the structure and shape of the molecule due to
excessive heat is irreversible.
Excessive cold also causes the enzyme to change shape and its functioning to slow down or stop.
This change in shape due to excessive cold is, however, often reversible.

Enzymes are pH sensitive

pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a substance or solution. Acidic solutions have pH values
below 7, while alkaline solutions have pH values above 7. Neutral solutions have a pH value of 7.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 91

 a
1 Substrate is sucrose, which is Glucose Fructose
composed of glucose and
fructose bonded together
2 Substrate binds
to the enzyme 4 Products are released
Bond

3 Bond binding
the substrate
breaks

Substrate–enzyme
Active sites complex fits in
lock-and-key
arrangement 5 Enzyme is free
to bind other
Enzyme substrates

b
1 Substrate is sucrose, which is Glucose Fructose
composed of glucose and
fructose bonded together
2 Substrate binds
to the enzyme 4 Products are released
Bond

3 Bond binding
the substrate
breaks

Induced fit: the

Active sites binding of the substrate
induces the enzyme to
change shape and fit 5 Enzyme is free
more tightly to bind other
Enzyme substrates

FIGURE 3.30 Sequence of steps in the ’lock-and-key’/‘induced-fit’ model of specificity of substrate–enzyme action: a lock-and-key model of enzyme
functioning; b induced-fit model of enzyme functioning. Note the change in shape of the active site in this model.

Each enzyme has its own narrow range of pH within which it functions most efficiently. Levels of
alkalinity or acidity outside the optimum pH for an enzyme have a similar effect to that of temperature
change – they alter the shape of the enzyme and slow down or stop its functioning. Extremes of pH, like
temperature, cause the enzymes to denature. Within cells, most enzymes function at or near neutral,
but enzymes in the digestive tract function in an acidic or alkaline medium. For example, the protein-
digesting enzymes pepsin and rennin, found in gastric juice in the stomach, function best in a strong
acid/low pH (Fig. 3.31b).

92 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 a b

Optimum
temperature
Optimum pH Optimum pH
Rate of reaction

Rate of reaction
for pepsin for trypsin

30 40 50 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Temperature of reaction (°C) pH of reaction

FIGURE 3.31 Graphs showing a the effect of temperature on the rate of enzyme action; b the pH-specificity of two digestive enzymes

Substrate concentration and enzyme activity Saturation point; all

Maximum enzyme is being used WS
The rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction is affected by activity
the concentration of the substrate. The higher the substrate Rate of reaction Enzymes

concentration, the greater the rate of enzyme reaction, until

all available enzymes are being used to catalyse reactions.
This point is known as the saturation point. Increasing the
substrate concentration beyond the saturation point will not
increase the rate of reaction, since all enzymes are working at
their maximum turnover rate and will have to be reused to
Substrate concentration
act on the additional substrate. The only way to increase the
reaction rate would be to increase the enzyme concentration FIGURE 3.32 The effect of increases in substrate
concentration on the rate of an enzyme-catalysed
(Fig. 3.32). reaction. At saturation, further increases in substrate
concentration do not increase the rate of the reaction.

INVESTIGATION 3.3

A practical investigation to model the action of enzymes in cells

Catalase is an enzyme present in all living things. It is responsible for catalysing the breakdown of hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2). Hydrogen peroxide is produced as a result of cellular respiration within the cell. If it is allowed
to accumulate, it will be toxic to the cell and cause its death. When hydrogen peroxide is broken down, it forms
the non-toxic substances oxygen and water:
catalase
hydrogen peroxide ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ water 1 oxygen

2H2 O2 2H2 O 1 O2(g)

This investigation models the action of enzymes in cells (to justify the substrate–enzyme binding action
and re-usability of enzymes). It investigates the effect of substrate concentration on the activity of an enzyme.
Models make predictions to explain how things work. In this model, if enzymes bind with substrates to

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 93

 catalyse a reaction, then an increase in substrate concentration should result in the saturation of enzymes at a
particular substrate concentration. If further substrate is added beyond the saturation point and the enzyme
concentration is kept the same, there will be no further increase in the rate of reaction.
Hydrogen peroxide will represent the substrate, and catalase in potato is the enzyme. As oxygen gas is
a product of this reaction, the activity of the enzyme is determined by measuring the height of the bubbles
produced in the hydrogen peroxide.
Similar investigations can be performed with hydrogen peroxide and potato to determine the effect of
temperature and pH on the activity of an enzyme.

AIM

1 To model the action of enzymes in cells (based on the substrate–enzyme binding action and re-usability
of enzymes)
2 To investigate the effect of substrate concentration on the activity of an enzyme

HYPOTHESIS
The activity of the enzyme will increase as the substrate concentration increases until it reaches saturation
point, after which the activity of the enzyme will remain constant.

MATERIALS

• 7 3 test tubes (same size) • 30 cm rule

• Test tube rack • Marking pen
• Hydrogen peroxide (6%) • Potato
• 2 3 10 mL measuring cylinders • Labels
• Cork borer or blender • Stopwatch

RISK ASSESSMENT

!
WHAT IS THE HAZARD? WHAT RISK DOES THE HAZARD POSE? HOW CAN YOU SAFELY MANAGE THIS RISK?
RISK
ASSESSMENT
Hydrogen peroxide Toxic if ingested, eye and skin irritant Wear safety goggles and disposable gloves.
Do not ingest.

Potato Can be a skin irritant Wear disposable gloves.

METHOD

1 Label the seven test tubes with the numbers 1 to 7.

2 Measure the quantities of hydrogen peroxide and water specified in Table 3.9 using the measuring
cylinders and place them in the appropriately numbered test tube.

TABLE 3.9
TEST TUBE NO. VOLUME H2O2 (mL) VOLUME H2O (mL)

1 10 0
2 10 0
3 8 2
4 6 4
5 4 6
6 2 8
7 0 10

3 Mark the level of liquid in each test tube using the marker pen.
4 Using a cork borer, obtain six cylinders of potato of the same diameter.
5 Cut the potato cylinders so that they are of equal length (Fig. 3.33).

94 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 (Note: An alternative way to prepare the potato is to puree

(AmyBrownScience.com)
Photograph provided by Amy Brown Science
cubes of potato with a small amount of water in a blender –
a few mL of this pureed potato would then be measured
into the test tubes instead of the cylinders of potato.)
6 Place a cylinder of potato into each of the test tubes
numbered 2–7 and allow the reaction to proceed for
approximately 5 minutes.
7 At the completion of this time, place another mark on
the test tube to indicate the maximum height to which
the bubbles reached.
8 Measure the difference between the level of the liquid
and the height to which the bubbles reached in each FIGURE 3.33 Preparing potato cylinders of the
same diameter and length
test tube. Record your results in a results table like
Table 3.10.
9 Compare your results with those of other groups in the class.

RESULTS

1 TABLE 3.10
HEIGHT OF BUBBLES (cm)
TEST TUBE NO. (ACTIVITY OF ENZYME) WS

1 Investigation 3.3
2
3
4
5
6
7

2 Graph the results obtained using a line graph. Remember that the independent variable goes on the x-axis
and the dependent variable is on the y-axis.

DISCUSSION

1 Identify the:
a enzyme
b substrate in this model of enzyme activity.
2 Describe how test tubes 1 and 2 model the action of enzymes in cells.
3 Was this a valid model? Justify your answer.
See p. 4 for a
4 Identify the following variables: discussion of
validity and
a independent variable reliability.
b dependent variable
c controlled variables.
5 Why was test tube 1 with no potato added used?
6 Discuss the validity of the experimental design.
7 Describe the trend obtained on your graph.
8 Is the hypothesis supported by these results?
9 Compare your results with other groups in the class and comment on the reliability of the investigation.

CONCLUSION
Write a conclusion that relates the aims of the investigation to the results of your investigation.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 95

 DESIGN YOUR OWN INVESTIGATION

1 Investigate the effect of pH or the effect of temperature on enzyme activity. This can be undertaken using
the same substrate and enzyme and a similar method, or you may wish to research methods using other
readily available enzymes and substrates.
2 Define a research question and hypothesis for your investigation.
3 Follow the steps outlined in Chapter 1 to assist you with your investigation.
KEY CONCEPTS

● Cellular products and wastes must be removed from the cell to maintain efficient cell
functioning.
● Enzymes, or biological catalysts, are proteins that control cellular reactions.
● In enzyme-catalysed reactions, the substrate attaches to the shape on the surface of the
enzyme (the active site) and forms an substrate–enzyme complex.
● The reaction then occurs and the products are released. The enzyme can be re-used for the
same reaction.
● There are two models of enzyme action – the lock-and-key model and the induced-fit model.
● The activity of an enzyme increases as temperature increases until the optimal temperature
is reached. With further temperature increases the enzyme activity decreases and then stops
completely when the high temperatures destroy (denature) the structure of the enzyme.
● Each enzyme has an optimum pH at which it functions most efficiently.
● Enzyme activity is affected by the substrate concentration. As the substrate concentration
increases, the activity of the enzyme increases until all the enzymes are saturated. After this,
further increases in substrate concentration will not lead to increases in enzyme activity.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Summarise the characteristics of enzymes.
2 Describe how an enzyme catalyses a reaction.
3.3 3 Outline how enzymes affect the activation energy required by reactants for a reaction to occur.
4 a Identify three factors that can affect the activity of an enzyme.
b Outline how each of these factors affects the activity of enzymes.
5 a Describe the lock-and-key model of enzyme activity.
b How does the induced-fit model differ from the lock-and-key model?
6 a What does the term ‘denature’ mean when applied to enzymes?
b Outline how enzymes can be denatured.
7 Discuss why enzymes are important for the maintenance of life.
8 Explain why there are thousands of different types of enzymes in the human body.
9 Explain why doctors would get worried if their patient develops a temperature in excess of 42°C.

3.4 Biochemical processes in cells

Eukaryotic cells contain many membrane-bound organelles that contain specific enzymes that catalyse
specific biochemical processes. For example, chemical reactions in lysosomes break down compounds
brought into the cell by using strong digestive enzymes in an acidic environment. Having the lysosome
enclosed in a membrane prevents the enzymes from destroying the cell. These reactions within cells
require energy, which is provided in the form of ATP.
The two major biochemical processes that cells carry out are photosynthesis in plant cells and cellular
respiration in all living cells.

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 Energy transfer between reactions ATP
High energy A P P P
Provision of energy is vital to ensure that all essential life processes bond
take place. All cells use glucose as the primary source of energy to
P
drive the thousands of chemical reactions that occur constantly Energy
in each living cell. When glucose is broken down in the process of released
aerobic cellular respiration, the large amount of energy contained P
within it is released. This released energy is trapped and stored Free
in small packets in many high-energy molecules called adenosine phosphate
group
triphosphate (ATP). The cell accesses the energy contained in ATP
to power all cell functioning. ATP is a small mobile molecule that
can deliver the energy to wherever it is required.
ATP is composed of a complex molecule called adenosine A P P

(adenine attached to a ribose sugar group) that in turn attaches ADP

to three phosphate groups. This is where the name adenosine FIGURE 3.34 The storage and release of energy: the ATP–ADP cycle

triphosphate comes from. The bond that attaches the third

phosphate group is a high-energy bond. When energy is required by the cell, this bond is broken and
the energy it contains is released. ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a free phosphate group are formed.
To store the energy produced by the cell, a free phosphate group is attached to the ADP molecule by a
high-energy bond, forming ATP. The storage and release of energy is a cycle between ADP, free phosphate
groups and ATP, as shown in Figure 3.34.

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants utilise light energy, usually from the sun, which is
trapped by chlorophyll (contained in the chloroplast). It uses this energy to break apart water and
carbon dioxide molecules, and build them up into oxygen, energy-storing glucose molecules and
water molecules (Fig. 3.35).

FIGURE 3.35 The

Sun
processes involved
in converting the
radiant energy from
the sun into energy
that can be used by
Radiant
cells
energy

Photosynthesis Respiration Cell

Glucose ATP (energy) activities

Photosynthesis can be summarised by the word equation:

light energy
carbon dioxide 1 water ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → glucose 1 oxygen
chlorophyll
The balanced overall chemical equation is:
light energy
6CO2 1 6H 2 O ⎯
⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯⎯
→ C 6 H12 O6 1 6O2
chlorophyll
WS
The process of photosynthesis is summarised by the general equation above. The actual process of
photosynthesis occurs in two stages, each consisting of a series of many chemical reactions that take Photosynthesis
place in the chloroplasts of green plant cells and the cells of some photosynthetic bacteria.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 97

Light energy Water Carbon dioxide Phase 1: the light-dependent stage
The light-dependent stage (photolysis) (photo 5 light,
Light-dependent stage Light-independent stage lysis 5 splitting) occurs in the grana of chloroplasts. It
involves the absorption of light energy by the chlorophyll
ATP
in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast (Fig. 2.28
Hydrogen ions on page 55). This energy is used to split the water (H2O)
molecules into hydrogen ions (H1) and oxygen (O2). The
Thylakoid membranes Stroma
oxygen is released into the atmosphere and the hydrogen
ions are carried to the next phase. ATP is also formed at
Oxygen Glucose this stage.

Inside chloroplast Phase 2: the light-independent stage

The light-independent stage (carbon fixation) occurs in
FIGURE 3.36 Photosynthesis is a series of reactions occurring in two stages:
the light-dependent and the light-independent stages the stroma of the chloroplasts. It involves combining
carbon dioxide (CO2) with the hydrogen ions produced
in the light-dependent stage to form glucose (C6H12O6). The ATP formed in the light-dependent stage is
required to provide the energy for this reaction. No light is required in this stage (Fig. 3.36).
Glucose produced by photosynthesis can be converted by plants into complex carbohydrates, lipids
and/or proteins. These end-products are stored by the plants and are the source of organic nutrients, not
only for the plants themselves but also for consumer organisms that eat the plants.
KEY CONCEPTS

● Energy in cells is transported within cells by small and mobile ATP molecules.
● ATP stores energy in a high-energy bond that attaches the third phosphate group to the ADP
molecule.
● When energy is required, the high-energy bond is broken, releasing energy, a phosphate group
and ADP.
● Photosynthesis is the process where plants use light energy, trapped by chlorophyll, to break down
water and carbon dioxide molecules, and build them up into oxygen, glucose and water molecules.

light energy
carbon dioxide 1 water ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ glucose 1 oxygen
chlorophyll

● Photosynthesis is a series of smaller reactions occurring across two stages.

● The light-dependent stage occurs in the grana where light energy splits the water molecules
into oxygen and hydrogen.
● The light-independent stage occurs in the stroma where carbon dioxide and hydrogen combine
to form glucose.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 a Describe the relationship between ADP and ATP.
b Outline the advantages of using ATP as an energy storage molecule.
3.4a 2 a Outline the purpose of the process of photosynthesis.
b Identify the products of the light-dependent stage that are used as inputs in the light-independent
stage of photosynthesis.
3 a Write a balanced equation for photosynthesis.
b Explain why this is considered to be a summary equation.
4 Do all living plant cells carry out photosynthesis? Justify your answer.
5 Distinguish between the light-dependent and the light-independent stages of photosynthesis in terms of
location, requirements and products.

98 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 Cellular respiration
All organisms break down glucose as a source of energy to drive cellular metabolism.
Glucose can be broken down either in the presence of oxygen (aerobic cellular respiration) or in the
absence of oxygen (anaerobic cellular respiration). Different products and amounts of energy are released
in each of these processes.

Anaerobic cellular respiration

Many organisms, such as some bacteria and archaea, live in environments lacking oxygen. Cells such as
muscle cells sometimes cannot get enough oxygen, but still are able to release energy via an anaerobic
pathway in the cytosol of cells. Two commonly used biochemical pathways enable energy to be produced
using molecules other than oxygen: alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation.
In alcoholic fermentation, yeast, many bacteria and plants (or parts of plants) carry out anaerobic
cellular respiration. This process involves the breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen to form
ethanol (an alcohol) and carbon dioxide. Two molecules of ATP are produced as a result.
glucose → ethanol 1 carbon dioxide 1 adenosine triphosphate
C6H12O6 → 2CH3CH2OH 1 2CO2 1 2ATP
Humans make use of this process in the production of beer, wine and bread.
Lactic acid fermentation is carried out when an organism cannot produce enough energy by aerobic
cellular respiration. This occurs in periods of strenuous exercise when our bodies cannot deliver enough
oxygen to the muscles to produce the energy required. In lactic acid fermentation, one molecule of
glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen, to produce two molecules of lactic acid as well as two
molecules of ATP. The equation below represents this:
glucose → lactic acid 1 adenosine triphosphate
C6H12O6 → 2CH3CH(OH)COOH 1 2ATP
Once the strenuous exercise has finished, there will be more oxygen available. The lactic acid changes
to a compound called pyruvate and is converted by aerobic respiration into carbon dioxide, water and
energy (ATP) (see below).

Aerobic cellular respiration

Aerobic cellular respiration is a chain of many biochemical reactions that occur in the cells of the organism WS

in the presence of oxygen. It is generally summarised as follows, to depict the main changes that occur Cellular respiration
during respiration.
The general equation for aerobic cellular respiration expressed as a:
◗ word equation:
many chemical reactions
glucose 1 oxygen ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ carbon dioxide 1 water 1 energy (ATP)
◗ balanced equation:
many chemical reactions
C 6 H12 O6 1 6O2 1 ADP 1 P ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 6CO2 1 6H 2 O 1 36 ATP
There are at least 20 separate reactions, each catalysed by a specific enzyme that makes up this overall
pathway.
The first step in the biochemical pathway to break down glucose is the process of glycolysis. This
process occurs in the cytosol of the cell and involves the breakdown of glucose (a six-carbon molecule)
into two pyruvate molecules (each with three carbon atoms). This is accompanied by the release of energy
in the form of two molecules of ATP. This overall reaction is actually a series of 10 smaller reactions, each
catalysed by a specific enzyme.
The two molecules of pyruvate formed from one molecule of glucose then enter the mitochondria
of the cell where the rest of the series of reactions that make up aerobic cellular respiration occur.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 99

 Each of these reactions is catalysed by a specific enzyme and culminates in
Glucose
the production of more energy, carbon dioxide and water. The energy from
these reactions is released in the form of 34 ATP molecules to make a total of
Cytoplasm

36 ATP molecules produced for the breakdown of every glucose molecule. This
Process of glycolysis
process is summarised in Figure 3.37.

2 ATP
Photosynthesis and aerobic cellular respiration
Pyruvate
Photosynthesis and aerobic cellular respiration are related (Fig. 3.38). When you
Mitochondrion

look at the general equations for photosynthesis and aerobic cellular respiration,
Oxygen it appears that these processes may be the reverse of each other. That is not the
case because they are each made up of a series of chemical reactions that are very
34 ATP different.
Carbon Photosynthesis and aerobic cellular respiration are, however, closely related
Water
dioxide
and interdependent.
FIGURE 3.37 Glycolysis, the first stage of cellular The products of photosynthesis are used in the process of aerobic cellular
respiration, occurs in the cytoplasm and releases respiration. Similarly, the products of aerobic cellular respiration are used in the
two ATP. The second stage of aerobic cellular
respiration occurs in the mitochondria and process of photosynthesis.
releases 34 ATP. In cells that contain both chloroplasts and mitochondria, the two
processes will occur in the same cell. In cells that do not contain chloroplasts
(such as plant root cells), the products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen) must be supplied to
the cells for the process of aerobic cellular respiration to occur.

FIGURE 3.38 The

Sunlight energy
close relationship
and interdependence
of the processes
of photosynthesis Photosynthesis
and aerobic cellular (in chloroplast)
respiration

CO2 1 H2O Glucose 1 O2

Respiration
(in mitochondria)

ATP

40% cell function 60% heat energy

100 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 Removal of cellular products and wastes
The products of the reactions in the cell that are not required by the organism are called wastes. They
need to be transported to other cells and/or need to be removed for efficient cell functioning. Removal
from the cell will usually occur by diffusion through the cell membrane. Oxygen and carbon dioxide gases
are easily removed from the cell by diffusion through the cell membrane.
Any excess water that is not required by the cell moves out of the cell by osmosis. Wastes formed from
the breakdown of proteins also leave the cell by diffusion through the cell membrane.
Waste chemical products that dissolve in water are removed from the cell at the same time as the
water. Oily, fat-soluble substances are attached to small electrically charged molecules by the cell to make
them water-soluble so they can be removed when the water diffuses out.
When parts of the cell break down, wear out or die, they also need to be removed. Lysosomes, which
contain digestive enzymes, are responsible for breaking down these ‘old’ cell parts and other cellular
waste. Any of these wastes that can’t be eliminated in this way by the lysosome are packaged and removed
by exocytosis.
Proteins such as hormones and enzymes, and other substances such as mucus, are produced by The process of
an animal cell. These cellular products are packaged into vesicles and leave the cell by the process of exocytosis was
discussed on
exocytosis. Wastes that leave a cell are said to be excreted from the cell. Useful products that leave a cell p. 81.
to be used elsewhere are said to be secreted.
KEY CONCEPTS

● When glucose and oxygen combine in the process of aerobic cellular respiration, energy is
produced along with water and carbon dioxide. This process is made up of many reactions.
many chemical reactions
● glucose 1 oxygen (+ ADP + P) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
→ carbon dioxide 1 water 1 energy (ATP)
● The energy produced is stored in ATP molecules.
● The first step of this process occurs in the cytoplasm and is called glycolysis. In this step, one
glucose molecule is broken down into two pyruvate molecules and two ATP.
● The second step in the reaction occurs in the mitochondria where pyruvate, in the presence of
oxygen (aerobic cellular respiration), is broken down to release carbon dioxide, water and 34 ATP.
● A total of 36 ATP molecules is produced for every molecule of glucose broken down in aerobic
respiration.
● Anaerobic (without oxygen) cellular respiration produces ethanol and carbon dioxide in
bacteria, yeast and plant cells, and lactic acid in animal cells. Two ATP molecules are produced
in this process for the respiration of each molecule of glucose.
● Wastes are the products of cellular reactions that are not required.
● Many of these wastes can be removed by simple diffusion through the cell membrane.
● Other wastes can be removed by exocytosis or destroyed by the enzymes present in lysosomes.

CHECK YOUR
1 Write a balanced equation for the process of aerobic cellular respiration. UNDERSTANDING
2 Outline the role of aerobic cellular respiration in living organisms.
3 a Identify the initial reactant and the final product in the process of glycolysis. 3.4b
b Identify where in the cell glycolysis occurs.
4 Compare the products of aerobic cellular respiration with the products of anaerobic cellular respiration in
plants and animals.
5 Outline where the carbon dioxide is produced and name any other products formed in the process of
aerobic cellular respiration.
6 a Outline the conditions under which lactic acid is formed.
b Outline the fate of the lactic acid when more oxygen becomes available.
7 Summarise the ways in which wastes can be removed from the cell.
8 Outline the importance of plants coordinating the processes of photosynthesis and respiration.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 101

 3 CHAPTER SUMMARY
Cell function: How do cells coordinate activities within their internal
environment and the external environment?

CELL REQUIREMENTS AND PRODUCTS MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES INTO AND OUT OF CELLS
Related to:

iStock.com/micro_photo
Non-lipid-soluble
• characteristics Specific non-lipid-soluble molecules
of materials molecules or ions Lipid-soluble
• concentration molecules
gradient

© The McGraw Hill Companies, Inc.

Membrane
• SA: V

Based on an illustration that is

channel

Gas and
wastes Gas and nutrients
Extracellular space

Molecule to be transported Concentration gradient

Carrier
Channel proteins Concentration
protein gradient Surface-area-to-volume ratio

The smaller the cell, the higher the SA:V and the
more efficient the exchange of substances into
Lipid bilayer

and out of the cell.

Simple Channel- Carrier- Energy

diffusion mediated mediated
Cytoplasm

transport transport
Active transport Nucleus
Nucleus
Passive transport
(facilitated diffusion) Nucleus

Types of movement into Osmosis Active transport

and out of cells Selectively permeable membrane Selectively permeable membrane
High concentration High concentration
of water molecules Low concentration Low concentration of solute
Diffusion/facilitated diffusion of water molecules of solute
High concentration of
particles (e.g. perfume)
Solute
Low concentration
of particles

Movement along a concentration gradient Movement along a concentration gradient Movement against a concentration gradient

Diffusion: the movement of any type Osmosis: the movement of water Active transport: the movement of
of molecule from a high to a low molecules from a high concentration of molecules from a low concentration to
concentration, until equilibrium is water to a low concentration of water, a high concentration through selectively
reached through selectively permeable membrane permeable membrane

No energy required No energy required Energy required

TRANSPORT OF LARGE MOLECULES

Endocytosis (into cell): phagocytosis (solid) and pinocytosis (liquid) → Exocytosis (out of cell)

102 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281

 a b Uncatalysed Activation
ACTION OF ENZYMES

Energy released Energy supplied

energy in
• Decrease activation energy Activation the presence
energy of of an enzyme
• 2 models: Lock and key and uncatalysed Catalysed
induced fit reaction

EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENT ON Reactant Reactant

ENZYME ACTION
• Temperature
• pH Product Product

• Substrate concentration
Progress of reaction Progress of reaction

BIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES
Anaerobic respiration
ATP Plants: fermentation
A P P P glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide + adenosine triphosphate
High energy
bond C6H12O6 → 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2 + 2ATP
Energy
P released Animals:
glucose → lactic acid + adenosine triphosphate
P
C6H12O6 → 2CH3CH2(OH)COOH + 2ATP
Free
phosphate
group Aerobic respiration

A P P Glycolysis, the first stage of cellular respiration, occurs in the cytoplasm and
ADP releases two ATP. The second stage of aerobic cellular respiration occurs in the
mitochondria and releases 34 ATP.
Photosynthesis glucose + oxygen many chemical reactions carbon dioxide + water + energy (ATP)
Photosynthesis is a series of reactions occurring C6H12O6 + 6O2 many chemical reactions 6CO2 + 6HO2 + ATP
in two stages: the light-dependent and the
light-independent stages.
Sunlight energy
light energy
2CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
chlorophyll
light energy Photosynthesis
carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen (in chloroplast)
chlorophyll
Light energy Water Carbon dioxide

Light-dependent stage ATP Light-independent stage

Thylakoid membranes Hydrogen ions Stroma

Oxygen Glucose CO2 1 H2O Glucose 1 O2

Inside chloroplast

Glucose
Cytoplasm

Respiration
Process of glycolysis (in mitochondria)

ATP
Mitochondrion

Pyruvate 2 ATP

Oxygen 40% cell function 60% heat energy

34 ATP
The close relationship and interdependence of the processes
Carbon dioxide Water of photosynthesis and aerobic cellular respiration.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 103

 3 CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Qz

Review quiz

1 Distinguish between the following: 8 Suggest why it is said that carbon is the element on which
a diffusion and facilitated diffusion all life depends.
b diffusion and osmosis 9 Construct a table to compare the chemical composition,
c osmosis and active transport structure and function of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins
and nucleic acids.
d exocytosis and endocytosis.
10 Identify the inorganic nutrients that are important to cells
2 Construct a table to identify and outline the different
and describe their uses in cells.
means by which substances move in and out of cells.
Include examples of substances that use each of these 11 Construct a table to identify and describe three factors
means to enter or leave the cell. that affect the activity of enzymes.
3 Draw a diagram of a unicellular freshwater organism 12 List the conditions necessary for photosynthesis.
that is placed in seawater, labelling the direction of the
13 Compare the processes of photosynthesis and aerobic
net movement of water. Justify the direction of the net
respiration, including where in the cell they occur, their
movement of the water.
requirements, their products and their purpose.
4 Outline one reason why plant cells do not burst when
14 Explain why one enzyme can catalyse only one particular
placed in a hypotonic solution.
reaction.
5 Blood cells were placed in three different solutions. After
15 Explain why cells cannot grow to a big size.
some time, cells in solution X became shrivelled. Cells in
solution Y burst and cells in solution Z remained the same. 16 Describe how the lock-and-key model explains the effect
a Which solution was hypertonic compared with the of denaturing enzymes.
blood cells? 17 Describe the inputs of photosynthesis from which oxygen
b Which cell was isotonic compared with the gas is produced.
surroundings?
18 ATP is an energy-carrier molecule. Relate its structure to its
6 a Which of the following shapes with the same volume function.
would have a higher SA:V – a flattened rectangular cell
19 A human enzyme works best at 37°C.
or a spherical cell?
a Predict what would happen to the enzyme’s activity at
b Which of these shapes would be more efficient in
very low temperatures.
ensuring the movement of substances to all areas of
the cell? Justify your answer. b Outline how this may differ from the activity of the
enzyme at very high temperatures.
7 A beaker is half-filled with water and 10 drops of food
c Describe what has happened to the active site in both
colouring are added. After half an hour, the food colouring
cases.
is evenly distributed throughout the water.
Explain the process that caused this to occur. In your 20 Your friend says she doesn’t believe the air she breathes
answer, use the terms ‘net movement’, ‘concentration out contains carbon from the food she’s eaten. Outline
gradient’, ‘diffusion’ and ‘equilibrium’. what you would say to convince her.

104 11 » »CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER ONE
MODULE CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281
 » END-OF-MODULE REVIEW
MODULE 1 : CELLS AS THE
BASIS OF LIFE

Answer the following questions.

1 Use the images in Figure M1.1 to answer the following 2 a Distinguish between the processes of diffusion and
questions. osmosis.
b When a patient in a hospital is hooked up to an

Getty Images/BIOPHOTO ASSOCIATES

a intravenous drip, fluid is being added to the blood
plasma.
i Explain why it is important to the red blood cells
that the concentration of the fluid in the drip is
equal to the concentration in the blood plasma.
ii Outline the effect on the red blood cells if the
solution in the drip is hypertonic to the blood
plasma. Explain why this occurs.

3 Identify the organelle that is responsible for respiration

and the organelle that is responsible for photosynthesis.
In the form of a table, compare their structure and their
function.
b
Science Source

4 The processes of aerobic cellular respiration and

photosynthesis are the reverse of each other. Assess the
accuracy of this statement.

5 a Label the areas (i) and (ii) in Figure M1.2.

i
Science Photo Library/DR KARI LOUNATMAA

c ii
i

Enzyme ii
iii
iv

FIGURE M1.2

1 mm
b Explain why the temperature of the human body has
to be maintained at approximately 37°C and why the
FIGURE M1.1 body self-regulates its temperature at 37°C, with only
small increases in temperature (a couple of degrees)
i For each of the images (a), (b) and (c), identify being tolerated.
whether they are prokaryotic, eukaryotic plant or
eukaryotic animal cells. Justify your decision in 6 Two cells have the same volume. One is spherical and the
each case. other is flat and thin. One student in class maintained that
ii Label the areas indicated on image (c). the flat and thin cell would be more efficient in obtaining
iii Use the scale provided to determine the length of nutrients and removing wastes.
the cell in image (c). Evaluate this statement.

9780170407281 CHAPTER 3 » CELL FUNCTION 105

 7 Describe how each of the following substances moves 8 Models are often used to illustrate and simplify biological
across the cell membrane. concepts.
Relate the movement of each substance to the structure a Describe one investigation in ‘Cells as the basis of life’
of the cell membrane. in which you used a model. In your description you
a Carbon dioxide should relate the different components of the model
b Glucose to the actual structure or process being modelled.
c Sodium ions b Outline the purpose and limitations of the model
used.

9 ‘Muscle cells cannot contract when they are not being

supplied with enough oxygen.’
Evaluate this statement using your knowledge of
pathways for cellular respiration.

▻ Find out about the advances in microscope technology and applications of synchrotron radiation in
biology.

▻ Study microbes in hydrothermal vents for clues as to whether life can exist on the moons of Jupiter.

▻ Investigate spectromicroscopy applications in living plant cells and photosynthesis.

▻ Find out about the discovery of water channels in cell membranes (which won a Nobel Prize in 2003).

▻ Investigate the effects of cell shape, cell size and cell structure on SA:V and rates of diffusion.

▻ Find out about quantum biology’s application to a better understanding of biological processes such
as enzyme functioning.

▻ Look into how the study of the uptake of chemicals across barriers could lead to treatment of
diseases (for example, drugs and brain infections, chemotherapy).

▻ Find out about the development of the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane.

▻ Investigate the development by CSIRO of an enzyme-based product that can rapidly degrade
unwanted pesticide residues in agricultural soil and water.

106 MODULE ONE » CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE 9780170407281