Predicted Paper (Based on Past Exam Patterns)

Based on the recurring themes and question structures in the provided past exam papers (2017-2024), a possible structure
for your paper could involve selecting one question from each of three sections. The topics in these sections tend to fall
into broad categories.

Section 1 (Likely focusing on core concepts like Space, Place, Urbanism, Society, Mobility, Territory, Historical
Geography):

Potential questions could be variations of:

●​ How have geographers' approaches to understanding the internal structure of cities changed over time,
particularly since the work of the Chicago School?
●​ How have geographers understood the relationship between space and society?
●​ How does mobility involve a politics of hierarchy and exclusion? or more broadly, how is mobility inherently
political?
●​ How important is the concept of territory in understanding contemporary issues or politics?
●​ What do geographers' changing approaches to understanding race, class, and gender tell us about how the
discipline has changed? (Or related: What is an intersectional approach to space and place?)
●​ How was 19th century geography bound up with the politics of European imperialism?
●​ Critically discuss how geographers have used the concept of 'landscape' in geographical research.

Section 2 (Likely focusing on Environmental Geography, Nature, Sustainability, Risk, Vulnerability,

Environmental Justice, Anthropocene):

Potential questions could be variations of:

●​ How does the concept 'the Anthropocene' challenge earlier understandings of human-environment relationships?
or How does the concept change our understanding of environmental problems?
●​ Are high density compact cities a way forward towards planning for sustainable cities?
●​ How have geographers attempted to de-naturalise nature? or Using specific examples, analyse the differences
between the ‘wilderness’ and the ‘environmental justice’ approaches to environmental protection.
●​ Discuss the significance of environmental justice as a way of approaching environmental questions and
challenges, perhaps using a case study. or How do environmental crises map onto existing social inequalities?
●​ How can we conceptualize vulnerability and how does this shape how we respond to it?
●​ Is sustainable development a useful concept for planners?

Section 3 (Likely focusing on Economic Geography, Growth Theories, Regional Development, Globalisation,
MNEs, Innovation):

Potential questions could be variations of:

●​ How can the neoclassical growth theory shape our thinking with regards to regional development policies?
or Critically evaluate the key assumptions of neoclassical growth theory and its implications for regional
development policies.
●​ What can we learn from the Endogenous Growth Theory? How do its implications differ from those of the
neoclassical growth theory?
 ●​ Why and under what conditions can technology and innovation be regarded as key drivers of economic
development?
●​ How successful have local and regional development policies been in reducing spatial disparities? or Why do
some cities have better economic performance and what can policies do?
●​ Critically evaluate the following statement: ‘By funnelling capital and knowledge into less developed regions,
multinational enterprises (MNEs) reduce spatial disparities’. (Or variations on MNEs facilitating
development/diffusion of knowledge)
●​ Discuss the relevance of ‘local buzz’ and ‘global pipelines’ to the creation and diffusion of new economically
valuable knowledge.
●​ How does a region’s history influence its future growth prospects?
●​ Assess the utility of Global Value Chains (GVC) to understand inequality and power in the global economy.

Please remember that this is a prediction based on patterns in the provided past papers and lecture topics. The actual exam
may vary.

Summary Notes on Main Topics

The provided lecture notes cover a wide range of interconnected topics in human and environmental geography. Here are
some of the main areas you should be familiar with:

1.​ Conceptualising Space and Place: Different ways of thinking about space (Empirical, Flow, Representations,
Production of space). The distinction between space (open arena of action) and place (value, belonging, stopping,
engaging). Places as unique/distinct (regional view) vs becoming similar (homogenization) vs shaped by and
shaping global processes. The concept of sense of place and Topophilia. The critique of place as socially
constructed and threatened by hypermobility of capital/global flows.
2.​ Cultural Geography and Landscape: The development from traditional cultural geography focused on cultural
landscapes (Sauer) to New Cultural Geography (UK, 1980s/90s) emphasizing culture as dynamic,
power/identity/representation, symbols/meanings, post-structuralism/discourse, and engagement with the
everyday. Material Landscapes critique the focus on symbolic landscapes and argue landscapes are products of
labour and capitalist processes.
3.​ Social Structures and Inequality: Analysis of how class, gender, and race impact society. Marx's theory of
class and capitalism (bourgeoisie/proletariat conflict, exploitation, surplus value). Gentrification as a capitalist
process driven by the rent gap (Neil Smith). Gender and the division of labour, reproductive labour, patriarchy.
Racism and Imperialism, historical roots, colonialism, forced migration (transatlantic slave trade), lasting
legacies of inequality. Racism in the city and Environmental Racism. Public monuments and collective memory.
Intersectionality (Kimberly Crenshaw) for understanding overlapping identities and discrimination. The role of
poststructuralism in challenging fixed notions of identity.
4.​ Urban Geography: Defining the city (physical aspects, lifestyle, measurable criteria). Urban geography as the
study of layout, relationships, and internal structures of cities. The Chicago School (urban ecology, zones of the
city, social competition) and Urban Structure Models (Burgess' Concentric Zone, Hoyt's Sector, Harris and
Ullman's Multiple Nuclei). David Harvey's contributions (reinterpreting locational theory, friction of distance,
economic rationality) and Marxist Urban Geography (cities facilitating capitalist accumulation). Castells
(Urban Question, collective consumption) and Harvey (built environment, spatial fix) on space in capitalist
accumulation. Postmodern Urbanism (fragmented cities, consumption focus, social polarization).
Contemporary Urban Geography (World Cities/Global Networks, Neoliberalism and the city, Urban
Politics/Social Injustice, Southern Urbanism).
 5.​ Mobility: Defining mobility (movement of people, goods, info). The politics of mobility (regulated, restricted,
facilitated, uneven access, systemic power). Tim Cresswell and the kinetic hierarchy (Bauman) illustrating
disparities in mobility based on privilege. Global migration patterns (historical and contemporary). Critiques of
sedentarist and neoclassical approaches (Ravenstein, push-pull). Structural and cultural approaches to migration.
The Mobilities Turn in geography. Intersecting mobilities in a globalized world. State role in fostering
transnationalism (e.g., Philippines).
6.​ Economic Geography: Spatial dimensions of economic activities. Different theoretical approaches. Exogenous
Growth Theory (output from labor, capital, exogenous technology, assumptions like perfect competition, factor
mobility, equal tech access). Regional Convergence Theory (capital/labor flow leads to equalization,
diminishing returns). Critiques of these (lack of real-world fit, unequal tech access, Eurocentrism). Endogenous
Growth Theory (growth from internal processes, investment in human capital, innovation, technology). Critiques
of this (simplified model, lack of contextual analysis, "black box" issues). Policy implications of both theories.
7.​ Globalization: Perspectives on globalization (Pro-Globalists like Friedman vs Sceptics like Harvey).
World-Systems Theory (Wallerstein - core, periphery, semi-periphery). Changing geography of globalization
(fragmented production, rising newly industrialised economies). Innovation as a driver (incremental vs radical).
Role of FDIs and MNEs. Potential deglobalisation trends. Globalization and inequality (Accumulation by
Dispossession - Harvey). Global Commodity/Value/Production Chains (GCC/GVC/GPN) for understanding
cross-border linkages and value distribution. "Race to the bottom" in developing countries.
8.​ Governance and Development: Role of governance in shaping regional economies. Institutional "soft factors".
Governance forms (private, public, social). State-Led Industrial Policies (SEZs, import-substitution). Political
implications of institutions, bridging gap between intentions and realities. Development as a multidimensional,
normative, hierarchical, historically influenced concept. Historical influence on regional development (sectoral
structure, institutional persistence, colonial legacies). Old Industrial Regions (OIRs) and regional lock-in. Policy
approaches (top-down vs bottom-up). Regionalisation as an alternative to globalization. Regional Value Chains
(RVCs). Reshoring and Friendshoring. Knowledge spillovers and innovation (Jacobs, Smith, Porter).
Sustainability Agenda (Brundtland, MDGs, SDGs). State role in sustainability governance (directive, facilitative
orchestration).
9.​ Environmental Geography (Nature, Commodification, Risk, Justice, More-Than-Human, Anthropocene):
Complex and contested concept of Nature. Critique of the wilderness ideal (Williams, Cronon). Political
Ecology, Actor-Network Theory (ANT), Feminist Environmental Geography. The Commodification of
Nature (transforming natural elements into commodities, water privatization, seed control, fictitious commodities
- Polanyi). Hazards, Risk, and Vulnerability defined. Disasters as socio-natural. De-naturalizing risk and
vulnerability. Approaches to vulnerability (risk-hazards vs entitlements-livelihoods). Causal analysis of
vulnerability (Ribot). Environmental Justice (unequal distribution of harms/benefits). Critical Environmental
Justice (CEJ) (Pellow) addressing intersecting inequalities. Environmental unfreedoms (Ranganathan).
More-Than-Human Geographies (challenging anthropocentrism, agency of non-humans, multispecies -
Haraway, Tsing). The Anthropocene (epoch of human influence, evidence, start date debate, Orbis Hypothesis).
Alternatives (Capitalocene - Moore, Plantationocene). Critique of the universal "Anthropos".

Based on the provided sources, including lecture notes and past exam papers, here is a detailed explanation of the likely
exam topics, main themes, and important authors/ideas for each section.

The exam structure appears consistent across several years (e.g.,,,,,,,,), typically divided into three sections, with
candidates answering one question from each. The word limit per question is usually around 1200 words, totalling 3600
words for the paper.

Section 1: Core Concepts in Human Geography

This section typically focuses on fundamental geographical concepts and approaches to understanding human activity and
its spatial dimensions.

Likely Topics and Main Themes:

●​ Defining and Understanding Space and Place: This includes different characterizations of space (dynamic,
perceived differently, measured), different ways of thinking about space like empirical space (measured,
mapped), flow space (connections, pathways), and representations of space. It also covers contrasting views of
place, such as the mosaic view (unique, distinct places) and the globalization-as-homogenization view, as well
as the idea that global processes impact places differently and that space actively shapes activity. The relationship
between space and society is a recurring theme.
●​ Approaches to Understanding the City: Questions often explore how geographers have defined and understood
cities, including measurable criteria vs. qualitative phenomena, and the study of urban structure and systems.
Different models for understanding the internal structure of cities are key, such as the Chicago School (urban
ecology, zones, social competition), Burgess' Concentric Zone Model, Hoyt's Sector Model, and Harris and
Ullman's Multiple Nuclei Model. Questions may also ask how approaches to studying the city have evolved
over time, incorporating later perspectives like Marxist urban geography, postmodern urbanism, and the
influence of economic factors.
●​ Territory: This concept, including its usefulness and relation to contemporary issues like populist politics,
appears frequently. Understanding the idea of a territorial state is also relevant.
●​ Mobility: The 'mobilities turn' and its impact on understanding migration is a consistent theme. Questions may
focus on mobility as a political concept, highlighting its links to hierarchy and exclusion, and drawing on ideas
like Bauman's kinetic hierarchy. The structural and cultural dimensions of migration, critiquing earlier
push-pull models, are also relevant.
●​ Landscape: Different approaches to understanding landscape in geography are important. This includes Carl
Sauer's cultural landscapes, the perspective of New Cultural Geography, and critical approaches like Feminist
Geography and Marxist Geography. Questions may ask how landscapes carry cultural meanings and symbols or
whether they are products of labor and capitalist processes. The idea of reading landscapes as symbols or
reflecting cultural values is also posed.
●​ Environmental Determinism: Understanding this historical idea in geography and why it is considered
problematic is a recurring topic.
●​ Race, Class, and Gender: Geographers' changing approaches to these social structures and what they tell us
about the evolution of the discipline is a frequent question. This involves understanding concepts like Marx's
theory of class, feminist critiques of patriarchy and reproductive labour, environmental racism, and
particularly the concept of intersectionality, which highlights the overlapping nature of identity categories and
critiques singular lenses of discrimination.
●​ Globalization and its Relationship with Space/Place: How globalization is discussed (e.g., the 'end of
geography' debate), its relationship with concepts like the spatial fix (Harvey), and how it impacts places
differently are relevant.
●​ Imperialism: Its role in the history of geographic thought is explored.

Important Authors and Ideas from Section 1:

●​ Space and Place:

○​ Space is dynamic and perceived differently.
○​ Empirical space, Flow space, Representations of space.
○​ Mosaic view, Globalization-as-homogenization.
 ○​ Geography Matters: Space is a shaper of activity.
●​ Cities/Urbanism:
○​ John Pacione: Measurable criteria for cities.
○​ Louis Wirth: Urban areas foster distinct ways of life.
○​ Chicago School: Urban ecology, zones of the city, social competition.
○​ Burgess, Hoyt, Harris and Ullman: Concentric Zone, Sector, and Multiple Nuclei models.
○​ David Harvey: Urban patterns, locational theory, friction of distance, Marxist urban geography, Spatial
fix.
○​ Manuel Castells: The Urban Question, collective consumption.
○​ Ed Soja: Postmodern urbanism, fragmentation (LA School).
●​ Race, Class, Gender & Intersectionality:
○​ Karl Marx: Class conflict, capitalist exploitation.
○​ Neil Smith: Gentrification, Rent Gap Theory.
○​ Feminist Theory: Reproductive labour, patriarchy, gendered landscapes/spaces.
○​ Kimberly Crenshaw, bell hooks, Audre Lorde, Patricia Hill Collins: Intersectionality.
○​ Laura Pulido: Environmental racism.
●​ Mobility:
○​ Tim Cresswell: Mobility is inherently political.
○​ Zygmunt Bauman: Kinetic Hierarchy.
○​ Ravenstein: Sedentarist laws of migration.
○​ Hannam, Sheller, and Urry: Intersecting mobilities.
●​ Landscape:
○​ Carl Sauer: Cultural landscapes.
○​ New Cultural Geography: Focus on culture, power, identity, symbols, discourse, everyday life.
○​ Henry Lefebvre: Production of space under capitalism.
●​ Globalization:
○​ David Harvey: Spatial fix to resolve capitalist crises.
○​ Doreen Massey: Spatial divisions of labour, Progressive sense of place.

Section 2: Environment and Society

This section focuses on the relationship between humans and the environment, exploring environmental issues through a
geographical lens, particularly concerns around sustainability, justice, and different conceptualizations of nature.

Likely Topics and Main Themes:

●​ The Concept of Nature: Understanding that "nature" is not static or universal but socially constructed. This
includes critiques of the wilderness ideal and exploring alternatives like seeing nature as co-produced with
humans or recognizing non-human agency.
●​ Environmental Justice: This is a major theme, examining how environmental harms and benefits are distributed
unequally. It connects environmental issues to existing social inequalities and historical injustices, and contrasts
with other forms of environmentalism like conservation. Case studies, particularly from the Global South or
examples like flood events, are often used. Environmental racism is a specific focus within this.
●​ Risk and Vulnerability: Understanding the distinction between hazards, risk, and vulnerability is crucial. The
concept of socio-natural disasters, arguing that disasters arise from the interplay of natural events and social
conditions, is central. This involves de-naturalizing risk and disaster and contrasting different approaches to
 vulnerability (e.g., risk-hazards vs. entitlements-livelihoods). Causal analysis of vulnerability, looking at structural
drivers, is also relevant.
●​ Sustainability and Planning: Questions often explore the concept of sustainable development, its usefulness for
planners, and the inherent tensions within planning (e.g., Campbell's planning triangle of environment,
economy, and equity). The debate around the compact city model as a path to urban sustainability is frequently
examined. Planners' ability to protect the environment, promote growth, and advocate social justice
simultaneously is also questioned.
●​ Commodification of Nature: The process by which elements of nature are transformed into commodities for
market exchange and its consequences is a potential theme.
●​ More-Than-Human Geographies: This approach challenges anthropocentrism and explores the agency and
interconnectedness of human and non-human entities. Concepts like the multispecies perspective and Indigenous
worldviews are relevant here.
●​ The Anthropocene: This proposed geological epoch signifies significant human influence on the planet.
Questions discuss whether it is a formal epoch or a critical concept and debate "who is the anthropos,"
highlighting unequal responsibility and contributions to environmental change. Alternative frameworks like the
Capitalocene and Plantationocene are also relevant critiques.

Important Authors and Ideas from Section 2:

●​ Nature:
○​ Raymond Williams: Multiple interpretations of nature.
○​ William Cronon: Critique of the wilderness ideal.
○​ Noel Castree: "There is no such thing as nature".
○​ Nature is socially constructed.
●​ Environmental Justice:
○​ Environmental justice is about the unequal distribution of environmental harms and benefits.
○​ Environmentalism of the poor, environmental racism.
○​ Laura Pulido: Environmental racism and white privilege.
●​ Risk and Vulnerability:
○​ Hazard, Risk, Vulnerability definitions.
○​ Disasters are socio-natural.
○​ De-naturalizing risk.
○​ Risk-hazards vs. Entitlements-livelihoods approaches to vulnerability.
○​ Jesse Ribot: Causal analysis of vulnerability.
●​ Sustainability and Planning:
○​ Sustainable development is normative and hierarchical.
○​ Timothy Beatley, Stephen Wheeler: Concepts related to sustainable cities (implied by compact city
debate).
○​ Scott Campbell: The planning triangle (equity, environment, economy).
○​ Michael Neuman: Critique of the compact city fallacy.
●​ Commodification of Nature:
○​ Transformation of nature into commodities for market exchange.
○​ Matthew Gandy: Urban nature and capitalist transformation.
●​ More-Than-Human Geographies:
○​ Critique of anthropocentrism.
○​ Fiona Probyn-Rapsey: Defining anthropocentrism.
○​ Non-human agency.
 ○​ Donna Haraway: Companion species, "becoming with".
○​ Anna Tsing: "Human nature is a multispecies relationship".
○​ Rights of Nature movement.
●​ The Anthropocene:
○​ Crutzen and Stoermer: Proposed the Anthropocene.
○​ Evidence in geological strata (radionuclides, plastics etc.).
○​ Lewis and Maslin: Orbis hypothesis (1610 spike, colonization).
○​ Critique: "Who is the anthropos?".
○​ Capitalocene: Capitalism organizes nature through dualisms and exploitation.
○​ Plantationocene: Highlights legacies of plantation economies.

Section 3: Economic Geography and Development

This section focuses on the spatial dimensions of economic activities, theories of growth and development, issues of
inequality, and the roles of actors like firms and institutions in shaping economic landscapes.

Likely Topics and Main Themes:

●​ Economic Growth Theories: A core theme is the comparison and contrast between Neoclassical (Exogenous)
Growth Theory and Endogenous Growth Theory. This involves discussing their underlying assumptions (e.g.,
perfect competition, factor mobility, role of technology) and their implications for regional development policies,
particularly regarding convergence or divergence between regions.
●​ Regional Development Policies: Questions examine strategies for promoting regional development, including
the effectiveness of policies aimed at reducing spatial disparities. The debate on using 'best practices' or policy
transfers is relevant, highlighting both upsides and downsides. The role of local economic policy is also
considered.
●​ Innovation and Knowledge Diffusion: The concepts of 'local buzz' (knowledge spillovers from proximity) and
'global pipelines' (external knowledge acquisition) are key to understanding the creation and diffusion of
economically valuable knowledge. Their importance for spatial disparities in economic performance is frequently
assessed.
●​ Multinational Enterprises (MNEs) and FDI: The role of MNEs as vehicles for knowledge diffusion and
investment is discussed. Questions critically evaluate whether their presence facilitates economic development in
less developed regions and if they help reduce spatial disparities.
●​ Inequality in a Globalized Economy: How globalization and capitalism contribute to uneven development and
deepening wealth disparities is a major theme. Concepts like David Harvey's Accumulation by Dispossession,
Massey's spatial divisions of labour, and Wallerstein's World-Systems Theory are relevant. The role of
Global Value Chains (GVCs) and Global Production Networks (GPNs) in reinforcing inequalities and the
distribution of value is often examined. Different dimensions of inequality (economic, social, territorial) are
discussed.
●​ The Influence of History on Regional Development: This theme explores how factors like sectoral structure,
institutional persistence, and colonial legacies can shape a region's future growth prospects and economic path.
The concept of regional lock-in in old industrial regions is an example.
●​ Governance and Institutions in Economic Geography: Institutions (formal and informal) play a crucial role in
structuring economic development, regulating interactions, and influencing regional trajectories. Different forms
of governance within value chains and state-led policies like Special Economic Zones (SEZs) are discussed.
●​ Cities and Economic Performance: Questions explore why cities are centres of economic activity and
innovation, often linked to agglomeration economies and knowledge spillovers.
Important Authors and Ideas from Section 3:

●​ Economic Geography & Theory:

○​ Economic geography examines the spatial dimensions of economic activities.
○​ David Harvey: "By our theories you shall know us".
●​ Growth Theories:
○​ Exogenous (Neoclassical) Growth Theory: Y = f(L, K), technology is external, assumptions include
perfect competition, factor mobility, equal tech access.
○​ Regional Convergence Theory: Assumes factor mobility leads to convergence, criticized for unrealistic
assumptions and persistent inequality.
○​ Endogenous Growth Theory: Growth is internal, driven by investment in human capital, innovation,
and technology (R&D, education). Policy implications focus on building internal capacity.
●​ Innovation and Knowledge:
○​ Knowledge spillovers, division of labour.
○​ Bathelt, Malmberg, and Maskell: Local buzz and global pipelines.
●​ Globalization & Inequality:
○​ David Harvey: Spatial fix, Accumulation by Dispossession.
○​ Doreen Massey: Spatial divisions of labour.
○​ Immanuel Wallerstein: World-Systems Theory (core, periphery, semi-periphery).
○​ Saskia Sassen: World cities.
○​ Global Value Chains (GVCs), Global Production Networks (GPNs): How value is distributed,
upgrading (process, product, functional, chain). GVCs reinforce inequalities.
●​ Governance and Institutions:
○​ Douglas North: Formal and informal institutions.
○​ Institutions shape economic development and govern interactions.
○​ State-led policies: Special Economic Zones (SEZs).
●​ Regional Development & History:
○​ History influences development through sectoral structure, institutional persistence, colonial legacies.
○​ Institutional stickiness.
○​ Clark-Fisher Model (economic sectors).
○​ Regional lock-in (OIRs).
○​ Policy approaches (Top-down, Bottom-up).
●​ Regionalisation:
○​ Krätke: Definition of regionalisation.
○​ Regional Value Chains (RVCs).

Remember to support your points with evidence and examples from the lecture notes and readings provided in the sources
when answering exam questions. Use the specified citation format.