Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Aerospace Science and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aescte

Review

Recent advancements in morphing applications: Architecture, art­ficial

intelligence integration, challenges, and future trends-a comprehensive
survey
Md. Najmul Mowla a, , Davood Asadi a , Tahir Durhasan a , Javad Rashid Jafari b ,
,∗
Mohammadreza Amoozgar c,
a
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Adana Alparslan Türkeş Science and Technology University, Adana, 01250, Turkey
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Adana Alparslan Türkeş Science and Technology University, Adana, 01250, Turkey
c
Department of Mechanical, Materials, and Manufacturing, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2QL, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Communicated by Mehdi Ghoreyshi This study provides a comprehensive review of recent advancements in aerospace morphing technologies,
focusing on integrating art­ficial intelligence (AI) into morphing architectures. It emphasizes AI’s pivotal
Keywords:
role in optimizing these systems, particularly through machine learning (ML), deep learning (DL), and
Structure of morphing
Aerodynamics modeling reinforcement learning (RL), to enhance real-time adaptability, performance, and efficiency. The review
Control systems categorizes developments in smart materials, compliant mechanisms, and adaptive structures, offering a detailed
AI for morphing analysis of their architectural foundations. It further examines AI-driven aerodynamic optimization and control
Privacy & challenges systems, highlighting recent solutions to structural integrity, energy efficiency, and scalability challenges. Key
Future trends contributions since 2020 are synthesized through a year-by-year analysis, offering a clear overview of the
research landscape. The paper also addresses emerging challenges in aerospace morphing and proposes strategies
to alleviate them. Recommendations for future advancements emphasize the integration of state-of-the-art
technologies. By critically evaluating current capabilities and limitations, this review provides valuable insights
for researchers and practitioners, identifying AI’s transformative potential in morphing systems and outlining the
technical challenges that must be addressed for future morphing aerospace applications.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1. Localized morphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1. Wing morphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2. Tail morphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2. Distributed morphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1. Bio-mimetic morphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2. Complete airframe morphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2. Methodology for literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3. Fundamental aspects of morphing aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1. Structure of morphing systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1.1. Morphing materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1.2. Morphing mechanisms/structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2. Aerodynamics in morphing techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3. Control system in morphing techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3.1. Linear control methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3.2. Nonlinear control methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: m.amoozgar@nottingham.ac.uk (M. Amoozgar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2025.110102
Received 26 November 2024; Received in revised form 9 February 2025; Accepted 24 February 2025
Available online 26 February 2025
1270-9638/© 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

4. AI for morphing techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4.1. AI in aerodynamics for morphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.1.1. ANN aerodynamic optimization in morphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.1.2. DL aerodynamic optimization in morphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.1.3. RL aerodynamic optimization in morphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.1.4. DRL aerodynamic optimization in morphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.2. AI in control morphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2.1. Supervised and unsupervised learning in morphing control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2.2. ANN in morphing control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2.3. DL in morphing control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.2.4. RL in morphing control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.2.5. DRL for morphing control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5. Issues and challenges considerations in morphing technology research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6. Future directions and opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.1. Future of AI in morphing techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.2. Optimizing aerospace morphing with 5G/6G networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.3. IoT and WSN integration in morphing systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.4. Securing aerospace morphing with blockchain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.5. Enhancing morphing technologies with renewable energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.6. Morphing applications across multiple sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.6.1. Smart agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.6.2. Wind turbines with morphing blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.6.3. Solar panel alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.6.4. Morphing tires in road transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.6.5. Medical and surgical devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.6.6. Adaptive Manufacturing systems (AM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.6.7. Morphing spacecraft components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.6.8. Satellite antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.6.9. Defense and military applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.7. Morphing technology in future aerospace areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
CRediT authorship contribution statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Ethics of approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Declaration of competing interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Data availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1. Introduction response to external conditions. [14,16,17]. Such dynamic transfor­

mations optimize aerodynamics, control dynamics, and overall per­
Over the decades, aircraft and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) formance across various operating conditions, addressing contempo­
have undergone remarkable transformations, evolving from rudimen­ rary aerospace challenges in a multifaceted manner [18,6]. By dynam­
tary designs to sophisticated platforms capable of diverse missions [1]. ically adjusting wing geometry, fuselage shape, or control surfaces,
This evolution, driven by advancements in technology and materials, morphing technology enhances aerodynamic lift, drag, and stability,
has enabled unprecedented performance and versatility in aerospace enabling seamless transitions between flight modes and greater opera­
engineering [2,3]. However, the contemporary landscape presents tional flexibility [14,19,20]. Moreover, it improves structural resilience
significant challenges, with the optimization of aerodynamics being and longevity by adapting to aerodynamic perturbations and environ­
paramount [4,5]. Enhancing aerodynamic efficiency is crucial for im­ mental conditions [21,22].
proving key performance metrics such as speed, range, and payload Aerospace morphing applications can now be broadly class­fied into
capacity while reducing fuel consumption and environmental impact two main categories localized morphing and distributed morphing. As
[6,7]. Besides, The aerospace industry also faces the critical task of shown in Fig. 1, Localized morphing focuses on individual components
optimizing various design aspects, including propulsion systems, aero­ (e.g., wings and tails), while distributed morphing encompasses broader,
dynamics, and structural integrity, to enhance operational efficiency more integrated systems such as bio-inspired or complete airframe mor­
[6,8]. The need for adaptable platforms that can transition seamlessly phing.
between different flight regimes is increasingly vital, especially as un­
manned aerial systems (UAS) increase across civilian and military ap­ 1.1. Localized morphing
plications [9--11]. Integrating autonomous control capabilities further
intens­fies aerospace engineers’ challenges, as precision and versatility It involves individual component-level changes designed to enhance
become essential for mission success [12,13]. aerodynamic efficiency and flight control and can be categorized into:
Inspired by nature’s adaptive designs, morphing technology has
emerged as a promising solution. The word ``morph'', originating from 1.1.1. Wing morphing
the Greek term ``morphos'', meaning shape, highlights the transfor­ By moving beyond static wing co­figurations, morphing technology
mative capabilities of morphing wings in aerospace engineering, em­ allows for real-time adjustments in shape, camber, and surface char­
phasizing their potential to dynamically alter the form and enhance acteristics, which enhances maneuverability, fuel efficiency, and over­
flight performance [14,15]. This technology involves altering an air­ all performance while reducing structural burdens and noise emissions
craft’s shape, structure, or surface characteristics in real-time or in [23,24]. This adaptability is advantageous across diverse missions, from

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

Fig. 1. Morphing application on aerial vehicles.

Sweep morphing, commonly inspired by birds of prey, reduces drag

at high speeds [1].
• Out-of-Plane Morphing:
It involves alterations such as dihedral, twist, and span-wise
bending. Twist morphing, for instance, enables fine-tuning of the
wing’s angle of attack along its span to distribute lift more effec­
tively. Birds and UAVs use these mechanisms to enhance stability
and roll control under fluctuating aerodynamic loads [2].
• Airfoil Morphing:
It refers to changes in the airfoil’s camber and thickness. Morph­
ing the camber improves aerodynamic performance, particularly in
reducing drag and increasing lift. Advances in smart materials and
structures have enabled dynamic adjustments to the airfoil pr­file
to adapt to varying mission pr­files [3].
• Wing Control Surface Morphing:
Morphing ailerons, flaps, slats, and spoilers allow for continuous,
precise adjustments, leading to better roll control, improved lift dur­
ing takeoff and landing, and optimized drag reduction. Morphing
control surfaces demonstrated improvements in fuel efficiency and
roll control by allowing more fluid, adaptive movements compared
to traditional hinged control surfaces

1.1.2. Tail morphing

It is a lesser-explored but highly significant aspect of flight control. In
birds, tail morphing is critical in managing pitch and yaw, contributing
Fig. 2. Wing morphing.
to agile maneuvers and stability. As illustrated in Fig. 3, tail morphing
mechanisms include incidence, spread morphing, and control surface
changes.
high-speed transits to extended endurance loitering, offering both agility
and fuel efficiency [25]. Wing morphing remains the most researched • Incidence and Spread Morphing:
aspect due to its direct impact on flight efficiency, maneuverability, and Adjusting the tail’s spread (span) and incidence (angle relative
stability, making it a central focus in aerospace design. As depicted in to the ai­flow) impacts longitudinal stability and control, similar
Fig. 2, it is divided into several subcategories, each addressing different to the horizontal stabilizers in conventional aircraft. Tail morphing
aspects of wing dynamics: enhances maneuverability, especially in tight spaces and turbulent
conditions.
• Wing Platform Morphing: This involves changes in the wing’s • Tail Control Surface Morphing:
chord, span, and sweep. Mod­fications to the wing platform optimize Rotational adjustments to the tail, similar to the control surfaces
lift-to-drag ratios and adjust for different flight speeds. Significantly, of rudders or vertical stabilizers, are crucial for yaw control. Birds
span morphing can increase lift in low-speed flight, while chord mor­ utilize these mechanisms for rapid directional changes, inspiring
phing can fine-tune aerodynamic properties across various regimes. UAV designs for high agility [4].

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Fig. 3. Tail morphing, a) Tail control surface [26], b) Tail platform morphing Fig. 4. Bio-mimetic morphing, a) Flapping wing [32], b) Folding wing [33], c)
[27]. Other bio-mimetic design [34].

1.2. Distributed morphing • Reco­figurable Multirotors:

These vehicles, capable of changing arm co­figurations mid­
This encompasses broader transformations that affect multiple air­ flight, embody complete airframe morphing [30]. For instance, fold­
craft components simultaneously, making the airframe more adaptive able multi-rotors allow collision-resilient operation and enhanced
in complex environments. portability by altering arm positions to navigate through narrow
spaces. Research shows these systems excel in environments requir­
1.2.1. Bio-mimetic morphing ing flexibility and resilience, such as disaster response or search and
As shown in Fig. 4, Bio-inspired morphing systems mimic the adap­ rescue operations.
tive flight mechanisms found in birds and other flying animals, using • Full Airframe Reco­figurable Concepts:
multi-joint, flexible wing structures to navigate various flight condi­ Recent innovations in full airframe morphing include flexible
tions. skins and adaptable chassis [19]. These designs allow entire UAVs to
adjust their physical structure, making them more resilient to envi­
• Folding Wings: ronmental factors such as impact or weather changes. Such systems
Birds like falcons fold their wings during high-speed dives to re­ are being developed for search and rescue and environmental mon­
duce drag and increase stability. In UAVs, folding wing mechanisms itoring applications [31].
allow for rapid reco­figuration, enhancing maneuverability in con­
fined spaces or specific mission pr­files [28]. Ongoing research on morphing technology is transforming aviation
• Flapping Wings: by enabling aircraft to adapt their shape to specific mission require­
It is inspired by birds and insects and generates thrust through ac­ ments [14]. Inspired by adaptive mechanisms, morphing wings optimize
tive oscillations rather than relying on fixed engines. These systems aerodynamic performance across various flight phases [25]. Standard­
are particularly useful in Micro Air Vehicles (MAVs) where small­ ized morphing aircraft fleets offer organizations opportunities to reduce
scale, low-speed flight is crucial. Research on flapping wing MAVs costs, enhance scalability, and improve mission preparedness.
has demonstrated improved control and energy efficiency during In recent years, reviews and surveys on morphing techniques in
hovering flight [29]. aerospace have significantly increased, driven by advancements in ar­
• Other Bio-Mimetic Designs: t­ficial intelligence (AI) and emerging technologies. Table 1 provides
Beyond flapping and folding, bio-inspired morphing includes a detailed comparison of this study with existing reviews, highlight­
flexible skeletal structures that mimic birds’ multi-joint wing dynam­ ing progress in structural design, aerodynamic optimization, and con­
ics, allowing for fine control during turbulent or unpredictable flight trol methodologies. The analysis focuses on conventional approaches
conditions [28,7]. for structural, aerodynamic, and control systems alongside AI-driven
techniques such as Art­ficial Neural Networks (ANN), Machine Learn­
1.2.2. Complete airframe morphing ing (ML), Deep Learning (DL), Reinforcement Learning (RL), and hybrid
According to Fig. 5, this category involves the coordinated transfor­ Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) models.
mation of the entire airframe, allowing the vehicle to significantly alter This study comprehensively reviews existing and AI-based morphing
its shape or co­figuration to meet different mission requirements. technologies, emphasizing their architectures, designs, and applications

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Table 1
A comparative analysis of morphing techniques in the present and existing survey papers in the field of aerospace.

Year References Structure Aerodynamics Control AI method Survey Future trends Cross-sector Privacy & Challenges

2020 [37] ✓ ✓ ✓ × × × × ×
2021 [38] ✓ ✓ ✓ × × × × ×
2021 [39] ✓ × ✓ × × × × ×
2022 [40] ✓ ✓ ✓ × × × × ×
2022 [41] ✓ ✓ ✓ × × ✓ × ✓
2023 [42] ✓ ✓ ✓ × × ✓ × ✓
2023 [43] ✓ ✓ ✓ × × ✓ × ✓
2024 [14] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ × ✓ × ✓
2024 Our study ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

dations for integrating advanced AI algorithms with real-time control

systems to enable adaptive and autonomous aerospace platforms.
The major contributions of this study are outlined as follows:

• A comprehensive literature review of morphing techniques in

aerospace, systematically categorized by publication year since
2020, focusing on both conventional methods and advancements
driven by AI.
• An in-depth exploration of recent advancements in AI technologies,
including ANN, ML, DL, RL, and DRL, highlighting their potential
to improve morphing efficiency, reliability, and robustness across
aerospace structures, control systems, and aerodynamics.
• A detailed comparison of conventional and AI-based morphing ap­
proaches provides insights into their advantages, limitations, and
application scenarios.
• A thorough discussion of current challenges and unresolved issues in
morphing technology, such as structural integrity, durability, actua­
tor and control complexity, energy harvesting, integration with ex­
isting systems, and scalability and cost-effectiveness for large-scale
Fig. 5. Complete body morphing, a) Full airframe reco­figurable [35], b) Re­
co­figurable morphing multirotor [36]. applications.
• Forward-looking recommendations for advancing morphing tech­
nologies by integrating emerging innovations, including 5G/6G
since 2020. Emerging technologies, such as wireless sensor networks communication networks, IoT-enabled WSN, blockchain technol­
(WSN), the Internet of Things (IoT), federated learning, and blockchain, ogy, and renewable energy systems. The study also ident­fies po­
are potential solutions for overcoming limitations in morphing systems, tential applications of morphing beyond aerospace, including smart
particularly ensuring data security and enhancing real-time operational agriculture, renewable energy, automotive systems, medical de­
reliability. Additionally, advancements in communication technologies vices, and defense.
such as 5G and 6G and integrating renewable energy sources are high­
lighted for their transformative roles in improving system performance, The following sections of this study are structured as follows: Sec­
sustainability, and scalability. Despite these advancements, challenges tion 2 outlines the methodology, detailing the procedures and criteria
remain, including real-time aerodynamic and structural control, accu­ used for data and literature collection. Section 3 provides an in-depth
rate flow behavior prediction during shape transitions, and the scala­ analysis of the foundational principles of morphing technology, en­
bility of morphing systems for larger aerospace platforms. While ANN compassing structural design, aerodynamic optimization, and control
methods have shown promise, addressing these challenges will require mechanisms tailored for aerospace applications. Section 4 delves into
adopting more advanced AI approaches, including DL, RL, DRL, and Ex­ advanced AI methodologies and their transformative role in enhancing
plainable AI (XAI). morphing systems. Section 5 critically evaluates the prevailing chal­
The potential applications of morphing technologies extend beyond lenges and limitations impeding the broader adoption of morphing tech­
aerospace into sectors such as agriculture, medical devices, energy sys­ nologies. Section 6 explores prospective research avenues, focusing on
tems, defense, and adaptive manufacturing. In these domains, morphing converging state-of-the-art technologies and morphing frameworks to
technologies can be further optimized to improve production efficiency, address existing gaps. Finally, Section 7 synthesizes the key findings
operational reliability, and adaptability. For instance, dynamic mor­ and offers insightful conclusions, underscoring the implications of this
phing could enable agricultural machinery to adapt to varying field study for future advancements in the field.
conditions, enhance the precision of medical devices, or improve en­
ergy systems’ efficiency in renewable energy applications. By leveraging 2. Methodology for literature review
aerospace-driven innovations, these sectors can achieve greater produc­
tivity and reliability. The primary objective of this study was to investigate advancements
This review bridges critical gaps in existing research by evaluating in morphing techniques for aerospace applications, focusing on research
the role of AI in optimizing morphing systems, particularly in aerody­ published between 2020 and 2024. The study targeted openly accessi­
namic control and dynamic structural adaptation. Techniques such as ble, peer-reviewed journal articles, conference proceedings, and other
ML, DL, RL, and DRL are explored for their potential to improve control reputable scientific publications to construct a comprehensive and up­
strategies, enhance aerodynamic performance, and manage the complex to-date understanding of the field.
dynamics of morphing during flight. Through critical analysis of existing A systematic literature review was conducted using a structured
research, this study ident­fies limitations. It offers actionable recommen­ methodology, including database searches, study selection, and detailed

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

analysis. The review aimed to address the following core research ques­ Table 2
tions: Year basis research contribution of structure in mor­
phing technique since 2020.
I. What roles do morphing techniques play in advancing aerospace ap­ Year Morphing materials Morphing mechanisms
plications with existing methods?
2020 [27,46--48] [49]
II. How is AI integrated into morphing technologies? 2021 [50--54] [55,56,53]
III. What adaptive AI methods are employed to optimize the aerody­ 2022 [57--61] [62]
namics and control systems of morphing structures in aerospace? 2023 [63--69] [65,67,69]
IV. What challenges do morphing architectures face in achieving these 2024 [60,70--72] [70,73,71]

objectives?
V. How can morphing technologies advance the aerospace sector in the
3.1.1. Morphing materials
future, and how can they be applied across other industries? The emergence of new materials marks a significant advancement in
wing morphing design, offering dynamic i­-flight adaptability [74--76].
Keyword-based searches were performed across established aca­ These materials can alter their shape, properties, or functions in re­
demic databases, including Google Scholar, Web of Science, IEEE Trans­ sponse to a variety of environmental conditions [77,78]. This category
actions, IEEE Xplore, Scopus, ScienceDirect, MDPI, Wiley, Taylor & summarizes the materials used in wing morphing applications such as
Francis, AAA, and SpringerLink. Emphasis was placed on identifying smart materials (SMP: Shape Memory Polymer, SMA: Shape Memory
high-quality journal articles and conference papers indexed in these Alloys, piezo, electro/magnetic), elastomeric materials, anisotropic ma­
repositories. The search utilized specific terms such as ``morphing tech­ terials, auxetic, and Metamaterials. Polymeric skins and shape-memory
nology in aerospace,'' ``AI-driven morphing in aerospace,'' and variations polymers [19,79,60,80], and shape-memory alloys [81,82] enable con­
involving ANN, ML, DL, RL and DRL in morphing applications. tinuous deformation which is a key requirement in most of the morphing
Inclusion criteria required articles to be published in English, in­ concepts as shown in Fig. 6.
dexed in selected databases, and directly relevant to the study objec­ In addition, smart materials such as piezoelectric actuators [14,84]
tives. This systematic approach ensured a precise and thorough review and SMPs [19,87] are used mainly for morphing actuation. Piezoelec­
of recent advancements, innovative integrations, and persistent chal­ tric actuators convert electrical signals into precise mechanical move­
lenges in morphing technologies for aerospace applications. By inte­ ments, enabling real-time wing adjustments. These smart materials are
grating these insights, this study contributes valuable perspectives to fundamental to adaptive aerospace technologies’ control and efficiency
the ongoing development of this transformative field. [88,89]. Elastomeric materials offer flexibility for morphing structures
that need significant deformation [90], while anisotropic materials
3. Fundamental aspects of morphing aircraft bring directional strength. Auxetic materials, which expand laterally
when stretched, may induce synclastic shapes that would ben­fit mor­
In this section, the fundamental aspects of morphing aircraft are fo­ phing structures [91]. Metamaterials with lightweight cellular frame­
cused on three critical areas: structure, aerodynamics, and control of works add strength without extra weight, showing extraordinary shape
morphing systems. The structural design of morphing aircraft involves changes that can make them ideal materials for morphing applications
innovative materials and mechanisms that allow for changes in shape [92].
during flight, enhancing performance and adaptability. The aerodynam­ Roach et al. thoroughly analyzed the usage of smart material actua­
ics of morphing highlights how variable geometry can improve lift, drag, tion for morphing technologies, particularly combining liquid crystal
and overall flight efficiency. Finally, the control systems governing these elastomers (LCEs) and SMPs. LCEs exhibit the unique ability to un­
transformations are discussed, emphasizing their role in ensuring stabil­ dergo swift and reversible shape alterations when subjected to external
ity and precision during morphing operations. triggers, such as changes in temperature, magnetic fields, or light. In
contrast, SMPs are recognized for their capacity to change and stabi­
3.1. Structure of morphing systems lize shapes under external stress, enhancing mechanical stiffness. The
research highlighted the morphing dynamics of an LCE-SMP compos­
The advancement of morphing structures represents a significant de­ ite, wherein the LCE facilitates rapid actuation, and the SMP enables
velopment in aerospace engineering, driven by the necessity for more adjustable shape morphing through precise cooling control. This com­
efficient, adaptable, and high-performing aircraft. Optimized for specific posite material achieved a notable mechanical stiffness of around 1 GPa
flight conditions, traditional fixed-wing designs often need more flexi­ and maintained the required morphing properties. Manufactured using
bility across an aircraft’s diverse flight regimes [44]. The rigid structures a sophisticated multi-material 4D printing technique, the LCE-SMP bi­
cannot adapt to changing aerodynamic demands, resulting in subopti­ layer composite exempl­fies a novel and integrative strategy in actuator
mal performance, increased drag, higher fuel consumption, and reduced design, effectively merging the rapid actuation potential of LCEs with
overall efficiency [6,45]. Additionally, the fixed nature of these struc­ the tunable morphing functionality of SMPs within a cohesive structure
tures limits their maneuverability and controllability, particularly in [90]. Grigorie et al. examined the application of SMAs as the key ac­
dynamic flight conditions requiring versatile performance capabilities tuation element in a morphing wing demonstrator, highlighting their
[14]. temperature-sensitive shape-shifting capabilities essential for morph­
In this section, the materials and mechanisms used for morphing ing systems. The study describes how a flexible upper wing surface,
structures of fixed-wing aircraft are reviewed. Table 2 provides a struc­ composed of composite materials and actuated by SMA wires, achieves
tured overview of research advancements in morphing materials and dynamic shape changes that enhance laminar flow and reduce aerody­
mechanisms from 2020 to 2024, categorized by publication year. The namic drag. The research concludes that integrating SMA actuators with
table highlights key developments in smart materials such as shape advanced composite materials and a r­fined control system significantly
memory alloys (SMAs), piezoelectric actuators, and variable stiffness improves aerodynamic efficiency through precise modulation of wing
structures, emphasizing their role in morphing applications. To enhance shape [93]. Yang et al. presented a method for SMA actuators with pre­
readability and clarity, detailed citations and analyses are incorporated cise bidirectional morphing capabilities utilizing an advanced topology
in Sections 3.1.1 and 3.1.2. This chronological representation illustrates optimization framework. The Two-Way Shape Memory Effect (TWSME)
the increasing research intensity and divers­fication within morphing approach facilitates reversible shape changes through phase transitions
technology, offering insights into emerging trends in materials science between austenite and martensite under cyclic thermal conditions. In­
and structural innovations essential for aerospace applications. tegrating the Solid Isotropic Material with Penalty (SIMP) interpolation

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

Fig. 6. Types of Morphing materials: a) Smart composite [83], b) Piezoelectric [84], c) Shape memory polymer composite (SMPC) [85], d) Shape memory alloy wire
[86].

technique allowed for the optimal distribution of SMA material and the a four-arm crystalline polymer network constructed via thiol-acrylate
designation of phase transformation zones, enhancing computational coupling, which supports repeated morphing cycles. Additionally, incor­
efficiency while maintaining structural integrity. This r­fined optimiza­ porating dynamic transester­fication within the polymer network allows
tion process ensures the actuators achieve the intended two-way shape for adaptable morphing behaviors, creating intricate 3D co­figurations
transformations during heating and cooling cycles. Furthermore, the such as chiral helices and aerodynamic forms. The composite structure
study introduced a novel topology optimization strategy that transcends comprises a polycaprolactone (PCL) network, initially synthesized into
traditional structural compliance models, focusing on the precise geo­ a diol and then acrylate to yield a polymerizable prepolymer, coupled
metric transformations required for SMA actuators. This study highlights with a PDA coating that acts as the photothermal driving force [97].
the potential of SMA-based actuators to achieve the complex morphing
requirements [70]. 3.1.2. Morphing mechanisms/structures
Woods et al. presented an actuation method developed for mor­ There are various Mechanisms/structures used in wing morphing ap­
phing skins using thermoplastic elastomers (TPs) within the geomet­ plications, such as compliant structures, hingeless designs, distributed
rically anisotropic thermoplastic rubber (GATOR). This approach uti­ actuation, flexible skins, variable stiffness structures, multi-stable struc­
lized the potential of 3D-printed TPUs (Thermoplastic Polyurethane) to tures, origami/lattice structures, adaptive/smart structures, corrugated
achieve significant morphing capabilities while maintaining low energy structures, and honeycombs as shown in Fig. 7.
demands. By employing a compliance-based mechanism, the design en­ Combining these mechanisms and the materials summarized above
hanced the structural flexibility of the skin. Additionally, to improve the is the key to shape wing adaptation. Only a few of these morphing
morphing skin’s aerodynamic functionality and durability, 3d printed mechanisms are considered in this section to keep the paper’s focus.
Ninjaflex for the skin layer and Armadillo for the core are used [94]. Compliant mechanisms utilize the inherent flexibility of materials to
Ahmad et al. examined the viscoelastic properties of three specific poly­ achieve movement without the need for traditional joints, which en­
meric materials, i.e., Latex, Oppo, and Ecoflex, under various defor­ hances reliability and reduces the need for maintenance. Hingeless de­
mation modes. They developed a new material model with four key signs remove mechanical hinges, allowing smoother transitions between
constants, which precisely describe the behavior of these polymers when shapes to minimize the aerodynamic drag. Distributed actuation in­
applied to morphing wings, ensuring consistent performance across vari­ volves using multiple actuators positioned across the structure to control
ous degrees of freedom. Their study also investigated the effects of strain localized shape changes. On the other hand, flexible skins are key to
rate, thickness, and aspect ratio on latex skin behavior, which are essen­ maintaining an aerodynamically smooth surface during the shape ad­
tial for fine-tuning morphing skins in monomorphic and polymorphing justments. Variable stiffness structures adjust their rigidity in response
scenarios [95,96,79]. to loads, allowing the structure to change shape during the flight as
Tian et al. introduced a biomimetic soft actuator for remote con­ needed. Multi-stable structures offer co­figurations that can remain sta­
trol and programmable shape transformations. This actuator utilizes ble in multiple shapes without continuous actuation, conserving energy
SMPs capable of reversible deformation in response to external stimuli, and providing reliability in morphing designs. Origami-inspired and lat­
specifically light. The light-induced activation is facilitated by a poly­ tice structures use geometric patterns to allow large deformations while
dopamine (PDA) nanosphere coating, which efficiently transforms light maintaining strength, contributing to lightweight, compact solutions.
into heat, thereby triggering the SMP’s shape memory properties. The Adaptive or smart structures integrate sensing and actuation, enabling
actuator’s durability and performance are further optimized through real-time responsiveness to external conditions. Corrugated structures

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

Fig. 7. Mechanisms and structures: a) Hinge design [67], b) Corrugated structures [98], c) Hingeless design [99], d) Origami structures [100], e) Multi-stable
structures [101], f) Honeycomb structures [102], g) Adaptive/smart structures [71], h) Variable stiffness structures [103].

and honeycomb cores provide strength with minimal weight, adding to planar sweep, while hinge mechanisms enable dihedral morphing. The
the overall durability and efficiency of morphing mechanisms. sweep-morphing mechanism adjusts the planform, and dihedral morph­
G Hu et al. proposed a novel morphing wing design adapted for ing enhances trimming and stability. The design incorporates a corru­
miniature UAVs, integrating developed actuation mechanisms and gated flexible structure inspired by the fish’s skeletal structure and bird
biomimetic elements to enhance aerodynamic efficiency. The design uti­ wings, allowing tensile expansion and compressive contraction, along
lizes Macro-Fiber Composite Pre-Compressed Bimorph Actuators (MFC­ with a self-actuated covert layer that mimics feather movement dur­
PBAs), a piezoelectric actuator with significant deformation potential. ing flow separation to maintain lift at high angles of attack. The UAV’s
The design maximizes output work and deformation capacity by pre­ structure employs composite materials such as carbon fiber for the wing
compressing these actuators. The wing structure was composed of a skeleton and feather rods, thermoplastic elastomer for the outer wing
multi-layered arrangement of three parallel MFC-PBAs, where the cen­ skeleton and covert layer, and expanded polypropylene (EPP) foam for
tral actuator was elongated compared to the symmetrically positioned the inner wing skin [67].
upper and lower actuators. An axial compression implemented using Luo et al. have developed a novel active twisting morphing (ATM)
elastic bands reduces the equivalent bending stiffness of the bimorphs, wing that features a single shaft with perpendicularly oriented ribs.
thus increasing displacement or rotation output under a given volt­ Each rib is independent, allowing for variable swing angles across the
age. This design also employed a multi-layer parallel co­figuration that wing’s span. The proposed mechanism uses segment gears instead of
enhances bending stiffness and output force, facilitating smooth and whole gears, resulting in a more compact and efficient ATM wing opti­
continuous wing deformation. Integrating a Fish-Bone Active Camber mized for biomimetic robotic applications. Inspired by natural twisting
(Fish-BAC) mechanism, inspired by the fish’s skeletal structure, enabled mechanisms observed in animals such as birds and fish, the ATM wing
smooth camber bending, further improving aerodynamic performance is designed to deliver superior active twisting, enhanced load trans­
and the lift-to-drag ratio [65]. mission, and reduced inertia, offering significant advancements over
Kim et al. presented the application of two in-plane motion actu­ existing models like SmartBird [64]. Despite these improvements, the
ator mechanisms—the extension-type electrothermal actuator (ExACT) research ident­fied a critical gap in understanding the geometric con­
and the retraction-type electrothermal actuator (ReACT)-with a mod­ straints and practical implementations required for precise spanwise
ular design for morphing wings. This mechanism employs displacement twisting and effective load transmission in ATM wings. This highlights
ampl­fication (DAM) and incorporates regularly arranged metamateri­ the need for further investigation to develop wings that can achieve pre­
als. The ExMOW and ReMOW morphing wings also feature an additional cise and robust morphing capabilities in biomimetic systems.
thickness ampl­fication mechanism, resembling an elliptical bridge-type Meng et al. proposed a roll control strategy for flapping-wing aerial
DAM. This study highlighted several research gaps, including the need vehicles (FWAVs) by integrating an active torsional mechanism at the
for a more comprehensive performance evaluation, a detailed compar­ wing’s trailing edge. The actuation mechanism includes a steering gear,
ative analysis with other actuation mechanisms, an exploration of prac­ rocker arm, connecting rod, and rotating shaft, which collectively man­
tical applications and ben­fits, and a thorough investigation into the age the wing’s trailing edge to facilitate accurate pitch adjustments.
robustness and reliability of the proposed actuators for morphing wings This system is enriched by an asymmetric morphing mechanism, al­
[71]. lowing for dynamic modulation of pitch angles between the left and
Brody et al. introduced the ``MataGull,'' a bio-inspired morphing right wings, further optimizing roll control. Comprehensive evaluations
UAV that mimics seagull flight dynamics. The UAV’s morphing mech­ of the RoboEagle in wind tunnel experiments and flight trials demon­
anism uses servomotors that control wing sweep, dihedral angles, and strated significant enhancements in performance and agility with the
tail feather adjustments, enabling dynamic yaw, pitch, and roll control. proposed mechanism. The RoboEagle’s wing design, modeled after avian
A cable-driven system, activated by a servomotor, manipulates wingtip anatomy, features a flexible nylon textile membrane supported by a car­

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

Table 3
Overview of research contributions in aerodynamics related to morphing techniques since 2020.

Year Experimental CFD Experimental & CFD Morphing Application

2020 [109] [110--117] Localized

[118,27,119] Distributed

2021 [120,121] [122--127] [128--130] Localized

[131,132] Distributed

2022 [133] [134--139] [140] Localized

[141--143] [144] Distributed

2023 [145--151,20,152,153] [154--156] Localized

[157] [158--161] [162] Distributed

2024 [163--166,104,167--169,20,170] [171] Localized

[172] [106,107,173] Distributed

bon fiber frame and incorporates the EPPLER378 airfoil. This design
effectively replicates avian flapping and passive morphing while ad­
dressing torsional stiffness and weight issues, thus achieving improved
roll control without significantly increasing weight [73]. The study thor­
oughly examines various factors, including velocity, flapping frequency,
angle of attack, wing flexibility, and their effects on lift, thrust, and roll
moment, and ident­fies the limitations.

3.2. Aerodynamics in morphing techniques

Recent morphing technology advancements have attracted signif­

icant attention due to their potential for enhancing aerodynamic ef­
ficiency through dynamic mod­fication of aerial structures’ geometry
[104,105]. By adapting the shape and structural features of wings, mor­
phing aircraft can achieve improved lift-to-drag ratios, superior flight
performance, and increased versatility across various mission pr­files
[106,107,86]. Evaluation of morphing co­figurations aerodynamically
is crucial in this context since determining aerodynamic efficiency and
the flow field around morphing co­figuration are essential for optimiz­
ing performance in real-world scenarios [104,108]. Moreover, structural Fig. 8. Aerodynamic analysis of morphing applications: a) Experimental ap­
analysis and the development of flight control strategies are crucial for proach [171,121,157] and b) CFD approach [129,124].
morphing wing applications. Laboratory-based studies, such as wind
tunnel and water channel experiments, have been conducted to mea­ tion with a movable outboard wing, effectively boosts flight range and
sure aerodynamic forces and moments and visualize flow patterns. These endurance. Their findings, grounded in a combination of CFD models
experiments are essential for assessing aerodynamic performance and and real-world flight data, employed Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes
validating Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analyses. CFD methods, (RANS) equations alongside the SST 𝑘--𝜔 turbulence model, specifi­
in turn, provide a cost-effective and efficient approach to conducting cally optimized for low-speed aerodynamic environments. The extended
aerodynamic analyses of morphing wings. This section presents a com­ wingspan was shown to increase endurance by 86.22% and range by
prehensive review of recent studies on the aerodynamics of morphing 36.88%, r­flecting substantial performance gains [168].
systems. Table 3 summarizes the aerodynamic evaluation of morphing In addition, optimizing aircraft aerodynamic performance through
techniques, while Fig. 8 compares the experimental and CFD approaches morphing wing technology presents significant challenges due to the
to analyzing morphing applications in Fig. 8 (a) and Fig. 8 (b), re­ need for more r­fined methods for precisely identifying and quantifying
spectively. Table 3 presents a comprehensive analysis of aerodynamic ideal wing co­figurations across various flight phases, such as takeoff,
research efforts in morphing technologies, categorized into experimen­ climbing, and cruising [42,138,175]. Despite the promising ben­fits of
tal, CFD, and both approaches. Covering the period from 2020 to 2024, morphing wings—including enhanced lift, reduced drag, and improved
it provides insights into how aerodynamic performance has been as­ fuel e˙iciency—there are significant knowledge gaps regarding the per­
sessed across localized and distributed morphing applications. Instead formance of specific co­figurations, like trailing edge morphing, under
of listing references within the table, the manuscript integrates citations varying conditions [41,86]. Kabir et al. utilized CFD to address these
and discussions in this section (section 3.2), ensuring a clear under­ challenges and explore trailing edge morphing. Their study involved
standing of each study’s contributions. The table effectively summarizes simulating various morphing angles and positions within subsonic flight
trends in aerodynamic optimization, demonstrating how computational regimes, yielding a comprehensive quantitative analysis of lift and drag
and experimental methods have contributed to improving lift, drag, and across different Reynolds numbers and angles of attack. Their research
aerodynamic efficiency through dynamic shape adaptation. ident­fied optimal co­figurations tailored to each phase by assessing
The aerodynamic performance of morphing systems is central to performance throughout distinct flight phases rather than relying on
their effectiveness [153]. Significant fuel efficiency, range, and maneu­ a one-siz­-fits-all approach. Employing sophisticated CFD tools such as
verability improvements can be achieved through various techniques ANSYS, X-foil, and Javafoil, they created over 100 distinct wing de­
such as wing shape adaptation, span extension, and airfoil morphing signs, circumventing the necessity for costly wind tunnel experiments
[150,174]. Si et al. presented a span-extendable wing concept that offers and establishing a practical framework for evaluating morphing wing
a transformative approach to improving aerodynamic performance and performance. The study demonstrated a 25% improvement in lift at a
optimizing space utilization. The design, combining a fixed inboard sec­ 0-degree angle of attack for certain morphing co­figurations. It also ex­

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

posed unresolved issues, including the limited exploration of morphing regulated air blowing to address these issues. This innovative approach
angles and fixed locations [104]. dynamically adjusts to changing flow conditions, circumventing the
Moreover, in aircraft design, the aerodynamic efficiency of fixed­ need for significant structural mod­fications, and achieves noise reduc­
wing co­figurations is often restricted by their optimization for spe­ tions up to 14 dB by disrupting vortex structures. The study highlights
cific flight phases, leading to inefficiencies, particularly in managing that virtual serrations are particularly effective in mitigating large-scale
drag and lift across different operational scenarios [176--178]. Marouf vortices, offering superior noise reduction compared to surface morph­
et al. proposed an innovative hybrid morphing strategy that dynami­ ing, which results in more modest reductions of 3--5 dB. Optimizing the
cally adjusts the wing’s pr­file by integrating adaptive cambering with introduction of ai­flow at precise angles and velocities prevents vortex
trailing-edge flapping to overcome these limitations. This approach al­ interaction with the airfoil’s leading edge, thereby establishing buffer
lows for continuous reshaping of the wing to suit various aerodynamic zones that enhance aerodynamic efficiency through improved flow sep­
conditions. Cambering adjusts the wing’s curvature to optimize perfor­ aration and pressure distribution. This active control approach provides
mance during different flight stages, while trailing-edge flapping mini­ a more flexible and effective solution for noise reduction, enhancing fuel
mizes flow disruptions, collectively improving aerodynamic efficiency. efficiency, lowering drag, and advancing overall aircraft performance
Inspired by the flight mechanics of birds like eagles and owls, these [180].
morphing techniques seek to improve lift, reduce drag, and minimize Wang et al. introduced an advanced active flow control frame­
noise. Experimental results from the Airbus A320 demonstrated that the work that integrates Koopman operator theory with Model Predictive
combined use of high-amplitude cambering and trailing-edge flapping Control (MPC) to address the challenges of regulating complex flow­
substantially increased the lift-to-drag ratio, with lift improvements of induced vibrations, such as flutter and limit cycle oscillations, in mor­
15.40% and a 0.78% reduction in drag [169]. phing aerospace structures. Conventional control methods often need
Ding et al. executed a detailed experimental investigation into the help with nonlinear interactions in morphing surfaces, including vor­
effect of trailing-edge d­flection on the aeroacoustic and flow charac­ tex shedding, flow separation, and variable pressure distributions. The
teristics of the NACA 4418 airfoil for Reynolds numbers ranging from authors employed Koopman-based dynamic mode decomposition with
1.2 × 105 to 3.1 × 105 . Their analysis addresses a critical challenge in control (DMDc) to develop reduced-order models that accurately cap­
aeroacoustics by employing advanced signal processing and flow anal­ ture the system’s dynamics, enabling precise aerodynamic control. The
ysis techniques, including particle image velocimetry (PIV), continuous MPC framework further r­fines this approach by predicting future states
wavelet transform (CWT), and proper orthogonal decomposition (POD). and optimizing control actions, allowing real-time adjustments of lift
The results indicate that variations in vortex convection velocity within and drag through adaptive morphing flaps. This methodology enhances
the acoustic feedback loop significantly affect the distribution of tonal morphing surfaces’ stability, maneuverability, and aerodynamic perfor­
frequencies. Meanwhile, the laminar separation bubble (LSB) on the mance by mitigating flow-induced vibrations and rapidly adapting to
pressure surface ampl­fies flow instabilities and heightens susceptibil­ changing flow conditions [181].
ity to incoming flow velocity fluctuations. The upward-deflected trailing Pabon et al. examined the Fishbone Skin-Actuated-Camber (SAC)
edge promotes a well-defined LSB and strengthens coherent vortex struc­ morphing wing, an advanced design that enhanced aerodynamic per­
tures, exacerbating boundary-layer unsteadiness. These findings con­ formance through advanced camber adjustment enabled by skin actua­
tribute to optimizing trailing-edge morphing for noise reduction and tion. This design achieves superior aerodynamic efficiency by facilitat­
aerodynamic efficiency, informing the design of low-noise airfoils [172]. ing smooth camber transitions, thus outperforming traditional hinged
Lukić et al. introduced morphing airfoil specifically engineered for systems. In wind tunnel experiments, the SAC wing demonstrated sig­
lower Reynolds numbers common in UAV applications. Their innovative nificant drag reduction and lift enhancement compared to conventional
design facilitates real-time adjustments in both camber and thickness, trailing edge flap wings, maintaining superior structural integrity during
providing a streamlined, effective approach to enhancing fuel efficiency, camber adjustments. At a Reynolds number of 400,000, the SAC wing
extending range, and improving maneuverability. While the research exhibited reduced drag relative to the idealized flap design. Numerical
primarily focuses on two-dimensional airfoil sections, the potential for simulations with FlightStream® corroborated these findings, revealing
expanding this concept to three-dimensional wing structures, such as close agreement with experimental results. The SAC wing’s effective­
those involving span extension, holds promise for further optimization. ness in managing flow separation and establishing a gradual pressure
With a demonstrated 20% improvement in aerodynamic efficiency, this gradient across the upper surface during d­flection was crucial for op­
morphing airfoil offers substantial fuel savings and increased opera­ timizing aerodynamic performance, with the best results occurring at a
tional range, which is particularly valuable for UAV missions requiring d­flection of 70% chord length, where both drag and flow separation
extended endurance. Additionally, the airfoil’s dynamic camber control were minimized [182].
significantly enhances maneuverability, improving stability in turbulent
and challenging flight conditions [165]. 3.3. Control system in morphing techniques
Chen et al. demonstrate that these flexible skins enable seamless
wing adjustments, effectively reducing pressure differentials, smooth­ In morphing co­figurations, control methods are class­fied into three
ing ai­flow, and mitigating turbulence. Their research shows that MCWs categories: dynamic control, shape control—modifying wings, airfoils,
enhance vortex control, delay airfoil stall, and decrease structural stress and chords—and aeroelastic control, which manipulates the aeroelas­
during high-speed maneuvers. Furthermore, the technology improves tic stability of the morphing aircraft’s response. These strategies are
fuel efficiency and extends operational range by shifting aerodynamic essential for enhancing morphing performance. A sample operational ar­
loads toward the fuselage, lowering wing root bending moments, and chitecture of a morphing wing control block diagram tested in the wind
reducing overall structural weight. This flexible skin technology sig­ tunnel is illustrated in Fig. 9. The setup incorporates programmable
nificantly advances rigid systems, offering an innovative solution to drives, brushless DC (BLDC) motors integrated within the actuators, and
contemporary aerodynamic challenges [179]. four Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) sensors to provide
Efforts to control vortex-induced noise on airfoils confront the chal­ precise measurements of actuator displacement for control feedback.
lenge of alleviating the acoustic impacts of vortex shedding, which This section systematically reviews linear and nonlinear control
affects aircraft efficiency, fuel consumption, and environmental sustain­ methods, emphasizing their contributions to advancements in aerospace
ability. While traditional passive techniques, such as serrations and mor­ morphing systems. Relevant studies are categorized by their application
phing, have shown promise, their effectiveness is constrained by struc­ in morphing control, with recent research since 2020, particularly in
tural limitations. Zang et al. proposed a novel active control strategy uti­ linear and nonlinear methods. Table 4 categorizes state-of-the-art mor­
lizing virtual serrations combined with surface morphing facilitated by phing control techniques from 2020 to 2024 based on control method­

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

Fig. 9. Morphing wing control block diagram [183].

Table 4
Existing morphing control research based on their methods since 2020.

Year PID LQR/LQG GS LPV SMC FL BSC NDI

2020 [184--190] [191,192] [193,188,194] [193,195,194] [196] [197] [198,195,199] [200]

2021 [201--204] [205--208] [209] [210,211,209,207] [212,213] [214] [215--217] [218--220]
2022 [221,222] [223--233] [227,234,228] [234,227] [234--236,221, [239] [224,240--242,237, [235,246,236,237,
237,238] 243--245] 247,248]
2023 [249--252,229] [253--255] [256,257] [258,259,239,253, [258,260--263] [264,265] [258,260,256,26,266, [270,253]
257,228] 263,264,262,267--
269]
2024 [271--278] [279] [280,281] [282,280,283,284] [285--290] [281,280] [291,292,289,293-- [296]
295]

ologies, including linear and nonlinear strategies such as Proportional­ (LPV) models are employed to approximate nonlinear systems through
Integral-Derivative (PID), Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR), Sliding linear representations.
Mode Control (SMC), and Nonlinear Dynamic Inversion (NDI). The ref­
erences for each method are discussed in detail within this section, 3.3.1.1. PID Uzun et al. enhanced a small UAV’s autonomous flight by
providing an in-depth analysis of their applications in morphing aircraft jointly optimizing its variable wing incidence angle and flight control
systems. This structured presentation enables readers to comprehend system (FCS) parameters using the Simultaneous Perturbation Stochas­
the progression of control techniques, their applications in maintaining tic Approximation (SPSA) algorithm. The UAV’s trajectory tracking was
aeroelastic stability, and their role in enhancing dynamic shape control managed by six PID controllers, stabilizing roll, pitch, heading, and alti­
and adaptive performance. tude while tracking x- and y-positions. Unlike traditional methods that
separate the UAV’s dynamic model and control system design, this study
3.3.1. Linear control methods integrated these processes, optimizing structural parameters and FCS
Linear control strategies, derived from linearized system dynamics gains. The integrated design proved efficient, cost-effective, and robust
models around a desired operating point, provide substantial advan­ against measurement noise, significantly improving autonomous flight
tages in autopilot systems where maneuvering angles are constrained performance and trajectory tracking in longitudinal and lateral flights
[14,297]. By reducing complex dynamic behaviors to a linear frame­ [275].
work, these strategies facilitate precise control and enhance system
stability [298,299]. In this study, we focus on several linear control 3.3.1.2. LQR and LQG Shi et al. developed a flight control system
methods, including Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controllers for three-surface morphing aircraft using LQR design augmented by
for efficient regulation, Linear Quadratic Regulators (LQR) for optimal stochastic robustness analysis. This approach manages the inherent un­
cost minimization, and Linear Quadratic Gaussian (LQG) approaches, certainties and dynamic variations in morphing processes, ensuring
which integrate LQR with Kalman filtering for state estimation. Addi­ stable and efficient flight performance. The LQR controller adjusts to
tionally, Gain Scheduling (GS) is utilized for adaptive parameter tuning changes in the aircraft’s wing, tail, and potentially fuselage by utiliz­
under varying operational conditions, while Linear Parameter Varying ing a state-space representation of the aircraft’s dynamics and calculat­

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

ing optimal control inputs to minimize deviations from desired states. Jiang et al. presented a gain-scheduled output feedback control
Stochastic robustness analysis further enhances the controller’s effec­ framework for morphing aircraft using the Switching Polytopic Lin­
tiveness under varying conditions and disturbances. The results co­firm ear Parameter-Varying (SPLPV) theory to enhance the robustness and
that the LQR controller, enhanced with stochastic robustness, effectively computational efficiency across the full flight envelope. The SPLPV
manages uncertainties and dynamic changes, ensuring stable flight per­ model, derived through parameter interval division and convex de­
formance and highlighting its potential for advanced aircraft control composition, accommodates varying flight conditions. By integrating
systems [207]. Average Dwell Time (ADT) and Mode-Dependent Average Dwell Time
Perrotta et al. significantly enhanced UAV performance during ag­ (MDADT) switching mechanisms, the approach ensures system stabil­
gressive maneuvers by integrating a vortex particle model to better ity and robustness through Multiple Parameter-Dependent Lyapunov
capture unsteady aerodynamic effects. Their study introduced a dis­ Functions (MPDLFs). The controller design is simpl­fied by employing
crete vortex simulator for real-time planar maneuvers and developed Linear Matrix Inequalities (LMIs) to reduce computational complexity. A
a control algorithm for trajectory optimization and feedback. Using a key innovation is the controller’s a˙ine parameter dependence, which
Time-Varying LQR (TVLQR), they generated a local linear feedback pol­ improves flexibility and overcomes the limitations of traditional fixed
icy for trajectory tracking by simulating the nominal state trajectory matrix approaches. The MDADT logic reduces conservativeness, fur­
and calculating local partial derivatives of dynamics through finite dif­ ther enhancing performance. Allowing the control matrix of the Linear
ferences. This approach produced linear feedback gains for each point. Parameter-Varying (LPV) system to vary with parameters broadens its
The research applied dynamic wing sweep, adjusting wing positions to aerospace applications. Simulations co­firm the method’s superior sta­
i­fluence roll and pitch by moving the center of pressure. TVLQR feed­ bility and efficiency, underscoring its potential for advanced aerospace
back control mod­fied nominal control values from the Model Predictive control systems [193]. Gain scheduling methods adjust control gains to
Path Integral (MPPI) approach. It provided linear feedback to maintain match changing system parameters, enhancing tracking accuracy and
the desired trajectory, with asymmetrically actuated morphing wings disturbance rejection in morphing aircraft. They strike a balance be­
responding to initial conditions. This enhanced the UAV’s agility and tween real-time application and computational efficiency but depend on
stability during aggressive maneuvers such as perching. Experimental precise modeling and parameter scheduling, which can be challenging
results showed that incorporating the unsteady aerodynamics model for systems with rapidly shifting dynamics. Though effective, fixed gains
significantly improved UAV performance in post-stall maneuvers, both can result in reduced performance when actuation demands change
with and without wing morphing [300]. LQR-based control methods quickly, and real-time implementation remains difficult due to the need
offer efficient, optimal control for linearized systems, with low computa­ for continuous adaptation and robustness.
tional complexity, energy efficiency, and proven stability, making them
suitable for real-time applications in morphing aircraft. Still, it strug­ 3.3.1.4. LPV Harvey et al. designed an LPV model to investigate the
gles with nonlinear dynamics, rapid co­figuration changes, and model longitudinal flight dynamics of gulls during wing morphing, specifi­
uncertainties, limiting its effectiveness for complex morphing scenarios cally examining the effects of changing wing co­figurations over time.
without augmentation. The LPV model schedules wing joint angles accounts for nonlinear
kinematic and gravitational i­fluences, and interpolates between linear
time-invariant (LTI) models at discrete trim points for precise dynamic
3.3.1.3. GS Aboudorra et al. proposed two gain scheduling methods representation. By adjusting the elbow and wrist joint angles of gull
for position controllers in fully-actuated morphing multi-rotor UAVs, wings, the study optimizes extension trajectories for speed and pitch an­
validated through a simpl­fied model and further assessed using simula­ gle overshoot, speed rise time, and pitch angle settling time. The study
tions with the omnidirectional morphing multi-rotor OmniMorph. This reveals that the dynamic response to morphing is not highly sensitive to
study addresses variations in force and torque outputs from changing input joint angles, suggesting applications in UAV design [284].
tilting angles to enhance tracking accuracy and disturbance rejection. Gao et al. introduced a variable sweep mechanism for tandem­
Results indicate that these techniques provide consistent position track­ wing micro-air vehicles (MAVs) and conducted an aerodynamic anal­
ing across different tilting co­figurations while effectively mitigating ysis through numerical simulations. The research developed an LPV
disturbances near the platform’s maximum force capacity. The methods model to capture the MAV’s transitional dynamics. Based on this LPV
balance computational simplicity and precision, potentially applicable model and a polytopic approach, a gain-scheduled controller was pro­
to other synchronized tilting systems. The analysis also highlights the posed to ensure stability throughout the morphing process. The LPV
limitations of fixed controller gains, which do not adapt to varying ac­ model, derived via Jacobian linearization, approximates the MAV’s be­
tuation demands. The first method offers a real-time analytical solution, havior during transitions, supporting the design of a gain-scheduled
while the second employs offline gain computation with a lookup table controller that maintains stability. The morphing strategy, involving
for increased accuracy [281]. a backward sweep of the fiction and a forward sweep of the wings,
Cai et al. propose an advanced control strategy integrating dynamic mitigates additional inertia forces and moments while preserving lon­
event-triggered and gain-scheduled H∞ control to address real-time gitudinal dynamic balance without needing elevator adjustments. Key
challenges in morphing aircraft, particularly during wingspan defor­ findings include demonstrating the variable sweep scheme’s adaptabil­
mation. By transforming the linear parameter-varying (LPV) model ity, minimal impact on aerodynamic forces and moments, and insights
into a polytopic form, the approach avoids the complexity of infinite­ into dynamic stability challenges under varying conditions. The gain­
dimensional linear matrix inequalities (LMIs) caused by continuous scheduled controller proved robust in simulations, maintaining stability
scheduling parameters. The gain-scheduled control ensures system ro­ and effectiveness even under random disturbances such as white noise
bustness and H∞ performance, with control gains derived from opti­ [227].
mized LMI constraints. The dynamic event-triggered mechanism, a key Lee et al. developed an innovative autopilot system for UAVs, em­
innovation, determines controller updates based on an internal vari­ ploying LPV techniques for morphing-assisted flight. Through the NASA
able, extending trigger intervals and outperforming static schemes. This generic transport model, they arranged detailed nonlinear and LPV mod­
reduces communication and control interventions, minimizes resource els of an asymmetric variable-span morphing UAV. This method divides
consumption, and maintains system stability while eliminating Zeno wing span variations into symmetric and asymmetric features, serving
behavior. Simulations demonstrate the method’s effectiveness in en­ as scheduling and control inputs. The LPV-based control augmenta­
hancing stability and resource efficiency during wingspan deformation, tion system precisely tracks normal acceleration, sideslip angle, and
making it a promising solution for advanced aerospace control systems roll rate commands. Simultaneously, the autopilot system regulates air­
[283]. speed, altitude, and roll angle commands. The system uses symmetric

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

span morphing for longitudinal performance and asymmetric span mor­ Numerical simulations demonstrate that NDOISMC significantly reduces
phing for roll control, ensuring stable and accurate flight in morphing the control load on aerodynamic surfaces and enhances rapid maneu­
UAVs [257]. vering performance, outperforming conventional methods. Integrating
Yang et al. introduced an LPV controller employing finite-time, time­ NDO and ISMC allows the strategy to manage overactuated systems with
varying sliding mode control specifically for morphing aircraft. They matched and mismatched uncertainties while minimizing chattering.
initially developed a gain scheduling controller to ensure stability with­ The NDOISMC framework incorporates integral control, disturbance
out external disturbances. Subsequently, they formed an LPV model us­ observation, and incremental nonlinear dynamic inversion, increasing
ing Jacobian linearization and formulated a robust sliding mode control robustness and reducing reliance on precise modeling [236]. SMC of­
law with a carefully chosen sliding mode surface. Theoretical analyses fers robustness to uncertainties and disturbances in morphing aircraft,
demonstrated the controller’s ability to mitigate compound disturbances allowing for fast, adaptive control, but it can suffer from chattering,
effectively, and simulations co­firmed its success in preserving system which newer methods like FxASASMC aim to reduce.
stability even when external disturbances were present [234]. LPV con­
trol offers adaptability and precision in handling the nonlinear and time­ 3.3.2.2. FL Guan et al. presented an advanced attitude control tech­
varying dynamics of morphing aircraft, ensuring stability and optimal nique for variable-wing missiles, effectively addressing the complexities
performance, but requires accurate model linearization and trim-point and nonlinearities of their aerodynamic behavior. They created a robust
interpolation, which can be complex and computationally demanding, controller design by deriving aerodynamic parameters through Missile
making real-time implementation challenging for rapidly changing con­ DATCOM and modeling them with polynomial functions. Unlike con­
figurations. ventional linearization methods, which often fall short for dynamic sys­
tems, this approach integrates disturbance observers with a feedback
3.3.2. Nonlinear control methods linearization framework. The proposed method, validated through the­
Nonlinear control methods handle the complexities of morphing air­ oretical analysis and extensive simulations, excels in reentry attitude
craft dynamics, offering more accurate control across a wider range of tracking by adeptly managing matched and unmatched disturbances
operating conditions. Unlike linear approaches, they are well-suited for [302]. Cai et al. investigated Gain-Scheduled Output-Feedback (GSOF)
large maneuvers and rapid changes. Sliding Mode Control (SMC) en­ controllers for morphing aircraft, addressing imprecise scheduling pa­
hances robustness by driving the system to follow a specific trajectory, rameters during wing transitions while ensuring closed-loop stability
even under uncertainties. Feedback Linearization (FL)simpl­fies nonlin­ and optimal L2 gain performance. The nonlinear aircraft dynamics were
ear dynamics into a form that can be more easily controlled. Nonlinear linearized using the Jacobian method to derive a linear parameter­
Dynamic Inversion (NDI) works by counteracting the system’s nonlin­ varying (LPV) model that accounted for additive uncertainties, a factor
earities to achieve the desired response. At the same time, Backstepping often overlooked in prior studies. The problem was formulated within
Control (BSC) builds controllers for each part of the system step by step, a linear matrix inequality (LMI) framework, integrating an auxiliary
ensuring stability. These methods are particularly effective in managing variable structure and nonlinear transformations to manage schedul­
the challenges of nonlinear, dynamic environments in morphing aircraft. ing inaccuracies. A key innovation was decoupling the Lyapunov func­
tion matrix from the system matrices, enabling parameter-dependent
3.3.2.1. SMC Chen et al. explored the dynamic control of a morphable Lyapunov functions to reduce conservatism significantly. Simulations
wing system, focusing on real-time shape adjustment and optimization demonstrated that the controller effectively managed inaccuracies and
through sophisticated feedback mechanisms. Their morphing co­figu­ maintained stability during wing transitions, outperforming previous
ration centers on dynamic shape control, allowing the wing to adapt to methods, though it relied on constant system matrices [239].
varying aerodynamic conditions, thus improving performance and effi­ Zhao et al. proposed a control allocation strategy utilizing the Krig­
ciency. They employed a nonlinear control strategy, most likely Sliding ing method to develop an aerodynamic model for continuously mor­
Mode Control (SMC), chosen for its robustness in handling system un­ phing trailing edges in flying wing UAVs. They utilized a non-uniform
certainties and disturbances. It is ideal for the complex and variable optimal Latin Hypercube Sampling (LHS) technique to systematically
conditions of morphable wing systems. This study is categorized under generate initial sample points, which facilitated the reformulation of
closed-loop/feedback control strategies, specifically within the nonlin­ the multi-objective control allocation problem and led to the forma­
ear control methods subcategory [301]. tion of two heuristic algorithms: Comprehensive Multi-Objective Par­
Zang et al. introduced Fixed-Time Anti-Saturation Adaptive Sliding ticle Swarm Optimization (C-MOPSO) and Hierarchical MOPSO (H­
Mode Control (FxASASMC) to address the complexities of attitude track­ MOPSO). Validation through an attitude angle tracking flight control
ing in morphing aircraft, particularly in actuator faults, saturation, and system showed that both algorithms performed comparably, with H­
external disturbances. The FxASASMC framework includes a novel non­ MOPSO demonstrating superior multi-objective allocation capabilities.
singular fixed-time sliding mode surface based on the arctan function, This work enhanced control performance by designing a morphing
a fixed-time anti-saturation compensator, and a continuous fixed-time trailing-edge control surface, which increases the degrees of freedom
adaptive control law. The sliding mode surface ensures consistent con­ and applies the Kriging algorithm for aerodynamic modeling. The intro­
vergence times irrespective of initial conditions and mitigates satura­ duction of C-MOPSO, which is noted for its efficiency, and H-MOPSO,
tion effects by starting with lower initial values. The adaptive control recognized for optimal performance trade-offs, enriches the control allo­
law guarantees that attitude-tracking errors converge within a predeter­ cation methodology. Additionally, the nonlinear multi-objective control
mined fixed time, even without prior knowledge of disturbance limits allocation approach effectively addresses morphing control surfaces’ in­
[286]. herent nonlinearities and coupling effects [214].
Liu et al. introduced NDOISMC, a novel control strategy for en­ Jung et al. introduced an advanced pitch autopilot for morphing
hancing the longitudinal maneuverability of morphing aircraft. This UAVs, addressing the complex dynamics of the wing transition phase,
approach integrates a nonlinear disturbance observer (NDO) with in­ which involves significant fluctuations in aerodynamic characteristics.
cremental sliding-mode control (ISMC). It employs a two-step feedback To manage these complexities in control system design, they employed
linearization method, validated through Lyapunov stability theory, to a pseudo-linearization approach and a novel coordinate transforma­
handle model uncertainties and disturbances. The NDO estimates un­ tion, ensuring the fu­fillment of matching conditions. The controller
certainties during rapid morphing, enabling the NDOISMC algorithm to incorporates an extended state observer (ESO) to address uncertain­
generate control inputs without requiring a precise aircraft model, en­ ties, enhancing overall stability and performance. Comprehensive sta­
suring semi-global uniform ultimate boundedness. Control inputs are bility analyses demonstrate the controller’s ability to maintain bounded­
optimally distributed using second-order cone programming (SOCP). input-bounded-output stability, while extensive numerical simulations

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

co­firm its effectiveness in sustaining flight control during critical tran­ tions. Results demonstrated that the ESO-based Hybrid Controller (HC)
sitions [197]. Feedback linearization is highly effective in handling the with the DO significantly improved responsiveness and efficiency com­
nonlinear dynamics of morphing aircraft, allowing for precise control pared to BSC and ITSMC. Moreover, the Adaptive Hybrid Controller
by simplifying complex systems into linear equivalents. Methods like (AHC) with the DO outperformed the Adaptive Backstepping Controller
those by Guan et al., which incorporate disturbance observers, demon­ (ABSC) with the DO in altitude tracking capabilities. This study con­
strate robustness in managing disturbances, while approaches like those tributes to control theory by addressing trajectory tracking challenges
by Cai et al. enhance stability during wing transitions through advanced amidst external disturbances and mass variations, highlighting the effi­
gain scheduling and linear parameter-varying (LPV) models. Feedback cacy of ESO-based adaptive control in enhancing quadrotor performance
linearization can reduce control challenges in dynamic, nonlinear envi­ [262].
ronments, but it often requires precise modeling, which can be difficult Patel et al. introduced a nonlinear backstepping controller within a
to achieve in real-world scenarios. quaternion framework, effectively addressing the complexities of vehi­
cle transition phases and overcoming the singularity challenges inherent
3.3.2.3. BSC Fang et al. proposed a fixed-time BSC technique with a to Euler angles. This innovative approach integrates the flight capabil­
disturbance observer for hypersonic morphing wave riders (HMW) to ities of fixed-wing and multi-rotor UAVs, aiming to enhance the opera­
develop an attitude controller that provides precise online disturbance tional versatility and efficiency of hybrid morphing wing UAVs capable
estimations for effective compensation. They designed a dynamic model of seamless transitions between quadcopter and fixed-wing modes. The
for a variable-span-wing HMW, incorporating additional forces and mo­ study demonstrates the controller’s effectiveness in achieving asymp­
ments while utilizing polynomial fitting techniques for accurate aero­ totic stability during waypoint navigation tasks through rigorous nu­
dynamic representation. A nonlinear first-order filter was introduced merical simulations, thereby underscoring its potential for practical ap­
to address the ``explosion of terms'' problem, enhancing system stabil­ plications in dynamic environments [240].
ity. The fixed-time stability of the closed-loop system was co­firmed
through Lyapunov analysis, and simulations demonstrated robust adapt­ 3.3.2.4. NDI Cheng et al. introduced a comprehensive six degrees of
ability under varying initial conditions and morphing speeds. The con­ freedom (6DOF) nonlinear dynamics framework grounded in multibody
troller effectively manages disturbances, maintains accurate tracking of dynamics to accurately model the complex behavior of variable-sweep
the angle of attack command, and outperforms traditional backstepping morphing aircraft, overcoming the inherent challenges of flight geom­
methods regarding response speed and precision [294]. etry changes. The proposed control architecture integrates NDI and
Meng et al. introduced the APP-BSRBFNDO strategy, which incor­ Incremental INDI to achieve effective decoupling of attitude control.
porates an advanced Adaptive Prescribed Performance (APP) method, In contrast, combining LQR and L1 adaptive control enhances the sys­
a Radial Basis Function Neural Network-based Nonlinear Disturbance tem’s robustness and precision under varying conditions. The method
Observer (RBFNDO), and Backstepping (BS) for the autonomous con­ exhibits exceptional command tracking capabilities through extensive
trol of variable-span aircraft. They developed a robust dynamic control simulations, significantly outperforming conventional SMC by yielding
framework by considering an intermediate morphing state as the ref­ reduced root mean square errors (RMSE) and maximum tracking errors
erence model and treating the morphing process and environmental across multiple flight channels. Specifically, the L1-DI controller min­
uncertainties as disturbances. This innovative method outperforms tra­ imizes tracking error in the 𝛼 channel to just 0.0993◦ , showcasing its
ditional Prescribed Performance Control (PPC) and Extended State Ob­ superiority over SMC. Further validation highlights the controller’s un­
server (ESO) techniques, offering enhanced disturbance rejection. Sim­ certainty resilience, offering smaller overshoots and faster convergence
ulations ver­fied the APP-BSRBFNDO’s effectiveness in morphing con­ across control loops [253].
ditions, showing significant improvements in response overshoot and Sun et al. proposed a vision-based adaptive control system to address
steady-state error. The APP method’s adaptive adjustments minimize mechanical imperfections in morphing wings, specifically the SmartX­
reliance on initial errors, increasing system flexibility and robustness Alpha model. This system utilizes an online incremental modeling tech­
[293]. nique to assess dynamics through real-time vision data and servo in­
Yang et al. proposed a real-time adaptive disturbance estimation ap­ puts, enabling immediate compensation for imperfections via nonlinear
proach integrating sliding mode and backstepping control techniques dynamic inversion (NDI) control. Empirical results demonstrate that
for altitude tracking in morphing aircraft. This architecture features this data-driven approach significantly enhances tracking performance,
an inner loop for pitch angle regulation and an outer loop for altitude achieving over a 62% reduction in errors compared to traditional feed­
management, addressing challenges posed by unmeasured aerodynamic forward control methods. Additionally, integrating infrared (IR) sensors
disturbances in high-maneuverability scenarios. The inner loop utilizes for vision feedback improves the system’s precision, reliability, scalabil­
an adaptive SMC that dynamically estimates and compensates for the ity, and maintainability [247].
upper limits of aerodynamic disturbances. The outer loop incorporates Qiao et al. proposed a flight controller design for morphing air­
a BSC based on a dynamic surface approach to manage the differential craft with swept-back wings using an NDI controller. An additional
explosion issue in high-order systems. The stability of the closed-loop feedback mechanism addresses errors from modeling inaccuracies and
system is analyzed using Lyapunov’s stability theory, ensuring robust disturbances. Simulation results for fixed and morphing co­figurations
performance across varying operating conditions. Simulation results val­ demonstrate the controller’s robust tracking performance, proving its ef­
idate the control scheme’s effectiveness in achieving rapid and precise fectiveness for morphing aircraft control [220]. While NDI is powerful
altitude tracking while accommodating the aircraft’s morphing charac­ for morphing applications in handling the complexities of morphing air­
teristics [263]. craft by decoupling nonlinear dynamics into more manageable control
Dalwadi et al. developed a dual observer-based controller for au­ channels, it often requires accurate models, which can be challenging
tonomous trajectory tracking in biplane quadrotors, integrating an Ex­ in dynamic, real-world scenarios.
tended State Observer (ESO) for precise state estimation with advanced
control techniques, including BSC, Integral Terminal Sliding Mode Con­ 4. AI for morphing techniques
trol (ITSMC), and a Hybrid Controller (HC) that combines the strengths
of BSC and ITSMC. The proposed framework features a Nonlinear Dis­ Integrating AI into morphing technologies represents a significant
turbance Observer (DO) for accurate external disturbance estimation, advancement in adaptive aerospace systems, enabling dynamic adjust­
ensuring reliable trajectory tracking under diverse dynamic conditions. ments of structural co­figurations to address diverse environmental and
Simulations in MATLAB Simulink evaluated ESO-based control strate­ operational challenges [14,303]. This innovation is critical for maximiz­
gies with and without the DO during turbulent flight and mass varia­ ing mission effectiveness and enhancing system adaptability [42,304].

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

Table 5
Overview of AI-based Aerodynamic Morphing Research Since 2020.

Year ANN ML DL RL DRL

2020 [315--319] [48,320,321] [321] [195,322] [323,324]

2021 [218,325--327] [328--330] [331,332] [333]
2022 [243,334--337,224] [59,338,339] [340--345] [346] [343,347,348]
2023 [145,258,264,268,349,350,253,26,266,351] [350,352] [353,159,354--357,253] [267,358] [359,360]
2024 [102,287,293,361--365] [274,366] [347,367,368,363,278] [369] [23,347,363,367,370,371]

This section explores AI methodologies as a hierarchy, with ML serv­ online-learned radial basis function neural network (RBFNN) with an
ing as the overarching framework. Within ML, we discuss its various evolutionary optimization strategy that ident­fies global optima without
subsets, including DL, RL, and advanced DRL. Additionally, ANN, the requiring i­-flight local excitation maneuvers. This framework leverages
foundational building block of DL, is examined for its role in enhancing a computer vision system to sense the actual wing shape. It employs
control mechanisms and improving aerodynamic performance in mor­ nonlinear adaptive control to achieve the optimized shape, effectively
phing aerospace systems. Table 5 and Table 6 summarize key research addressing challenges such as backlash hysteresis, model uncertain­
since 2020, showcasing advancements in AI-driven morphing technolo­ ties, and gust disturbances. The approach was experimentally validated
gies. These tables highlight how interconnected AI approaches enhance on an active trailing-edge (TE) camber morphing wing demonstrator
aerodynamic optimization, adaptability, and control efficiency. equipped with distributed sensing and control in an open jet wind tun­
nel, demonstrating a 7.8% drag reduction compared to an unmorphed
4.1. AI in aerodynamics for morphing wing while meeting lift requirements. Data-driven projections suggest
potential drag reductions of up to 19.8%, offering insights into optimal
Aerodynamics is inherently complex due to variable shapes and wing shapes across diverse lift targets [334].
structures, and CFD methods are often too computationally intensive Kazemi et al. optimized the aerodynamic coefficients of a morphing
for real-time applications [305,306]. AI-driven techniques, encompass­ NACA 0015 airfoil for Reynolds numbers between 105 and 106 and an­
ing methods within the broader ML paradigm, offer robust solutions gles of attack from 0◦ to 12◦ , using an ANN with a Genetic Algorithm
for real-time aerodynamic analysis and prediction [307,308]. Among (GA). Airfoil shapes were generated in MATLAB, meshed in Gambit, and
simulated in 2D Ansys. Simulation outputs—lift and drag coefficients,
these, DL, a specialized form of ML, leverages extensive CFD and ex­
separation point, and center of pressure—trained the ANN, guiding the
perimental datasets to accurately predict aerodynamic coefficients and
GA to optimize target coefficients. In single-objective optimization, the
capture detailed flow patterns i­fluenced by morphing co­figurations,
lift coefficient improved by 18% while maintaining the center of pres­
thereby facilitating precise aerodynamic control [309,310]. Similarly,
sure at 0.25 of the chord length and the separation point at 0.18, both
RL, another ML variant, r­fines morphing structures by learning op­
with high accuracy. Dual-objective optimization targeted lift, drag, and
timal strategies through trial and error [311,312]. Genetic algorithms
pressure center combinations, achieving a lift-to-drag ratio of 30 and
(GAs), a type of evolutionary ML technique, explore design spaces to
controlling lift and drag within 2.1% and 20% error, respectively [325].
identify optimal co­figurations for minimizing drag or maximizing lift
Araujo et al. investigated the relationship between sensor signals and
[313,314]. These specialized ML approaches, when combined, provide
aerodynamic and load-related variables, comparing nonlinear ANNs and
efficient frameworks for optimizing aerodynamic performance across
linear partial least squares (PLS) for accurate estimation. ANN-based es­
varying morphing scenarios [313,314]. This subsection examines the
timators showed superior accuracy, effectively predicting aerodynamic
contributions of ML subsets, including ANN, DL, RL, and DRL, to aero­
and load variables, even in challenging stall regions where strain and
dynamic morphing.
pressure signals become unsteady. While effective for load estimates,
Table 5 summarizes AI-driven aerodynamics methodologies in mor­
PLS estimators needed help with aerodynamic parameters like angle of
phing technologies, classifying research efforts by AI techniques, includ­
attack and airspeed. This study underscores the potential of distributed
ing ML and its subsets DL and RL, and hybrid approaches. Covering
sensing for real-time flight control in high-maneuverability UAVs, in­
studies since 2020, it highlights the growing role of intelligent algo­
cluding those with flexible or morphing wings [218].
rithms in aerodynamic optimization with morphing co­figurations for
adaptability and real-time decision-making in aerospace applications. 4.1.2. DL aerodynamic optimization in morphing
This table serves as a key reference for understanding AI advancements Zhao et al. developed a Multi-Task Cross (MTC) model to estimate
in the aerodynamics of morphing, co­figuration optimization, and sys­ unsteady aerodynamic forces, utilizing advanced DL methods to over­
tem performance enhancement. come the constraints of traditional models, particularly in scenarios
with limited data availability. Their research emphasizes the efficacy
4.1.1. ANN aerodynamic optimization in morphing of multi-task learning (MTL) and cross-network frameworks in enhanc­
Ruland submitted an online black-box optimization framework to ing aerodynamic predictions for intricate morphing systems. The MTC
improve the performance of a flexible morphing wing through dis­ model exhibited exceptional capability in forecasting aerodynamic pa­
tributed control. This approach integrates a radial basis function neural rameters despite restricted training data and sparse inputs, achieving
network (RBFNN) surrogate model with a derivative-free evolutionary mean absolute percentage errors (MAPE) of 1.76% for lift coefficients
optimization algorithm, validated using a vortex lattice method (VLM) (Cl) and 3.97% for drag coefficients (Cd). This model outperforms con­
aerodynamic model and wind tunnel data. Unlike conventional local ventional multi-layer perception (MLP) approaches in precision and
gray-box methods that require re-identification and excitation maneu­ computational efficiency [159].
vers, the global RBFNN model enables continuous, real-time wing shape Junior et al. developed a data-driven framework to overcome the
optimization across the flight envelope, maximizing performance for the computational challenges in optimizing morphing airfoils, where tradi­
specific aircraft. The model’s derivative-free strategy enables smooth tional CFD methods, while precise, are too resource-intensive for real­
transitions to optimal co­figurations without recalibration, enhancing time or iterative use. Their approach integrates DNNs with model pre­
aerodynamic efficiency by dynamically adjusting wing shape and angle dictive control (MPC) for real-time aerodynamic optimization, aiming
of attack to meet target lift coefficients across diverse conditions [145]. to reduce drag while maintaining lift across varying flight conditions.
Mkhoyan et al. presented an online black-box aerodynamic opti­ The DNN-based model, trained on hig­-fidelity CFD data, accurately
mization framework for active morphing wings, combining a global, predicted lift and drag with mean absolute errors of 0.37% and 0.69%,

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

Fig. 10. Illustration of the Morphing Neural Network architecture, demonstrating the transformation of input feature representations across multiple dimensions.
The input tensor with dimensions (𝐻, 𝑊 , 𝐶), where 𝐻 is the height, 𝑊 is the width, and 𝐶 is the number of channels, undergoes a convolution operation, resulting
in feature maps of shape (𝑁, 𝐹 𝑁, 𝑂𝐻, 𝑂𝑊 ). Here, 𝑁 represents the batch size, 𝐹 𝑁 is the number of filters, 𝑂𝐻 and 𝑂𝑊 correspond to the output height and
width, respectively. A subsequent addition operation integrates additional feature embeddings, leading to the final output representation.

respectively. Simulated annealing (SA) supported offline drag reduction, Syed et al. proposed a smart morphing wing system optimized for
while a real-time predictive control system continuously optimized the aerodynamic performance using a Q-learning framework, addressing
airfoil shape during flight, preventing unsafe conditions. The framework gaps in morphing technologies that lack advanced control algorithms
demonstrated a 1.04% drag reduction and a 4.67% lift increase at a for adaptive optimization. The study introduces a hardware-in-the-loop
Reynolds number of 2.0 × 106 , Mach 0.175, and an angle of attack of framework integrating 3D-printed airfoil models, CFD, and Q-learning
0.5°, and it reduced drag prediction errors by 60-fold compared to tra­ to optimize aerodynamic properties. The airfoil, designed for significant
ditional CFD methods [341]. geometric transformations at the trailing edge, is fabricated with com­
Karali et al. addressed the inefficiencies of conventional aerody­ posite materials like PLA and carbon fiber to ensure structural integrity.
namic analysis tools, particularly CFD, which, while accurate, could be Digital servos control the morphing mechanism, with Q-learning opti­
more convenient for rapid UAV design iterations. They introduced the mized servo angles to minimize discrepancies in the pitching moment
nonlinear lifting line method (NLLM) that enhances predictive capabili­ coefficient. Image processing techniques, such as Sobel edge detection,
ties for aerodynamic behavior, including pre- and post-stall conditions, allow real-time tracking of airfoil shape for CFD analysis. Experimental
while reducing computational demands. By extending classical lifting results demonstrate that Q-learning optimizes the wing’s aerodynamic
line theory to account for nonlinear and viscous flow effects, the NLLM performance, surpassing traditional search methods in efficiency and
provides accurate estimates of lift, drag, and moment coefficients across accuracy [333].
various attack angles. A DL-based surrogate model is also developed to
quickly predict aerodynamic performance from geometric parameters, 4.1.4. DRL aerodynamic optimization in morphing
minimizing preprocessing and computational time. Empirical validation Su et al. presented an RL inverse design (RLID) framework that
demonstrated that the NLLM aligns well with experimental and CFD re­ leverages deep Q-networks (DQN) and unsupervised learning for the
sults, especially in capturing complex stall phenomena [372]. adaptive morphing of airfoils under varying operational conditions. This
Li et al. developed a novel Convolutional and Gated Recurrent Unit RLID approach begins with Latin hypercube sampling to explore the
(CC-GRU) model, which integrates convolutional layers with Gated Re­ design space, followed by CFD simulations to obtain aerodynamic pa­
current Units (GRUs) to forecast flow field parameters in supersonic rameters, which are then used to train a Kriging surrogate model. Using
cascade environments. This innovative model effectively manages the the NACA 0012 airfoil as a baseline, the Hicks-Henne function method
intricate spatial and temporal dynamics associated with shock waves enables autonomous morphing across eight degrees of freedom. The
and flow separations, achieving high precision with pressure field pre­ DQN algorithm optimizes morphing strategies to improve aerodynamic
dictions exhibiting less than 10% relative error and shock wave posi­ performance across diverse conditions, demonstrating superior adapt­
tioning showing a maximum deviation of 1.4%. The CC-GRU model ability to traditional conditional generative adversarial network (CGAN)
significantly outperforms conventional forecasting methods by utiliz­ approaches. This framework highlighted the potential of DRL in aerody­
ing historical data to enhance temporal predictions. Its reliability was namics optimization in morphing airfoils in managing high-dimensional
co­firmed by comprehensive validation through wind tunnel tests, nu­ state spaces and achieving autonomous shape adjustment [370].
merical simulations, and Schlieren imaging. These results highlight the Guo et al. developed a decision-making and control framework for
potential of sophisticated DL approaches, like the CC-GRU, to enhance morphing flight vehicles (MFVs) with variable-span wings to enhance
aerodynamic performance and enable real-time optimization in evolv­ flight performance and attitude tracking amid aerodynamic uncertain­
ing aerospace applications [354]. ties. This framework integrates morphing strategy, attitude regulation,
and real-time aerodynamic uncertainty estimation, addressing the in­
4.1.3. RL aerodynamic optimization in morphing terplay between morphing mechanisms and control systems. The Deep
Song et al. tackled the inherent limitations in adaptive RL for au­ Deterministic Policy Gradient (DDPG) algorithm reduces reliance on
tonomous deformation in morphing aircraft, particularly regarding real­ precise model parameters, improving adaptability to varying aerody­
time aerodynamic optimization. Their work introduces an innovative namic conditions during training. The system balances key performance
dynamic and aerodynamic model for a variable-sweep-wing UAV. It metrics, such as lift-to-drag ratio and attitude tracking precision, en­
uses multi-rigid-body modeling combined with DATCOM analysis to suring robust and feasible operation. Simulation results validate the
accurately predict UAV behavior under various co­figurations. By train­ framework’s superior adaptability and control effectiveness compared
ing a DNN with data derived from pred­fined deformation strategies, to traditional methods [347].
the study achieved a high accuracy of approximately 98% in determin­ Haughn et al. presented DRL, specifically Proximal Policy Optimiza­
ing optimal sweep angles. This led to significant improvements in UAV tion (PPO), for developing controllers to mitigate gust disturbances on
speed and directional control during simulations [340]. camber-morphing wings with smart materials. This method contrasts

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

Table 6
Overview of AI-Based Control Morphing Research Since 2020.

Year ANN ML DL RL DRL

2020 [200,376,318,319] [377] NA [195,378--380] [381,187]

2021 [326,382,383] [328,384] [204,332,385] [333,386,387] [388]
2022 [243,247,389,336,390,391] [59,392] [340,343,392] [391,393,337] [246,346,343]
2023 [256,258,394,349] NA [251,395--397] [267,351,398--400] [359,395,401--404]
2024 [102,287,293,361--365] [272,274,276] [23,278,291,312,367,405,363] [280,271,379,406,407] [312,347,367,363,371,408--410]

with conventional approaches relying on extensive sensor arrays and 4.2.1. Supervised and unsupervised learning in morphing control
computationally intensive models, allowing controllers to make deci­ The supervised and unsupervised learning approaches enhance data­
sions directly from raw sensor data. Camber morphing using Macr­-fiber driven methodologies for morphing control systems [304,411]. Super­
Composites (MFCs) addresses mechanical complexities and weight con­ vised learning utilizes labeled datasets, such as historical flight data,
straints in small UAVs, enhancing aerodynamic control efficiency over to build predictive models that facilitate precise morphing adjustments
traditional methods. The study focuses on reducing gust-induced effects [412,413]. In contrast, unsupervised learning explores data to un­
with minimal sensor inputs, thereby improving the practicality of au­ cover underlying patterns and relationships that might not be apparent
tonomous fixed-wing UAV operations in urban environments [371]. through conventional methods [414,415].
Guo et al. introduced a decision-making and control framework for Oktay et al. proposed enhancing UAV autonomy by integrating op­
morphing flight vehicles (MFVs) that addresses the limitations of tradi­ timized morphing wingtips with advanced control systems. Their ap­
tional static aerodynamic models, which overlook the complex interac­ proach uses CFD, ML, and optimization techniques to adjust wingtip
tions between morphing dynamics and control mechanisms. This frame­ dihedral angles dynamically, enabling the UAV to adapt to varying
work comprises three pivotal elements, i.e., a DRL module for adap­ flight conditions. Simultaneous Perturbation Stochastic Approximation
tive wingspan modulation, an adaptive dynamic programming (ADP) (SPSA) is employed to optimize wingtip angles and PID controller pa­
approach to maintain stable flight attitudes in response to morphing­ rameters, focusing on trajectory tracking metrics such as rise time,
induced aerodynamic shifts, and an extended Kalman filter (EKF) that settling time, and overshoot. Simulation results demonstrate a 39.7%
provides real-time estimation of aerodynamic parameters to improve reduction in the total cost and notable improvements in trajectory track­
decision-making amid uncertainties. The framework exhibits superior­ ing, even in turbulent conditions [274]. Similarly, Jeger et al. introduced
ity over conventional techniques, showcasing increased adaptability, a robust body-rate controller for avian-inspired drones, integrating an
minimized tracking errors, and enhanced resilience to unexpected aero­ ML-based approach to optimize flight performance under dynamic con­
dynamic variations [347]. ditions. Using Bayesian Optimization (BO), the system continuously
Jiang et al. introduced the deep deterministic policy gradient (DDPG) adjusts wing and tail morphing co­figurations to maximize energy ef­
algorithm and the DDPG with a task class­fier (DDPGwTC) architec­ ficiency at speeds of 8, 10, and 12 m/s, achieving up to an 11.5%
ture to overcome challenges in autonomous shape control for morphing improvement over static co­figurations. BO enables real-time optimiza­
aircraft, improving adaptability to varying flight conditions. By incor­ tion by exploring the co­figuration space to identify efficient states,
porating an LSTM network, the DDPGwTC algorithm accelerates con­ even amid physical perturbations, turbulent ai­flow, and partial actu­
vergence and reduces computational complexity, optimizing real-time ator failure [276].
shape control. To handle the complexities of real-world flight dynamics, Mkhoyan et al. propose a robust ML approach for unsupervised, au­
they categorized flight environments into task types such as ascent, de­ tomatic visual marker labeling using a Density-Based Spatial Clustering
scent, and cruise, enabling more effective, condition-specific morphing of Applications with Noise (DBSCAN)-based segmentation and cluster­
ing pipeline, optimized for real-time operation at 250 FPS on single­
strategies. This enhances the aircraft’s ability to autonomously adjust
camera imagery (1088×600 resolution). Their adaptive segmentation
shape and maintain optimal aerodynamic performance across diverse
integrates hue-saturation-value (HSV) filtering and morphological oper­
flight regimes [367].
ations to manage noise and marker failures. An inverse DBSCAN-1 model
reformulates clustering as a noise-detection task, enhancing resilience to
4.2. AI in control morphing
lighting variations. Comparative results indicate that DBSCAN outper­
forms alternative methods in tracking accuracy and robustness, includ­
ML, a cornerstone of AI, encompasses diverse methodologies that ing the disjoint-set structure. Validated on experimental data from gust­
have become integral to control morphing systems [373]. ML-based excited flexible wings in wind tunnel tests, this pipeline aligns closely
techniques facilitate adaptive and efficient transformations in aerospace with laser vibrometer ground truth [328].
structures by addressing critical challenges such as nonlinearity, high
dimensionality, and real-time adaptability [374,375]. Advanced ML 4.2.2. ANN in morphing control
paradigms offer unique contributions to morphing control strategies, in­ ANNs are crucial for developing advanced AI-driven control systems
cluding supervised and unsupervised learning, ANN, DL, RL, and DRL. in morphing aerospace technologies [416,417]. These networks feature
Among these, ANNs, as fundamental models in ML and DL, are exten­ interconnected nodes organized into input, hidden, and output layers
sively utilized for feature extraction and dynamic response prediction in [14,418], as depicted in Fig. 10. ANNs excel at modeling complex, non­
morphing applications [353,59]. The subsequent sections provide a de­ linear relationships, which is vital for capturing the dynamic behavior
tailed review of ML-driven contributions, emphasizing their impact on of morphing systems [419,420].
advancing control algorithms for morphing systems. Table 6 provides a Shihao et al. introduced an ANN-based adaptive control approach
concise overview of AI-based research in morphing control systems since for hypersonic morphing aircraft with actuator faults, establishing a
2020, emphasizing the integration of AI to enhance control precision, Lyapunov criterion for practical predefined-time stability. This bench­
adaptability, and performance. It organizes advancements that tackle mark presents the development of a nonsingular predefined-time sliding
challenges like aerodynamic uncertainties and dynamic complexities, mode controller using a tangent function sliding manifold, achieving sta­
determining how AI-driven methods improve efficiency under varying bility despite actuator faults and uncertainties. A radial basis function
flight conditions. This summary highlights emerging trends and key in­ ANN with a low-complexity adaptation mechanism is incorporated to
novations, offering insights into future directions for morphing control enhance fault tolerance. Theoretical analysis shows that attitude track­
research. ing error converges to a small region near the origin within a pred­fined

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

time, with all closed-loop system signals remaining bounded. Simulation aging heat flux density constraints. The authors created a comprehensive
results co­firm the controller’s effectiveness and improved performance trajectory library to train a DNN-based intelligent decision system by
[287]. segmenting and re-optimizing the flight path. Simulation outcomes re­
Meng et al. analyzed attitude stability and precision control in mor­ veal that, in contrast to established approaches, this method enables
phing aircraft employing a nominal model to address multi-source dis­ adaptive, real-time sweep angle adjustments, leading to enhanced range
turbances and model complexity issues. The proposed control strategy, performance within heat flux limits [397].
termed APP-BSRBFNDO, combines an improved Adaptive Prescribed Song et al. introduced a DL-based approach to enhance UAV au­
Performance (APP) method, a Radial Basis Function Neural Network­ tonomous morphing capabilities, establishing a knowledge base for
based Nonlinear Disturbance Observer (RBFNDO), and Backstepping optimal deformation strategies. They developed a nonlinear dynamic
(BS) control for autonomous attitude management of variable-span air­ model of a variable-sweep-wing UAV using multi-rigid-body modeling
craft. The research uses an intermediate morphing state as a baseline, and aerodynamic analysis via DATCOM. They generated data to train a
treating morphing and external environmental uncertainties as distur­ DNN to predict optimal sweep angles based on flight state and mission
bances. A dynamic model is developed to meet control objectives, with requirements. This adaptive deformation strategy integrates geometric,
targeted enhancements over traditional Prescribed Performance Control dynamic, and aerodynamic modeling to match mission pr­files, cre­
(PPC) and Extended State Observer (ESO) limitations [293]. ating a high-confidence knowledge base that demonstrates improved
Chen et al. have constructed contributions to the growth of physical speed and maneuverability in simulated tasks by optimizing the UAV’s
neural networks (PNNs) by introducing equilibrium learning, specifi­ aerodynamic shape. Simulation results co­firm that this DNN-driven
cally designed for lattice-based mechanical neural networks (MNNs). adaptive morphing framework significantly enhances maneuverability,
This approach uses the steady states of nodes to enable efficient back­ demonstrating its potential for diverse morphing mechanisms, complex
propagation and update the learning degrees of freedom. Initially, it missions, and improved UAV performance [340].
applied to 1D MNNs trained in silico to achieve target behaviors. The Rufato introduced a DNN approach for digitally morphing air­
technique was extended to 2D MNNs for precise morphing control un­ foils to stabilize a 2D aeroelastic wing model, addressing instability
der shear or uniaxial loads. The selected morphing co­figuration, a by dynamically adjusting airfoil geometry. The airfoil geometry was
triangular lattice structure, was chosen for its capacity to undergo sig­ parametrized using Bezier-Parsec 3434, with optimized parameters de­
nificant deformations and to be trained for specific sinusoidal morph­ termined through a Genetic Algorithm. The DNN was trained using the
ing patterns, essential for achieving target displacements under various geometric, lift (cl), drag (cd), and moment (cm) distributions across
boundary conditions. The primary control method used is implicit differ­ various angles of attack to predict the optimal BP3434 parameters. The
entiation to derive gradients for updating spring constants, addressing model demonstrated a Pearson correlation 0.919 in predicting new ge­
the unique architectural needs of MNNs compared to traditional ANNs ometries, validating its effectiveness. Despite challenges such as the
[383]. complexity of database construction and the model’s inability to gen­
Huang et al. introduced Error Dynamics-based Dual Heuristic Dy­ eralize across different airfoil families, the approach offers an efficient
namic Programming (ED-DHP) as an online nonlinear flight attitude automatic instability detection and correction solution, requiring mini­
control approach. This method d­fines an augmented system state that mal sensors and enabling real-time aeroelastic control [332].
integrates tracking error and reference trajectory, enabling the actor
neural network to learn feedforward and feedback control terms concur­ 4.2.4. RL in morphing control
rently without requiring complete knowledge of vehicle or reference tra­ RL offers an advanced method for real-time control of morphing
jectory dynamics. Recursive Least Squares (RLS) is utilized for real-time systems, utilizing iterative environmental interaction to derive optimal
ident­fication of input dynamics and total uncertainty, thereby improv­ strategies [14,24]. Unlike static control systems, RL continuously adapts
ing learning efficiency. Validated on a morphing air vehicle model, ED­ through feedback, r­fining control policies dynamically [422,423]. In
DHP demonstrates robustness and adaptability through sinusoidal signal aerospace applications, techniques such as Q-learning and black-box
tracking and guidance command tracking simulations during morphing methods autonomously adjust parameters like wing twist, camber, and
processes [391]. surface area to meet changing flight conditions [424,425]. This adapt­
ability is crucial for UAVs and military aircraft, where real-time adjust­
4.2.3. DL in morphing control ments enhance operational effectiveness [426,427]. RL-based systems
DL, a sophisticated ML extension, advances traditional ANNs by uti­ are adept at optimizing performance metrics such as fuel efficiency and
lizing deep, layered architectures to handle complex, high-dimensional maneuverability by balancing aerodynamic forces with structural con­
data [416,421]. This approach leverages convolutional neural networks straints [428,429]. Fig. 12 illustrates the application of RL techniques
(CNNs) and recurrent neural networks (RNNs) to manage morphing con­ in aircraft morphing control. The RL-based morphing strategy oper­
trol systems’ intricate spatial and temporal aspects. Fig. 11 presents ates within an algorithmic framework where the agent manipulates the
the block diagram illustrating the application of the RNN algorithm outputs of variable wing co­figurations and V-tail dihedral angles. Si­
to aircraft morphing control. Specifically, an Adaptive Full-Feedback multaneously, the environment supplies observations that inform the
RNN (AFFRNN) is employed to estimate and compensate for unknown system’s dynamics, while the reward function evaluates performance
disturbances in the system by using both external state inputs and feed­ based on these observations.
back information. Furthermore, a universal barrier function is integrated Lee et al. proposed a control design framework for morphing aircraft
to ensure that the system state remains within pred­fined constraints. that combines policy-gradient-based integral RL (PGIRL) with an ex­
The network parameters are dynamically adjusted through an adaptive tended state observer (ESO) to manage variable span and variable-sweep
control law, ensuring the stability of the overall system. In aerospace ap­ wing co­figurations without the need for switching or gain-scheduling
plications, DL models analyze extensive data from sensors, simulations, techniques. The PGIRL algorithm integrates a Q-function with a policy
and flight records to uncover detailed aerodynamic patterns. CNNs iden­ gradient approach to optimize control of morphing parameters in gen­
tify pressure distribution and ai­flow patterns, while RNNs are skilled eral continuous-time, non-a˙ine systems, thus bypassing the need for
at capturing the sequential dynamics of morphing actions. complete dynamic model knowledge. This model-free approach enables
Hou et al. introduced a DNN-driven method for autonomous morph­ effective control even when the aircraft dynamics are nona˙ine and fully
ing decision-making in hypersonic boost-glide vehicles, which optimizes unknown. The ESO with NDI control provides disturbance estimation
morphing under strict process constraints. This study models a vehi­ based on the nominal model for conventional control variables, allowing
cle with variable sweep angles and tackles the complex task of making for independent controller design for morphing parameters and tradi­
optimal morphing decisions by accounting for trajectory errors and man­ tional control effectors. The stability analysis co­firms the closed-loop

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

Fig. 11. Aircraft morphing control using RNN [291].

Fig. 12. Aircraft morphing control using RL [267].

system’s asymptotic stability and optimal convergence of the Q-function Dynamic Programming (ADP) and RL to address the time delays and
[280]. disturbances inherent in complex helicopter dynamics. They proposed
Zhang et al. proposed an architecture based on RL to optimize flight a zero-sum game framework based on a linear quadratic model, en­
time, a critical terminal performance metric for long-range variable­ hanced by a virtual predictor for targeted vibration reduction. They
sweep morphing aircraft. The study introduced a multi-stage agent utilized an off-policy RL algorithm to optimize the control policy us­
training scheme to improve performance, demonstrating RL’s efficacy ing only vertical vibration load data. This approach compensates for
in achieving terminal performance objectives and enhancing robustness time delays and disturbances through output feedback, achieving Nash
across diverse operational scenarios. The morphing co­figuration inves­ equilibrium and improving robustness and practicality without requir­
tigated involves variable-sweep wings, selected for their adaptability ing full system dynamics. Convergence to an optimal control strategy
to various flight conditions, enhancing aerodynamic efficiency across is theoretically substantiated, and a virtual simulation platform inte­
various speeds and altitudes. Control methodology, likely implemented grating diverse flight conditions validates the approach and serves as a
through a model predictive control (MPC) approach, is favored for its foundation for future research in helicopter vibration control [406].
ability to handle the dynamic, nonlinear characteristics of morphing air­ Ming et al. have developed a morphing strategy for aircraft based
craft systems, falling within the adaptive control methods relevant to on RL, utilizing the Soft Actor-Critic (SAC) algorithm. This strategy
aerospace applications [271]. involves adjusting wing sweep angles and V-tail dihedral to optimize
Yu et al. tackled the challenge of optimal control in helicopter vi­ lift, drag, and stability under varying flight conditions. The RL frame­
bration systems with Trailing-Edge Flaps (TEFs) by employing Adaptive work comprises an environment, agent, and reward function, with con­

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

troller stability ensured through the incremental backstepping (IBS) ap­ Ma et al. introduced an adaptive attitude control approach utilizing
proach. The SAC model improves the agent’s generalization capabilities a Deep Q-network (DQN) to dynamically adjust Linear Active Distur­
by incorporating entropy regularization, environmental noise, control bance Rejection Control (LADRC) parameters for morphing aircraft. This
command variability, and output momentum, which results in better process effectively addresses challenges associated with broad flight en­
decision-making for acceleration and deceleration tasks compared to the velopes and variable aerodynamic modes. A second-order pitch control
genetic algorithm (GA) and proximal policy optimization (PPO) strate­ model, integrating known linear terms and unknown uncertainties, was
gies [267]. developed alongside a LADRC controller equipped with a third-order ex­
tended state observer (ESO) to estimate system states and uncertainties,
4.2.5. DRL for morphing control enhancing overall robustness. The DQN training process is structured as
DRL significantly advances morphing systems by enabling real-time a Markov Decision Process (MDP), where LADRC control parameters
decision-making in uncertain conditions [14]. By dynamically adjust­ serve as actions within a compound controller framework. This ap­
ing control strategies based on continuous sensor data, DRL optimizes proach employed a longitudinal motion model that accounts for morph­
morphing actions to achieve goals such as enhancing energy efficiency ing effects and nonlinear pitch dynamics, enabling autonomous control
parameter adjustment across diverse flight states. Simulations exhibited
during long flights or increasing agility in evasive maneuvers [430,405].
that the DQN-based compound controller outperforms traditional fixed­
DRL systems, for example, can autonomously adjust wing co­figura­
parameter LADRC, offering greater adaptability and robustness in varied
tions to respond to varying aerodynamic forces, thus improving stability
conditions [402].
and reducing structural strain [428,431]. This approach surpasses tra­
Xue et al. proposed a wing kinematics-based controller, optimized by
ditional rule-based systems in flexibility and effectiveness, addressing
DRL, to stabilize bumblebees hovering under large disturbances. Using a
unforeseen variables more effectively.
hig­-fidelity OpenAI Gym environment that couples a CFD data-driven
Dai et al. proposed an adaptive control framework combining Deep
aerodynamic model with a 6-DoF flight dynamics model, the control
Supervision Net (DSN) and DRL, specifically using the Deep Determin­
policy—defined by a four-dimensional action space—is r­fined using
istic Policy Gradient (DDPG) algorithm, to address the challenges of
the Soft Actor-Critic (SAC) algorithm with automated entropy adjust­
controlling morphing trailing edges with high-dimensional, nonlinear
ment. Benchmark tests demonstrate the controller’s feasibility and ro­
dynamics. This approach reduces training costs and enables continuous,
bustness in rapidly stabilizing hovering flight under significant 6-DoF
real-time control by integrating DSN’s advanced aerodynamic prediction
disturbances [404].
capabilities with DRL’s optimization of control policies in off-design con­
ditions. By incorporating distributed loads, DSN achieves high accuracy
5. Issues and challenges considerations in morphing technology
in lift and pitching moment predictions, surpassing traditional surro­
research
gate models and enhancing sample efficiency through physics-informed
regularization. The DSN-trained surrogate model enables a real-time
This section addresses the main challenges in morphing technology
controller with DRL, yielding a 1.36% improvement in the lift-to-drag
applications, especially aerospace engineering. Table 7 systematically
ratio at the initial control stage and a 2.61% improvement at the termi­
categorizes the critical challenges associated with morphing technolo­
nal stage while maintaining pitching moment balance. These ben­fits
gies in aerospace applications, including structural integrity, aerody­
derive from initial reductions in wave and induced drag, followed by a namic performance, control complexity, energy efficiency, scalability,
marked reduction in induced drag, underscoring the framework’s poten­ and cost-effectiveness. It presents an overview of persistent techni­
tial to enhance aerodynamic efficiency in morphing applications [312]. cal and operational hurdles faced by researchers, offering a structured
Jiang et al. proposed a framework for autonomous shape decision­ framework for understanding and addressing these challenges. Refer­
making in morphing aircraft (MA) with adjustable wingspan and sweep ences related to each challenge are discussed comprehensively through­
angle, designed to handle the continuous nature of both state and ac­ out this section, ensuring readers gain a holistic understanding of the ef­
tion spaces. The model employs the Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient forts undertaken to overcome these issues. This table serves as a valuable
(DDPG) algorithm as a foundation for robust decision-making, enhanced resource for guiding future research and technological advancements in
by a DDPG with Task Class­fier (DDPGwTC) approach. This DDPGwTC morphing aerospace systems.
algorithm integrates an LSTM network to accelerate convergence and
optimize the aircraft’s shape adjustments across varying task environ­ • Structural integrity and durability
ments, thus improving adaptability. Simulation results show that the Maintaining structural integrity and durability under varying
DDPGwTC model converges faster than DDPG alone, enabling more ef­ aerodynamic loads is a significant challenge in morphing technology
fective autonomous shape optimization for the MA. A Takagi-Sugeno [19,42]. Repeated morphing cycles can induce fatigue and stress,
(T-S) fuzzy controller was used for further evaluation, co­firming the leading to material degradation or failure [432,98]. Designing ad­
proposed algorithm’s greater efficiency. Overall, findings validate that vanced smart materials is particularly complex due to the diverse
the DDPGwTC framework equips MA with optimal, autonomous mor­ possibilities and intricacies involved in adaptive shape-morphing
phing capabilities, supporting flexible operation and adaptability across systems [19,14,433]. Consequently, materials and mechanisms must
diverse environments [367]. exhibit high fatigue resistance, superior strength-to-weight ratios,
Guo et al. designed an integrated decision-making and control frame­ long-term stability, and performance [434--437,442,438].
work for morphing flight vehicles with variable-span wings in the glide • Control and actuators complexity
phase, uniting morphing strategy, attitude control, and real-time aero­ Developing reliable and efficient actuation and control systems
dynamic uncertainty estimation to enhance the synergy between morph­ for morphing structures presents a significant challenge [14,19]. Ac­
ing mechanisms and control design. Incorporating the deep determin­ tuators must be lightweight, powerful, and capable of precise control
istic policy gradient (DDPG) algorithm, this approach reduces depen­ to achieve the desired morphing co­figurations [443,40]. Current
dency on precise models by training with aerodynamic uncertainties, technologies, including pneumatic, hydraulic, and piezoelectric ac­
resulting in improved adaptability in decision-making. The framework tuators, often need more power-to-weight ratio and responsiveness.
optimizes a composite performance index focused on maximizing lift­ Addressing these challenges requires research on integrating multi­
to-drag ratio and r­fining attitude tracking accuracy, ensuring practical functional actuators and developing hybrid systems that leverage
implementation. Simulation results co­firm this framework’s effective­ the strengths of different technologies [19,444,445]. In addition,
ness, demonstrating superior flight performance, attitude control, and advanced control algorithms are essential for the real-time manage­
resilience to aerodynamic uncertainties [347]. ment of morphing structures [14,41]. They must integrate adaptive

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Table 7
Critical issues and challenges in morphing technology.

References Critical issues and challenges Suggestions and actions

[432,98,19,14,433-- Structural integrity and durability: fatigue and stress, material Utilizing advanced and smart materials.
442] degradation or failure, shape complexity, superior strength-to-weight
ratios, long-term stability, and performance
[14,19,443,40,444,445, Control and actuators complexity: weight, lack of precise control to Lightweight and powerful, employing pneumatic, hydraulic, and
41,24,446] obtain the desired control piezoelectric actuators, advanced control algorithms, and integrating
adaptive and robust strategies.
[14,41,24,447--449, Energy efficiency and storage: energy source and storage, longtime Energy-e˙icient solutions to minimize power consumption,
395,173,450,21] energy supply optimizing actuation mechanisms, efficient motors and piezoelectric
actuators, and solar system.
[76,451,108,21,452, Wight consideration: overweight and balancing, heavy components, ultralight materials, optimizing structural designs, integrating lighter
453,6,19] and conventional manufacturing components, and employing additive manufacturing
[41,454,452,247,455-- Integration with existing system: control systems, operational Modular morphing components, improving control methods, and
460] procedures, shape integration, and Insufficient knowledge about employing advanced materials.
existing systems
[41,38,461,40,42,19, Cost and scalability: initial investment, the high expense of Government support, academic project and industrial partnerships,
150,274,462,463] manufacturing components, fuel expenses, high labor cost advanced techniques and adaptive automation technology, and
optimized production.

and robust strategies to ensure performance under varying con­ 6. Future directions and opportunities
ditions [24,41,446]. These algorithms should account for changes
in aerodynamic loads, structural responses, and component inter­ The integration of morphing technologies is set to transform aerospace
actions, ensuring reliability and fault tolerance to prevent failures engineering, driven by the industry’s pursuit of greater efficiency and
[41,14,40]. performance [19]. Originally aimed at enhancing flutter suppression
• Energy harvesting and load alleviation, these technologies have demonstrated significant
Morphing mechanisms in aerospace systems often demand signif­ potential [461]. Manufacturing and precision engineering advances are
icant energy [14,41]. Developing energy-e˙icient solutions to mini­ paving the way for widespread adoption, potentially revolutionizing
wing designs and other critical aircraft components [464,465]. This
mize power consumption while maintaining performance is crucial
evolution promises adaptable, efficient, and safer aircraft, with dy­
[24,447]. Key strategies include optimizing actuation mechanisms
namic shape-changing capabilities becoming central to next-generation
for efficiency, utilizing advanced technologies such as efficient mo­
aerospace platforms [42,78]. Table 8 provides a comprehensive anal­
tors, piezoelectric actuators, shape memory alloys (SMAs), and im­
ysis of emerging trends and future directions in morphing technology
plementing energy recovery systems [448,449,395,173].
across various applications. It synthesizes key advancements in mate­
• Wight consideration
rials, structural designs, control strategies, and art­ficial intelligence
Integrating morphing abilities into aerospace structures often integration, offering a forward-looking perspective on the evolution of
increases overall weight, potentially offsetting aerodynamic ad­ morphing technologies. The table categorizes current research trends
vantages [76,451]. Balancing enhanced aerodynamic performance based on their potential impact on aerospace performance, energy ef­
with the additional weight is a significant challenge [108,21]. ficiency, and adaptability to dynamic operational environments. Addi­
Several strategies can address this issue, such as using ultralight tionally, it highlights challenges such as scalability, real-time control
materials, optimizing structural designs, integrating multiple func­ optimization, and the integration of smart materials with adaptive con­
tions into lighter components, and employing additive manufactur­ trol systems. This structured summary aims to guide future research and
ing [452,453,6,19]. These approaches enable the creation of com­ technological development in the field of morphing applications.
plex, lightweight morphing structures, offering new possibilities for
weight-e˙icient designs. 6.1. Future of AI in morphing techniques
• Integration with existing system
Integrating morphing technology into existing aerospace systems AI integration is poised to transform morphing technologies in
without major redesigns presents a significant challenge [41]. En­ aerospace engineering, creating systems that are more intelligent, ef­
suring compatibility with current aircraft designs, control systems, ficient, and adaptable [14,42]. As AI progresses, morphing structures
and operational procedures is essential [454,452,247]. This integra­ can achieve greater autonomy, efficiency, and responsiveness, enhanc­
tion necessitates a comprehensive understanding of existing systems ing flight performance and structural resilience. This section explores
pivotal areas where AI will drive advancements in morphing technolo­
and precise engineering. One potential solution is the development
gies and highlights key directions for future research.
of modular morphing components that can be retrofitted to cur­
rent platforms [455--457]. Adaptive control methods and advanced
• Enhanced Structural Adaptability and Real-Time Optimization
materials can facilitate integrating morphing technology within es­
Future research should focus on advancing AI architectures,
tablished frameworks [458,459,455,460].
particularly DL and RL, to enable real-time optimization of mor­
• Cost and scalability phing structures under variable aerodynamic conditions [311,348,
The high costs and scalability issues are significant barriers to 246,367]. RL-based models could dynamically adjust wing or fuse­
advancing morphing technologies [41,38]. The substantial initial lage morphing in response to changing airspeed, altitude, and at­
investment impedes widespread adoption in the aerospace sector. mospheric pressure to maximize aerodynamic efficiency [397,24,
Addressing this requires reducing manufacturing expenses through 258]. Additionally, multi-objective optimization algorithms can au­
innovative techniques and achieving economies of scale [461,40]. tonomously allow morphing structures to determine optimal con­
Leveraging additive manufacturing and automation technologies figurations across flight phases. At the same time, AI-driven digital
can optimize production, making morphing technologies more cost­ twins could simulate structural responses, providing predictive ad­
effective [462,463]. justments to enhance durability and minimize wear [42,560--563].

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

Table 8
Summaries of Future Directions and Strategic Recommendations for Morphing Technologies.

References System/domain Future Directions and Recommendations

[246,14,466,258,467,24,41,42,459,468--477,419,478] AI Future work should focus on real-time optimization for aerodynamic

efficiency using RL and DL, intelligent control for lifespan extension,
AI-driven self-healing materials, XAI for transparency, FL for secure
collaboration, and AI-based safety for risk reduction.
[479--489,303,490] 5G/6G networks 5G/6G networks enable real-time control and adaptive morphing to
enhance aerodynamic efficiency and structural reliability, and future
work should focus on leveraging these networks to improve aerospace
safety and performance.
[42,491--493,486,494--499] IoT-WSNs Future research should integrate IoT, WSNs, and AI in aerospace
morphing systems to enable real-time monitoring, predictive
maintenance, and efficient control, advancing adaptable, autonomous
aircraft for improved safety, performance, and sustainability.
[500--506,414] Blockchain Future research should investigate blockchain for securing aerospace
morphing systems, ensuring data transparency, integrity, and
tamper-proof documentation while reducing risks from centralized
data management.
[21,507,304,42,508--511,153,148,512--514] Renewable Energy Future research should focus on integrating renewable energy sources
such as solar cells and energy-harvesting materials into morphing
systems to reduce energy demands, enable dynamic shape
adjustments, and support extended missions through advanced
storage solutions.
[515--528,450,529--558,19,559] Cross-Sector Morphing Applications Morphing technologies enable adaptive functionality across sectors:
agricultural machinery optimizes performance in varying conditions,
wind turbines and solar panels adjust for energy efficiency, and
morphing tires enhance vehicle safety. In healthcare, morphing
devices improve procedural precision, while adaptive manufacturing
(AM) increases production flexibility. Aerospace and defense
applications leverage morphing components for enhanced
adaptability, maneuverability, and stealth.

• Intelligent Control Systems and Predictive Maintenance Safety is crucial in morphing technology, and AI can enhance
Developing intelligent control systems that leverage AI to man­ safety protocols by assessing real-time risks associated with morph­
age complex morphing mechanisms is essential [246,14,466]. ANN, ing components [42,477]. Future research should develop robust ML
DL, and RL algorithms could analyze performance data to facilitate frameworks to assess structural fatigue, instability, and other risks,
predictive maintenance, extending the lifespan of morphing compo­ guiding adjustments that improve safety and resilience across flight
nents and preventing failures [258,467,24]. Research could further conditions [419,478].
explore hybrid AI frameworks that integrate sensor data to provide
a comprehensive view of system health and operational efficiency 6.2. Optimizing aerospace morphing with 5G/6G networks
[14,41,42,459].
• Advanced Materials and Autonomous Adaptation Introducing 5G and emerging 6G networks can significantly advance
AI in materials science can enable smart materials to au­ morphing technology by enabling ultra-low latency, high bandwidth,
tonomously respond to environmental conditions, such as tem­ and highly reliable connectivity [479,480]. These capabilities allow for
perature and pressure variations [468--470]. Research should pri­ real-time communication and control of adaptive structures, facilitating
oritize AI-guided materials engineering to create self-healing and rapid shape adjustments in response to environmental changes [483--
self-reinforcing materials, enhancing structural integrity in extreme 485,489]. Integrating 5G/6G can enhance the safety and performance
conditions. This approach could lead to morphing surfaces with of morphing technologies in aerospace applications [303,490].
adaptive microstructures, reducing reliance on complex mechani­
cal systems while improving structural flexibility [41,471]. 6.3. IoT and WSN integration in morphing systems
• Explainable AI (XAI) for Enhanced Transparency and Trust
As morphing structures gain autonomy, transparency in AI­ Integrating IoT and wireless sensor networks (WSNs) into aerospace
driven decisions becomes increasingly critical [472,473]. Employ­ morphing systems represents a crucial step toward adaptable and re­
ing Explainable AI (XAI) techniques will clarify the decision-making silient structures. Sensors embedded throughout morphing systems
processes underlying morphing adjustments, fostering trust between can continuously monitor stress, strain, temperature, and aerodynamic
human operators and AI in aerospace applications. Future work forces, enabling dynamic adaptation for optimal performance [42,491].
could focus on developing interpretable models to ensure morph­ IoT-driven predictive maintenance is another priority, as it can increase
ing decisions are transparent and dependable [474]. reliability and lifespan in morphing systems. Future research should
• Federated Learning (FL) for Collaborative and Distributed Sys­ focus on developing lightweight, energy-e˙icient WSNs that meet the
tems demands of complex morphing systems, especially in UAV applications
Federated Learning (FL) offers a promising approach for col­ [496,497].
laborative aerospace applications, enabling models to be trained
across decentralized devices without sharing raw data [475,476]. 6.4. Securing aerospace morphing with blockchain
This approach allows morphing systems to share insights across mul­
tiple aircraft while preserving data privacy and security, supporting Blockchain technology offers a solution for securing morphing sys­
industry-wide advancements in morphing technology through col­ tems by enhancing data transparency, security, and integrity. For mor­
laborative analysis across diverse environments. phing systems involving intricate data exchanges, blockchain’s tamper­
• AI-Driven Safety and Risk Assessment resistant ledger is ben­ficial in collaborative settings, ensuring precise

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

Fig. 13. Morphing techniques in various sectors a) Embedded shape morphing can enable morphologically adaptive robots [576], b)Variable-stiffness–morphing wheel
[577], c) Schematic illustration of automated self-solar-tracking using a shape-transforming 2D tessellated solar cell array over a day, showcasing the reversible shape
transformation mechanism driven by heat transfer from sunlight-induced surface heating [578], d) Tractor with an implement on a hard surface [579].

documentation of mod­fications [500--503]. Its decentralized frame­ as porous leaf temperature sensors allow tracking temperature fluctua­
work mitigates risks associated with central data management, strength­ tions while permitting gas exchange, thus minimizing interference with
ening security in interconnected aerospace systems. Further research plant respiration [520]. Such developments align closely with sustain­
should explore blockchain’s role in verifying i­-flight adjustments to able agriculture objectives, enabling farmers to optimize resource use
enhance reliability and safety. and reduce operational costs.

6.5. Enhancing morphing technologies with renewable energy 6.6.2. Wind turbines with morphing blades
The performance of wind turbines as a basis of sustainable energy
Integrating renewable energy sources into morphing systems can infrastructure depends on their ability to capture wind energy under
improve sustainability in aerospace by addressing the high energy varying conditions efficiently [522,523]. Morphing blade technology,
demands of traditional morphing mechanisms [304,42]. Innovations derived from aerospace innovations, allows turbines to modify blade
in renewable energy, such as solar cells [564], piezoelectric materi­ shapes in real-time to respond to wind speed and direction changes
als [84], and energy-harvesting solutions [565,512], offer a path to [524]. During high wind speeds, blades can adopt a streamlined shape to
energy-e˙icient morphing systems. Solar-powered morphing wings, for reduce aerodynamic stress and prevent damage, while at lower speeds,
instance, could adjust shape dynamically to maximize energy capture they can expand to capture more wind energy [525,526]. This adapt­
and minimize drag [21,510,511]. Coupling renewable sources with ad­ ability maximizes energy production and extends turbine lifespan by
vanced energy storage systems could also support continuous operation reducing mechanical wear [527].
in energy-limited environments, enhancing the feasibility of morphing
technologies for extended missions [153,148]. 6.6.3. Solar panel alignment
Solar energy systems also ben­fit from integrating morphing tech­
6.6. Morphing applications across multiple sectors nologies [528,450]. Unlike traditional fixed solar panels, morphing pan­
els can dynamically adjust their orientation to track the sun’s movement
Though initially rooted in aerospace, morphing technologies have more accurately throughout the day [529--531]. This real-time adjust­
broadened their applications across numerous other fields, as shown ment ensures optimal positioning for maximum solar energy capture,
in Fig. 13 [77,529]. These innovations are now instrumental in ad­ significantly boosting overall energy yield and enhancing the viability
vancing agriculture [566,520], renewable energy [153,529], road ve­ of solar power as an efficient renewable energy source.
hicle and automobiles [567,568], medical imaging and surgical de­
vices [569,544], advanced manufacturing [570,571], space exploration 6.6.4. Morphing tires in road transport
[572,573], and defense industry [574,575]. An innovative application within the automotive sector is the mor­
phing tires. [532]. Drawing inspiration from aerospace materials, these
6.6.1. Smart agriculture tires can alter their tread patterns to improve traction on surfaces such
Morphing technology can emerge as a transformative force in agri­ as snow, mud, or gravel [533,534]. For example, in icy conditions, the
culture, enhancing farming operations’ adaptability, efficiency, and sus­ tires can expand their surface area to increase grip, reducing the risk of
tainability. By integrating morphing components into traditional ma­ skidding and improving vehicle safety [535--537]. This innovation has
chinery such as tractors and harvesters, these systems can dynamically the potential to transform vehicle performance across diverse terrains,
adjust to varying soil conditions, crops, and terrains [515--517]. For in­ offering drivers enhanced control and safety under challenging condi­
stance, tractors with adaptive plow blades optimize their co­figuration tions [532].
according to soil hardness, maximizing plowing effectiveness while re­
ducing energy consumption and environmental impact [518,519]. Fur­ 6.6.5. Medical and surgical devices
thermore, advancements in flexible agricultural sensors, designed to In healthcare, morphing structures hold the potential to revolution­
conform to the unique shapes of plants, enable real-time monitoring of ize adaptive devices and wearable technologies by providing precise,
plant health and environmental conditions [520,521]. Innovations such body-conforming solutions [538,539]. Morphing stents [540] in car­

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

diovascular interventions dynamically adjust their size to sustain op­ 6.7. Morphing technology in future aerospace areas
timal blood flow, potentially enhancing long-term procedural outcomes
[541--543]. This technology also enables surgical robots to transform Recent advancements in morphing technologies have profoundly in­
their tools’ shapes during procedures, facilitating access to challenging fluenced aerospace engineering, particularly in structural design, aero­
anatomical areas and reducing trauma to surrounding tissues [544,545]. dynamics, and control systems. As highlighted in Table 2, 3, and 4,
For instance, a robotic device could transition from a scalpel to a grasper research output in this field experienced a significant cumulative growth
within a single, multifunctional tool, diminishing the need for multi­ of over 70% from 2020 to 2023, underlining its rising prominence.
ple surgical entry points and enhancing procedural efficiency and pa­ Moreover, a modest 2.4% increase in publications from 2022 to 2023,
tient safety [546--548]. Such adaptability in medical devices can trans­ as shown in Fig. 14, further emphasizes the growing focus on enhancing
late into smoother operational control and accelerated patient recovery adaptability and efficiency in aerospace systems. However, preliminary
[549,550]. data for 2024 suggests a marginal decline in publication numbers com­
pared to 2023. This decline should be interpreted cautiously, as ongoing
6.6.6. Adaptive Manufacturing systems (AM) studies may revise these figures by the year-end. It is also logical that
Adaptive Manufacturing (AM), often called morphing-inspired or 3D this apparent decrease r­flects a temporary shift in research priorities
printing manufacturing systems [551], facilitates dynamic shape adap­ toward complementary emerging technologies. A detailed analysis in
tation, significantly reducing dependency on specialized tools, enhanc­ the coming months will provide deeper insights into these dynamics
ing system versatility, and optimizing operational efficiency. Robotic and their implications for the evolution of morphing technologies in
systems equipped with morphing grippers can manage a wide range of aerospace.
materials without requiring tool changes, minimizing downtime and re­ In addition, as illustrated in Table 5 and 6, research integrating AI
ducing operational costs while improving responsiveness to production within morphing technologies has demonstrated exceptional growth,
demands [552,553]. In food manufacturing, AM-driven shape morph­ with an overall increase exceeding 115% between 2020 and 2023. This
ing affects consumer perception through improvements in visual appeal, trend highlights AI’s transformative role in aerospace innovation. No­
texture, and packaging compatibility [554,555]. Furthermore, in the tably, a 13.2% rise in AI-focused studies from 2022 to 2023, as shown
textile industry, 3D and 4D printing advances enabled by AM offer cost­ in Fig. 15 indicates its expanding adoption for optimizing morphing pro­
effective, sustainable, and customizable production options at smaller cesses. Preliminary 2024 data reveals a further 23.3% surge in research
scales. However, AM applications in textiles are still developing, with outputs compared to 2023, reaffirming the sustained momentum in AI­
scalability and technological maturity posing challenges [551]. driven morphing advancements.
Furthermore, Fig. 16 illustrates the distribution of publications by
model type, revealing pivotal trends in computational methodologies.
6.6.7. Morphing spacecraft components
ANN leads the field, accounting for approximately 35% of total publi­
Spacecraft are increasingly designed with morphing components that
cations, r­flecting their continued relevance in optimization tasks. DL,
can adjust their shape and function during different mission phases
contributing 24%, has grown rapidly due to its applicability to com­
[556]. A spacecraft might employ morphing wings that expand during
plex aerodynamic challenges. RL and DRL collectively account for nearly
atmospheric entry to increase stability, then retract during space flight
34% of the publications, with DRL dominating, highlighting its critical
to reduce drag. Similarly, morphing solar panels can be deployed and
role in autonomous and adaptive control systems. Meanwhile, ML meth­
adjusted to optimize energy capture as the spacecraft follows different
ods represent 12%, maintaining a foundational presence despite being
orbital paths [529].
overshadowed by advanced techniques.
Moreover, Fig. 17 emphasizes the evolution of computational models
6.6.8. Satellite antennas over time. ANN has consistently comprised 30--40% of annual publica­
Satellites with morphing antennas can dynamically alter their shape tions, attesting to their reliability in morphing optimization. However,
and orientation to enhance communication efficiency [557]. The shape the share of DL has risen significantly, increasing from approximately
morphing antenna (ShMoA) utilizes temperature-sensitive shape mem­ 5% in 2020 to over 25% in 2024. This growth underscores DL’s expand­
ory alloys (SMA) for dynamic alterations through precise thermal ing role in tackling complex morphing challenges requiring advanced
control, functioning as both an adaptable radio frequency (RF) an­ modeling and large datasets. RL and DRL have also gained traction,
tenna and a multi-level temperature sensor, akin to the thermorecep­ growing from an initial contribution of 15--20% to nearly 35% of pub­
tor mechanisms in insect antennae [557]. A 4D-printed multimaterial lications in 2024. The dominance of DRL highlights the increasing de­
Miura origami structure enhances rigidity and stability through high­ mand for autonomous systems capable of addressing the dynamic re­
temperature durable cores, while shape memory polymer hinges allow quirements of morphing tasks.
for shape morphing [558]. The shift from traditional methodologies such as ANN and ML to ad­
vanced approaches such as DL and DRL aligns with improvements in
6.6.9. Defense and military applications computational capabilities and the growing complexity of aerodynamic
Morphing technologies have been adopted in defense to enhance challenges. These trends r­flect the evolving landscape of morphing
military system performance, offering substantial advantages in modern technologies and their integration with AI, paving the way for more
warfare [19]. A morphing fighter jet can extend its wings for enhanced adaptive and efficient aerospace systems.
maneuverability during close-range combat and retract them for high­
speed interception. This adaptability boosts the aircraft’s performance 7. Conclusion
across diverse combat scenarios, from air superiority missions to ground
support operations. Besides, morphing technologies are also used to Integrating morphing technologies in aerospace has revolution­
develop advanced camo­flage and stealth systems for military applica­ ized structural adaptability, aerodynamics, and control, particularly for
tions [559]. Inspired by natural and aerospace morphing mechanisms, UAVs and advanced aircraft. Morphing systems enhance performance
these systems can alter their appearance and surface properties to blend and flexibility by enabling platforms to adapt to diverse flight condi­
into different environments or evade detection. A morphing vehicle can tions dynamically. Incorporating AI into these frameworks has further
change its surface texture and color to match its surroundings, reducing advanced this paradigm, enabling the development of sophisticated
its visibility to enemy forces. Similarly, morphing materials with vari­ optimization algorithms for aerodynamics, structural control, and en­
able radar-absorbing properties can enhance the stealth capabilities of ergy efficiency. AI methodologies, including neural networks, machine
military assets, making them harder for radar systems to detect. learning, deep learning, reinforcement learning, and deep reinforcement

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M.N. Mowla, D. Asadi, T. Durhasan et al. Aerospace Science and Technology 161 (2025) 110102

Fig. 14. Evolution of morphing techniques in structures, aerodynamics, and control systems for aerospace applications.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Md. Najmul Mowla: Writing -- review & editing, Writing -- origi­

nal draft, Visualization, Validation, Methodology, Investigation, Formal
analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Davood Asadi: Writing --
review & editing, Writing -- original draft, Visualization, Validation, Su­
pervision, Resources, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Con­
ceptualization. Tahir Durhasan: Writing -- review & editing, Visualiza­
tion, Validation, Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Fund­
ing acquisition, Data curation, Conceptualization. Javad Rashid Ja­
fari: Visualization, Data curation, Conceptualization. Mohammadreza
Amoozgar: Writing -- review & editing, Investigation, Conceptualiza­
tion.

Ethics of approval

All the results presented in this study have been developed under the
Fig. 15. Morphing advancements integrated with aerodynamic optimization and strictest ethical guidelines.
AI-driven control systems.
Funding

This research is supported by the Scientific and Technological Re­

learning, have demonstrated exceptional capabilities in achieving real­
search Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) under the TÜBİTAK 1001 program,
time optimization and control, surpassing the limitations of traditional
with project number 223M340.
approaches.
This study comprehensively reviews recent advancements in morph­
Declaration of competing interest
ing technologies, focusing on AI-driven innovations in materials, aero­
dynamics, and control systems developed between 2020 and 2024. Inte­
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
grating AI into morphing systems represents a transformative milestone,
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to i­fluence
achieving unprecedented adaptability and efficiency. Emerging intelli­
the work reported in this paper.
gent systems that combine advanced materials with AI-powered control
strategies show significant promise in improving the performance of
Data availability
morphing platforms.
Furthermore, this review ident­fies critical gaps, particularly in inte­
No data was used for the research described in the article.
grating AI with smart materials and actuation systems required for fully
operational morphing platforms. Current challenges in this domain are
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