1.

1 Introduction
Energy is defined as capacity to produce an effect to do work. Energy has been an important
component to meet the day to day needs of human beings. Human society require increasing
amount of energy for industrial, commercial, domestic, agriculture, and transport uses. Different
forms of energy are defined as primary and secondary energy, commercial and noncommercial
energy, renewable and nonrenewable energy.

1.1.1 Primary and Secondary energy-

Primary energy refers to all types of energy extracted or captured directly from natural resources.
Primary energy can be further divided into two parts namely renewable and non renewable
energy.

Primary energy is transformed into more convenient form of energy such as electricity, steam
etc. these form of energy are called secondary energy

1.1.2 Commercial and Noncommercial energy-

Energy that is available in the market for a definite price is known as commercial energy. The
most important forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal, refined petroleum products and
natural gas.

Any kind of energy which is sourced within a community and its surrounding area, and which is
not normally treated in the commercial market is termed as noncommercial energy such as
firewood, cattle dung, agriculture waste etc.

1.1.3 Renewable and nonrenewable energy-

Renewable energy is obtained from natural sources. These resources can be used to produce
energy again and again eg. Solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy etc.
Non renewable resources cannot be replaced once they are used eg. Coal, oil, gas etc. these
energy resources are limited and would be exhausted within prescribed period of time.

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1.2 Solar energy and solar radiation-
The earth receives the solar energy in the form of solar radiation. These radiations comprising of
ultra-violet, visible and infrared radiation. The amount of solar radiation that reaches any given
location is dependent on several factors like geographic location, time of day, season, land scope
and local weather. Because the earth is round, the sun rays strike the earth surface at different
angles (ranging from 0° to 90°). When sun rays are vertical, the earth’s surface gets maximum
possible energy.

Most of the part of India receives 4 to 7 kWh of solar radiation per square meter per day. India
receives solar energy equivalent more than 5000 trillion kWh per year.

Solar radiation (Direct, diffuse and total solar radiation):

Fig. 1.1 Solar radiation

The solar radiation that reaches the surface of the earth without being diffused is called direct
beam solar radiation. It is measured by instrument named as pyrheliometer.

As sun light passes through the atmosphere, some part of it is absorbed, scattered and reflected
by air molecule, water vapours, clouds, dust and pollutants. This is called diffuse solar radiation.
The diffuse solar radiation does not have unique path.

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The sum of the direct and diffuse solar radiations is called total radiation or global solar
radiation. Pyranometer is used for measuring the total radiation.

Fig.1.2 Direct, diffuse and total solar radiation

If,
Rb- Beam Radiation (direct solar radiation)
Rd- Diffuse Radiation (solar radiation after diffusion)
Rr- Reflected radiation (solar radiation after reflection from surface)
Rt- Total solar radiation on tilted surface
Then,
Rt = Rb + Rd + Rr --------------- (1.1)

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1.3 Sun – Earth angles
1.3.1 Latitude (ф)
The latitude of a location is the angle made by the radial line joining the location to the centre of
the earth with the projection of the line on the equatorial plane.
-90° ≤ ф ≤ +90°

Fig. 1.3 Latitude angle

1.3.2 Declination (δ)
The declination angle is the angle made by the line joining the centre of the sun and the earth
with its projection on equatorial plane.
The declination angle varies from a maximum value of +23.45° on June 21 to a minimum value
of -23.45 on December 21.

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 --------------- (1.2)

(Where, n- number of days)

δ< 0 – for winters in northern hemisphere
δ> 0 – for summer in northern hemisphere
Example1: Calculate declination angle for March 22 in a non-leap year.
Solution: On March 22, n= 31 (January) + 28 (February) + 22 (22nd march)
n= 81 days

So,
=0

On march 22 and September 22, the declination is zero so these days are called equinoxial day
Example2: Calculate declination angle for March 31 in a leap year.
Solution: On March 22, n= 31 (January) + 29 (February) + 31 (31st march)
n= 91 days

So,
= 4.016°

1.3.3 Hour angle (ω)

It is the angle through which the earth must be rotated to bring the meridian of the plane directly
under the sun

Fig. 1.4 Hour angle

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Because it is 24 hours for 360° of rotation, so each one hour correspond to 15°
ω = 15 (ST – 12) ---------------- (1.3)
Where, ST – solar time
Example3: Calculate the hour angle at 02:30 PM.
Solution: ω = 15 (ST – 12)
ω = 15 (14.5 – 12) = 37.5°

1.3.4 Altitude Angle (α) and Zenith angle (θZ)

Altitude angle is the angle between the incident sun ray and the projection of sun’s rays on the
horizontal plane.
Zenith angle is the complementary angle of sun’s altitude angle
θZ= 90° - α -------------------- (1.4)

zenith angle is the angle between the incident sun ray and the perpendicular line to the horizontal
plane.
Cos θZ = Sin ф Sin δ + Cos ф Cos δ Cos ω ---------------- (1.5)

Fig.1.5 Altitude angle and Zenith angle

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1.3.5 Surface azimuth angle (γ) and solar azimuth angle (γS)
Consider a surface with slope “β”. Draw a outer normal to this surface and take a projection of
normal on horizontal plane.

Surface azimuth angle is the angle between line due south and the projection of normal to the
surface on horizontal plane.

Solar azimuth angle is the angle between line due south and the projection of sun rays on
horizontal plane.
θ ф δ
------------------------------ (1.6)

Fig.1.6 surface azimuth angle and solar azimuth angle

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Example 4: Calculate the sun’s altitude and azimuth angle at 9 AM solar time on September 1st
at latitude of 23°N.
Solution: ф=23°, n= 244 days
ω= 15(9 – 12) = 45°

= 7.724°

Cos θZ = Sin (23°) Sin (7.724°) + Cos (23°) Cos (7.724°) Cos (45°)
θZ = 45.87°

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2.1 Introduction
The Sun is most prominent source of energy in our system. The source of solar energy is process
of thermonuclear fusion in the sun’s core. This energy is radiated from sun in all directions and a
fraction of this energy is reaches to the earth.

The sun’s outer visible layer is called the photosphere and has a temperature of about 6000°C.
Above the photosphere there is a transparent layer of gases known as chromospheres. The light
emitted by the chromospheres is of short wave length. Finally there is the corona. The corona is
the outer part of the sun’s atmosphere. in this region, prominence appear. Prominence is
immense clouds of glowing gas that erupt from upper chromospheres. The corona can only be
seen during total solar eclipse.

2.2 Solar thermal energy application

Solar thermal energy is used for water heating, space heating, electric power generation, solar
cooker for cooking of food etc.

2.2.1 Flat plate solar collector

Solar collector absorbs the incident solar radiation and converts it to the useful heat which is use
for heating a collector fluid such as water, oil or air.
Flat plate collector are used where temperature below 100°C are required.

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The important parts of flat plate collectors are shown below
Transparent cover Absorber plate

Thermal insulation series of tubes

(Heat transfer medium)

Fig. 2.1 Flat plate solar collector

Construction
Transparent Cover-

This allows solar energy to pass through, but reduces the heat loss examples are tempered glass,
transparent plastic materials etc
Absorber plate-
Plate is blackened in order to absorb the maximum amount of solar radiations.

The absorber consists of a thin sheet. This sheet is made of conductor material (aluminum, steel,
copper etc.) because the metal is a good conductor of heat. Black coating is applied to this
conductor / metal plate in order to absorb the maximum amount of solar radiations.

Copper is best material for absorber plate because it has high thermal conductivity, adequate
tensile strength and good corrosion resistance.
Series of tubes-
The absorber plate with several parallel tubes is fabricated from copper tube and sheet by soft
soldering.

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Heat transport fluid (Water)-

To remove heat from the absorber, fluid is usually circulated through tubes to transfer heat from
the absorber to an insulated water tank.
Thermal insulation-

It is used to provide insulation on the sides and bottom so as to prevent losses and thereby attain
high temperatures. Examples of thermal insulations are crown white wool, glass wool, calcium
silicate etc.

Working-
When solar radiation passes through the transparent cover and incident on blackened absorber
surface of high absorptivity, a large portion of this energy is absorbed by the plate and then
transferred to the fluid (Air, Water etc)

Thermal insulation is used to reduce conduction losses and transparent cover is used to reduce
convection losses.

Note – when air is used as heat transport fluid, it is flat plate air collector which is used for space
heating (solar space heater) and when liquid is used as heat transport fluid, it is flat plate liquid
collector which is used for water heating (solar water heater)

2.2.1 (a) Solar flat plate collector type water heating system-

Fig. 2.2 Solar water heater

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Cold water is pumped to the flat plate collector, collector absorbs the heat by solar radiation and
heated water is stored in the tank.

2.2.1 (b) Solar flat plate collector type space heating system-

Fig. 2.3 Solar space heater

Water is heated by incident solar radiation on flat plate collector. This heated water is collected
in a tank.
The energy is transferred to the air circulating in the house by water to air heat exchanger.

2.2.2 Concentrating collectors / focusing collectors (Cylindrical trough Solar collector)

Focusing collector has less heat loss so they operate at higher temperature. Flat plate collectors
operate on temperature about 100°C in summer and 40°C in winter. So, in order to increase the
temperature range of collectors, focusing of collectors are used.

In focusing collectors, a parabolic mirror is used. The sun rays are focused on the focal point of
the mirror by reflection from its surface.

A tube is placed along the focal line of the mirror and fluid is circulated through the tube this
fluid absorb the heat from reflected solar radiation.

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 Fig. 2.4 focusing of collector
With these collectors, temperature of 200°C - 300°C or above may be obtained. In some
mechanism, seasonal tracking of sun is also provided to get the maximum heat from sun light.
The focusing collectors can have two arrangements namely cylindrical parabolic concentrator
(100°C < T < 200°C) and parabolic mirror arrays (T > 200°C)
The concentrator increases the intensity of solar radiation by a concentration ratio “C”
C = (Aa / Ab) ---------------------------- (2.1)
Aa - Aperture area, Ab - Absorber area

The C value of 20 to 100 can be achieved by a linear concentrator such as parabolic trough
concentrator and the C value of 100 to 4000 can be achieved by a point focus concentrator such
as parabolic dish.

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 Fig. 2.5 Different types of concentrating / focusing collectors

Materials for concentrators-

Reflector-

Reflector should have high reflectivity. Therefore mirror glass may be used. Glass is the most
durable with low iron content so it is a good reflector. Aluminium and silver are also good
reflecting surface. Plastics are also used as reflector now days.
Receiving material-

Glass and transparent plastic films are generally used as cover material for receivers. Glass
should have low iron content to reduce absorption by it.

Coatings are required to have strong solar absorptivity. Weather resistance, stability at high
temperature Examples are black paints, black chrome etc.

2.2.3 Solar thermal power plant-

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In solar thermal power plants, the concentrating collectors are used for generation of electricity.
There are two types of solar thermal power plants namely solar distributed collector power plant
and solar central receiver power plant.

2.2.3 (a) Solar distributed collector power plants-

Fig. 2.6 Solar distributed collector electric power plant

In this type of power plants, collectors are used. Collectors may be parabolic trough unit with
line focus or parabolidal dishes with centre focus.

The flat plate collectors are not used in power plants because there efficiency is very poor and
operating temperature is very low.

Water is heated by the collector and stored in the storage tank. This heated water is converted
into steam by boiler and steam is provided to turbine to make it run. This turbine is coupled with
generator so rotation of turbine makes generator to rotate hence electricity is generated.
The steam is condensed in the condenser and feed water is provided to boiler for reuse.

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2.2.3 (b) Solar central receiver power plant-

Fig. 2.7 Solar central receiver electrical power plant

In this system, a large number of linear reflectors are used. These are called heliostat. Heliostat
focus on the central receiver as shown in the figure

When solar radiations fall on heliostat, sun rays after getting reflected from the heliostat are
focused on the boiler.

The output of boiler is high temperature steam which is provided to the turbine. This will rotate
turbine. As the generator is also coupled with the turbine so with the rotation of turbine,
generator will also rotate and electricity will produce.

2.3 Thermal energy storage for solar heating and cooling-

Thermal energy storage is essential for both domestic water and space heating applications.
Thermal energy can be stored in well insulated fluids or solids.

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There are two ways for thermal energy storage namely sensible heat storage and latent heat
storage.

2.3.1 Sensible heat storage-

In sensible heat storage the temperature of the medium changes during charging and discharging
of the storage
In this, there is no change in phase. The basic equation for energy storage is given by
Q = mcpΔT -------------------------------- (2.2)
Where
Q- Total thermal capacity
m- Mass of storage medium
cp- Specific heat
Heat stored per unit volume (Q/Vs) is given by

------------------------------------ (2.3)

Where Vs is the volume of the given storage container

Water is generally used for storing thermal energy at low temperature. Heat transfer oils are used
in sensible heat storage system for temperature range 100 - 300°C

Solid materials like rocks, metals, concrete, sand and bricks etc. are also used for thermal
storage.

Water is also used as heat transfer fluid for heat flow to and from (but the temperature range is
limited)

2.3.2 Latent heat storage-

In latent heat storage, the temperature of the medium remains more or less constant, since it
undergoes a phase transformation ie. The transition from solid to liquid or liquid to vapour

In a latent heat storage system, the heat is stored in a material when it melts and heat is extracted
from material when it freezes example of such materials are paraffin wax, calcium chloride
hexahydrate, magnesium nitrate hexahydrate, ice, sodium hydroxide etc.

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For latent heat storage charging, phase transition solid- liquid (melting) is most suitable and for
storage discharging, liquid- solid (solidification) is most suitable.
The basic equation for energy storage is given by
Q= m [Cs(tm – tmin) + hm + CL(tmax – tm)] joule ----------------------------------(2.4)
Where
m- Mass of phase change material (PCM) storage medium
Cs- Specific heat of PCM – solid state (J/KgK)
CL- Specific heat of PCM – liquid state (J/KgK)
hm – Specific melting enthalpy of PCM storage medium (J/Kg)
tmin- Minimum storage temperature (°C)
tmax- maximum storage temperature (°C)
tm- Melting temperature of PCM storage medium (°C)
the latent heat storage charging process comprises three stages-
First stage is heating of the phase change material in solid state

Second stage is melting of phase change material at constant temperature for pure substance or in
the range of temperatures for mixed composition

Third stage involve heating of the molten phase change material to the maximum temperature
(tmax)

2.4 Limitations of Solar thermal energy

 Low energy density 0.1 to 1 KW/ m2

 Large area is required to collect solar thermal energy
 Direction of rays changes continuously with time
 Energy not available during night and during clouds
 Energy storage is essential
 It has high cost
 Solar central power plants in MW range are not economical

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