Solar Energy

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 Why Solar Energy?
• The sun is a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter with a diameter of 1.39 ×109 m
• The sun is about 1.5×108 km away from earth, so, because thermal radiation travels with the speed of
light in vacuum (about 300,000 km/s), after leaving the sun solar energy reaches our planet in 8 min
and 20 s.

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 Solar Energy?
• Large, inexhaustible source of energy
• Power from the Sun on the Earth = 1.8 x 1011 MW.
• Environmentally clean source of energy
• Free and available in the adequate quantity
• Dilute source of energy, as the solar radiation flux available rarely exceeds the 1 kW/m2 and the
total radiation over a day is at best about 7 kW/m2 in the hottest region on the earth.
• Low values for the technological utilization.
• Large collecting areas are required which results in excessive costs.
• Availability varies widely with the time.
• Need for storages also adds significantly to the cost.
• Real challenge is of an economic nature.
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 SOLAR GEOMETRY

Irradiance (W/m2): The rate at which radiant energy is incident on a surface, per unit area of surface
per second. The symbol G is used for solar irradiance, with appropriate subscripts for beam, diffuse, or
spectral radiation.
Irradiation or Radiant Exposure (J/m2): The incident energy per unit area on a surface, found by
integration over a specified time, usually an hour or a day.
• Insolation is a term applying specifically to solar energy irradiation.
• The symbol H is used for insolation for a day.
• The symbol I is used for insolation for an hour (or other period if specified).
• The symbols H and I can represent beam, diffuse, or total and can be on surface of any orientation.
 SOLAR GEOMETRY

• Subscripts on ‘G’, ‘H’, and ‘I’ are as follows:

• o refers to radiation above the earth's atmosphere, referred to as extraterrestrial radiation;
• b and d refer to beam and diffuse radiation;
• T and n refer to radiation on a tilted plane and on a plane normal to the direction of
propagation, respectively.
• If neither ‘T’ nor ‘n’ appear, the radiation is on a horizontal plane.
• Radiosity (W/m2):The radiation at which radiant energy leaves a surface, per unit are by combined
emission, reflection, and transmission.
• Emissive Power (W/m2):The rate at which radiant energy leaves a surface per unit area, by
emission only.
• If θ is the angle between an incident beam, of flux Ibn and the normal to a plane surface, then the
equivalent flux falling normal to the surface is given by Ibncosθ.
 SOLAR GEOMETRY

• Earth as it rotates in 24 h about its own axis, which

defines the points of the north and south poles N and S.
• The axis of the poles is normal to the earth’s equatorial
plane. C is the centre of the Earth.
• The point P on the Earth’s surface is determined by its
latitude ϕ and longitude 𝜓.
• Latitude (Φ): It is the vertical angle between the line
joining that point of location to the centre of the
earth and its projection on the equatorial plane.
• Latitude is defined positive for points north of the
equator, negative south of the equator.

Figure: Definition sketch for latitude ϕ and

longitude 𝜓
 SOLAR GEOMETRY

• Longitude: The angular distance between a point on

any meridian and the prime meridian at Greenwich.
• By international agreement. longitude is measured
positive eastwards from Greenwich, England.
• The vertical north–south plane through P is the local
meridional plane.
• E and G are the points on the equator having the same
longitude as P and Greenwich respectively.

Figure: Definition sketch for latitude ϕ and

longitude 𝜓
 SOLAR GEOMETRY

Declination Angle (𝜹):

The angular position of the Sun at solar noon (i.e., when the
Sun is on the local meridian) with respect to the plane of
the equator, north positive;
-23.45° ≤ δ ≤ 23.45°
360
𝛿 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 = 23.45 sin (284 + 𝑛)
365
 SOLAR GEOMETRY

Declination Angle (𝜹):

𝛿 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
360
= 23.45 sin (284 + 𝑛)
365

Figure: Variation of declination over the year

 SOLAR GEOMETRY

Inclination Angle (𝜶):

• The angle between Sun’s ray and its projection
on a horizontal surface is known as Inclination
Angle.
• 𝜶 = 𝟎° at sunrise and sunset.
 SOLAR GEOMETRY

Zenith Angle (𝜽𝒛 ):

• The angle between Sun’s ray and the
perpendicular (normal) to horizontal plane is
known as the Zenith Angle.
• 𝜶 + 𝜽𝒛 = 𝟗𝟎°
• At sunrise, 𝜽𝒛 = 𝟗𝟎°
• At sunset,𝜽𝒛 = −𝟗𝟎°
 SOLAR GEOMETRY

Solar Azimuth Angle (𝜸𝒔 ):

• The angle on a horizontal plane, between the
line due south and the projection of Sun’s ray
on the horizontal plane is known as Solar
Azimuth Angle.
• It is considered as positive when measured
from south towards west.
 SOLAR GEOMETRY

Slope (β): The angle between the plane of the surface and the horizontal;
0 ≤ β ≤ 180°
 SOLAR GEOMETRY

Angle of Incidence (𝜽): The angle between the Sun’s ray incident on plane surface and
normal to that surface.
For horizontal surface,
β = 0°
Zenith angle = Incidence angle
 SOLAR GEOMETRY

Surface Azimuth Angle (γ):

• It is the angle made in the horizontal plane
between the line due south and the
horizontal projection of the normal to the
surface on the horizontal plane.
• It can vary from -180° to +180°.
• The angle is positive when it is measured
from South towards west.
SOLAR GEOMETRY
 SOLAR GEOMETRY

Hour Angle (ω):

• The hour angle ω is the angle through which the Earth has rotated since solar noon.
• It is an angular measure of time and is equivalent to 15° per hour. It also varies from -180°
to +180°.
𝟑𝟔𝟎°
𝝎= 𝒕𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 − 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓° 𝒕𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 − 𝟏𝟐
𝟐𝟒 𝒉𝒓
• Negative in the morning and Positive in the afternoon.
• Here, tsolar is the Apparent Solar Time.
 SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS
❑Direct Methods
• Thermal
• Photovoltaic

❑Indirect Methods
• Hydrogen Cells
• Tidal
• Wind
• Biomass
• Wave energy
• Ocean temperature difference
 SOLAR RADIATION
❑The radiation that is important to solar energy applications is that emitted by the sun within the ultraviolet,
visible, and infrared regions. Therefore, the radiation wavelength that is important to solar energy
applications is between 0.15 and 3.0 μm. The wavelengths in the visible region lie between 0.38 and 0.72
μm.

Thermal radiation
❑Thermal radiation is a form of energy emission and transmission that depends entirely on the temperature
characteristics of the emissive surface. Thermal radiation is in fact an electromagnetic wave that travels at the
speed of light (C = 300,000 km/s in a vacuum). This speed is related to the wavelength (𝝀) and frequency (𝒗)
of the radiation as given by the equation:
 SOLAR RADIATION
Extraterrestrial solar radiation
❑The amount of solar energy per unit time, at the mean distance of the earth from the sun, received on a unit
area of a surface normal to the sun (perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the radiation) outside the
atmosphere is called the solar constant (1366.1 W/m2).
❑When the sun is closest to the earth, on January 3, the solar heat on the outer edge of the earth’s atmosphere
is about 1400 W/m2; and when the sun is farthest away, on July 4, it is about 1330 W/m2.
 SOLAR RADIATION 21

❑Terrestrial solar radiation

❑Beam radiation
❑Diffuse radiation
❑Ground-reflected radiation

Solar radiation measuring equipment

Sunshine Recorder
 SOLAR COLLECTORS
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Stationary collectors
❑Flat plate collector
❑Evacuated tube collector
❑Compound parabolic collector
Single-axis tracking
❑Linear Fresnel reflector
❑Parabolic trough collector
❑Cylindrical trough collector
Two-axes tracking
❑Parabolic dish reflector
❑Heliostat field collector
❑Scheffler Reflector
SOLAR COLLECTORS
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FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR
Basic Parts:
▪ Absorber plate
▪ Tubes fixed to the absorber plate
▪ Transparent covers
▪ Insulated container
FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR
Advantages:
▪ It utilize the both direct and diffuse radiation
▪ Stationary design
▪ No moving component
▪ Little maintenance

Disadvantages:
▪ No optical concentration
▪ Higher heat loss
▪ Low Collection efficiency
FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR
▪ Absorber plate is made by a metal sheet ranging thickness from 0.2 to 1 mm.
▪ Tubes ranges in diameter from 1 to 1.5 cm.
▪ Tubes are soldered, brazed, welded or pressure bonded to the bottom of the absorber
plate.
▪ Tubes may be bounded to the top or are in-line and integral with the absorber plate
Metal:
▪ Copper;
▪ Aluminum sheets fixed to copper or galvanized steel tubes with pressure bond;
▪ mild steel or galvanized steel sheets with galvanized steel tubes;
▪ stainless steel sheets with built in channels.
FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR
Header pipes
▪ Lead the water in and out of the collector and distribute it to the tubes.
▪ Same material as the tubes
▪ Diameter: 2 – 2.5 cm

Transparent Cover
▪ Plain or toughened glass of 4 – 5 mm thickness
▪ Use one or two covers with spacing ranging from 1.5 to 3 cm
FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR
Insulation
▪ Bottom and sides are insulated
▪ Mineral wool, rock wool, or glass wool with
covering of aluminium foil
▪ Thickness ranging from 2.5 to 8 cm

Collector Box
▪ Made of Aluminium, steel sheet or fibre glass

Size
▪ Face area of collectors are around 2 m2.
▪ Length along with the slope and larger than the
width
EVACUATED TUBE COLLECTOR
EVACUATED TUBE COLLECTOR
▪ The Evacuated or Vacuum tubes collector
consists of a number of rows of parallel
transparent glass tubes connected to a header
pipe and where the heat transfer fluid (usually
50% Propylene Glycol) circulates and absorb
heat generated by tubes.
▪ These glass tubes are cylindrical in shape.
Therefore, the angle of the sunlight is always
perpendicular to the heat absorbing tubes
which enables these collectors to perform well
even when sunlight is low such as when it is
early in the morning or late in the afternoon, or
when shaded by clouds.
▪ Evacuatedtube collectors are particularly
useful in areas with cold, cloudy wintry
weathers
EVACUATED TUBE COLLECTOR
▪ Evacuated tube collectors are made up of a
single or multiple rows of parallel, transparent
glass tubes supported on a frame.
▪ Each individual tube varies in diameter from
between 1" (25 mm) to 3" (75 mm) and
between 5′ (1500 mm) to 8′ (2400 mm) in
length depending upon the manufacturer.
▪ Each tube consists of a thick glass outer tube
and a thinner glass inner tube, (called a “twin-
glass tube”) or a “thermos-flask tube” which
is covered with a special coating that absorbs
solar energy but inhibits heat loss.
▪ The tubes are made of borosilicate or soda
lime glass, which is strong, resistant to high
temperatures and has a high transmittance for
solar irradiation.
EVACUATED TUBE COLLECTOR
▪ Inside the each glass tube, a flat or curved
aluminium or copper fin is attached to a
metal heat pipe running through the inner
tube.
▪ The fin is covered with a selective coating
that transfers heat to the fluid that is
circulating through the pipe.
▪ This sealed copper heat pipe transfers the
solar heat via convection of its internal heat
transfer fluid to a “hot bulb” that indirectly
heats a copper manifold within the header
tank.
CONCENTRATING COLLECTOR
▪ Higher temperature, 100 - 400° C or above
▪ Concentration is achieved by using a reflecting arrangement of mirrors or a reflecting
arrangements of lenses.
▪ The optical system direct the solar radiation onto an absorber of smaller area which is
usually surrounded by a transparent cover.
▪ Because of the optical system, several losses also introduced, such as absorption and
reflection losses in the mirrors or lenses, and losses due to geometrical imperfections
in the optical system.
▪ The combined effect of all such losses is indicated through the introduction of a term
called the optical efficiency.
▪ Follow or track the sun
▪ Most of the diffuse radiation is lost because it does not focused.
CONCENTRATING COLLECTOR…DEFINITIONS
▪ Concentrator: the optical subsystem which directs the
solar radiation on to the absorber
▪ Receiver: Subsystem consisting of the absorber, its
cover and other accessories.
▪ Aperture (W): it is the plane opening of the
concentrator through which the solar radiation passes.
▪ For a cylindrical or linear concentrator, it is
characterized by the width, while for a surface of
revolution, it is characterized by the diameter of the
opening.
▪ Concentration ratio (C): Ratio of the effective area of
the aperture to the surface area of the absorber.
▪ Values of C vary from unity to a few thousands for a
parabolic dish.
CONCENTRATING COLLECTOR…DEFINITIONS
▪ Acceptance Angle (2θa): the angle over which
beam radiation may deviate from the normal to the
aperture plane and yet reach the absorber.
▪ Collector with large acceptance angles require
only occasional adjustments, while collectors with
small acceptance angles have to be adjusted
continuously.
CYLINDRICAL PARABOLIC COLLECTOR

Cylindrical
parabolic
collector
Flat plate
collector

CPC

Collector with fixed Fresnel lens

circular concentrator concentrating
and moving receiver collector
CYLINDRICAL PARABOLIC COLLECTOR
▪ Also referred as parabolic through or a linear
parabolic collector.
▪ Basic elements: absorber tube located at the
focal axis through which the liquid to be heated
flows, the concentric transparent cover and the
parabolic concentrator
▪ Aperture area: 1 – 6 m2.
▪ Concentration ratio range from 10 to 80, and
rim angles from 70 to 120°. (The incident
radiation on the reflector at the rim of the
collector makes an angle with the center line of
the collector, which is called the rim angle.)
CYLINDRICAL PARABOLIC COLLECTOR
▪ Absorber tube is usually made of mild steel
or copper, and has a dia. of 2.5 to 5 cm.
▪ It is coated with a heat resistant black paint and
surrounded by a concentric glass cover with
an annular gap of 1 or 2 cm.
▪ In the case of high-performance collectors, the
absorber tube is coated with a selective
surface like black chrome and the space
between the tube and the glass cover is
evacuated.
▪ In some collectors, the concentric cover is
replaced by a glass or plastic sheet covering
the whole aperture area of the collector. Such
an arrangement helps in protecting the
reflecting surface from the weather.
CYLINDRICAL PARABOLIC COLLECTOR
▪ The liquid heated in the collector depends upon the temperature required.
▪ Usually organic heat transfer liquids (referred to as thermic fluids) are used.
Because of their low thermal conductivities, these liquids yield low heat transfer
coefficients.
▪ The reflecting surface is generally curved back silvered glass. It is fixed on
light-weight structure usually made of aluminium sections.
▪ The proper design of this supporting structure and of the system for its
movement is important, since it influences the shape and orientation of the
reflecting surface.
CYLINDRICAL PARABOLIC COLLECTOR
▪ Compared to flat-plate collectors, there are very few manufactures of
concentrating collectors all over the world.
▪ The volume of production is also low.
▪ In India, many experimental collectors have been built and tested. However,
commercial manufacture has not yet begun.
COMPOUND PARABOLIC COLLECTOR
▪ Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPCs) are designed to efficiently collect
and concentrate distant light sources.
▪ With acceptance angle options of 25° and 45°, CPCs are able to accommodate a
variety of light sources and configurations.
▪ Compound Parabolic Concentrators are critical components in solar energy
collection, wireless communication, biomedical and defense research, or for any
applications requiring condensing of a divergent light source.
 THERMAL APPLICATIONS

Some of the major application of solar energy are as follows:

• Solar Water heating systems
• Solar Space heating system
• Solar based Power Generation Systems
• Space cooling and refrigeration
• Distillation
• Drying
• Cooking system
• Solar pumping system
• Solar air-heater for drying of agricultural and animal products
• Solar furnaces
• Solar green houses.
 SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM
❑Two types of solar water heating systems are available:
➢Direct or open loop systems, in which potable water is heated directly in the collector.
➢Indirect or closed loop systems, in which potable water is heated indirectly by a heat transfer
fluid that is heated in the collector and passes through a heat exchanger to transfer its heat to
the domestic or service water.
❑Systems differ also with respect to the way the heat transfer fluid is transported:
➢Natural (or passive) systems.
➢Forced circulation (or active) system
SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM
 SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM

Passive System: Thermosiphon Solar Water Heater

✓100 – 200 liters supply of hot
water
✓Temperature: 50 – 70 ° C
✓ Installation cost is Rs. 110/-
per liter

Figure: Small capacity thermosiphon solar water heating system

 SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM

Passive System: Thermosiphon Solar Water Heater

Figure: Evacuated tube collector configuration.

 SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM

Passive System: Thermosiphon Solar Water Heater

✓Collector and storage tank
are combined in one unit
✓Less efficient
✓Yields slightly lower
temperature and smaller
amount of water

Figure: Collector-cum-Storage Type Solar Water Heater

 SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM

Active System:
➢In active systems, water or a heat transfer fluid is pumped through the collectors.
➢These are usually more expensive and a little less efficient than passive systems,
particularly if antifreeze measures are required.
➢Additionally, active systems are more difficult to retrofit in houses, especially where there
is no basement, because space is required for the additional equipment, such as the hot
water cylinder.
 SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM

Active Water Heating System:

✓Large amount of water
✓Forced circulation
✓No need of large size of storage tank
✓On-off controller to operate the
pump based on the temperature
difference
✓Auxiliary immersion heater
✓Factories, hospitals, hotels, offices,
etc.
✓Rs. 5000/- square meter of collector
area
Figure: Industrial Solar Water Heating System –
Closed Loop Configuration
 SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM

Active Water Heating System:

✓Hot water at the required
temperature flows out of the
collector array
✓Designed specifically for 300 days
✓Saved about 2,00,000 liters of oil
annually

Figure: Industrial Solar Water Heating System –

Open Loop Configuration
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
▪ Photovoltaic (PV) modules are solid-state devices that convert sunlight, the most
abundant energy source on the planet, directly into electricity without an intervening
heat engine or rotating equipment.
▪ PV equipment has no moving parts and, as a result, requires minimal maintenance
and has a long life.
▪ It generates electricity without producing emissions of greenhouse or any other
gases and its operation is virtually silent.
▪ Photovoltaic systems can be built in virtually any size, ranging from milli-watt to
megawatt, and the systems are modular, i.e., more panels can be easily added to
increase output.
▪ Photovoltaic systems are highly reliable and can also be set up as stand-alone
systems.
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
▪ Photovoltaic cells are made of various semiconductors, which are materials that are
only moderately good conductors of electricity.
▪ The materials most commonly used are silicon (Si) and compounds of cadmium
sulfide (CdS), cuprous sulfide (Cu2S), and gallium arsenide (GaAs).
▪ A PV cell consists of two or more thin layers of semiconducting material, most
commonly silicon.
▪ When the silicon is exposed to light, electrical charges are generated; and this can be
conducted away by metal contacts as direct current.
▪ The electrical output from a single cell is small, so multiple cells are connected and
encapsulated (usually glass overed) to form a module (also called a panel).
▪ The PV panel is the main building block of a PV system, and any number of panels can
be connected together to give the desired electrical output.
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
▪ Materials whose valence gap is full and whose
conduction band is empty have very high band gaps
and are called insulators. The band gap in these
materials is greater than 3 eV.
▪ Materials that have relatively empty valence bands
and may have some electrons in the conduction band
are called conductors. In this case, the valence and
the conduction bands overlap.
▪ The valence electrons are able to accept energy from
an external field and move to an unoccupied allowed
state at slightly higher energy levels within the same
band.
▪ Metals fall in this category, and the valence electrons
in a metal can be easily emitted outside the atomic
structure and become free to conduct electricity.
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
Semiconductors
▪ Materials with valence gaps partly filled have intermediate band gaps and are called
semiconductors. The band gap in these materials is smaller than 3 eV.
▪ They have the same band structure as the insulators but their energy gap is much
narrower.
▪ The two types of semiconductors are, the pure ones called intrinsic semiconductors,
and those doped with small amounts of impurities, called extrinsic semiconductors.
▪ In intrinsic semiconductors, the valence electrons can
easily be excited by thermal or optical means and
jump the narrow energy gap into the conduction band.
▪ In the conduction band, electrons have no atomic
bonding and therefore are able to move freely through
the crystal.
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
p – n Junction
▪ In semiconductors, if the material that is doped has more electrons in the
valence gap than the semiconductor, the doped material is called an n-
type semiconductor.
▪ The excess electrons, which are available for conduction.
▪ This is obtained when Si atoms are replaced with periodic table group 5
elements, such as arsenic (As) or antimony (Sb), and in so doing, form
electrons that can move around the crystal.
▪ In semiconductors, if the material that is doped has fewer electrons in the
valence gap than the semiconductor, the doped material is called a p-type
semiconductor.
▪ The positive holes (missing electrons) in its structure, which accommodate excess electrons.
▪ This type of material is obtained when Si atoms are replaced with periodic table group 3
elements, such as gallium (Ga) or indium (In), and thereby form positive particles, called holes.
▪ Both n- and p-type semiconductors allow the electrons and holes to move more easily in the
semiconductors.
▪ For silicon, the energy needed to get an electron across a p–n junction is 1.11 eV.
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
p – n Junction
▪ When the two materials are joined, the excess electrons from the n-type jump to fill the
holes in the p-type, and the holes from the p-type diffuse to the n-type side, leaving the n-
side of the junction positively charged and the p-side negatively charged.
▪ The negative charges of the p-side restrict the movements of additional electrons from the
n-side; however, the movement of additional electrons from the p-side is easier because of
the positive charges at the junction on the n-side.
▪ Therefore the p–n junction behaves like a diode.

n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
Photovoltaic effect
▪ When a photon enters a photovoltaic material, it is absorbed by a valence electron of an
atom, the energy of the electron is increased by the amount of energy of the photon.
▪ If the energy of the photon is greater than the band gap of the semiconductor, the electron,
which has excess energy, will jump into the conduction band, where it can move freely.
▪ Therefore, when the photon is absorbed, an electron is knocked loose from the atom.
▪ The electron can be removed by an electric field across the front and back of the
photovoltaic material, and this is achieved with the help of a p–n junction.
▪ In the absence of a field, the electron recombines with the atom; whereas when there is a
field, it flows through, thus creating a current.
▪ If the photon energy is smaller than that of the band gap, the electron will not have
sufficient energy to jump into the conduction band, and the excess energy is converted into
kinetic energy of the electrons, which leads to increased temperature.
▪ Irrespective of the intensity of the photon energy relative to the band gap energy, only one
electron can be freed. This is the reason for the low efficiency of the photovoltaic cells.
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
Photovoltaic effect
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
Photovoltaic effect
▪ The solar cells contain a p–n junction.
▪ Near the junction of the two layers, the electrons on one side of
the junction (n-type layer) move into the holes on the other side
of the junction (p-type layer).
▪ This creates an area around the junction, called the depletion
zone, in which the electrons fill the holes.
▪ When all the holes are filled with electrons in the depletion
zone, the p-type side of the depletion zone (where holes were
initially present) now contains negatively charged ions, and the
n-type side of the depletion zone (where electrons were
present) now contains positively charged ions.
▪ The presence of these oppositely charged ions creates an
internal electric field that prevents electrons in the n-type layer
to fill holes in the p-type layer.
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
Photovoltaic effect
▪ If connect the n-type and p-type layers with a metallic wire, the
electrons will travel from the n-type layer to the p-type layer by
crossing the depletion zone and then go through the external
wire back of the n-type layer, creating a flow of electricity.
▪ The free electrons are generated in the n-layer by the action of
the photons.
▪ When sunlight strikes a solar cell, electrons in the silicon are
ejected, which results in the formation of “holes”—the
vacancies left behind by the escaping electrons.
▪ If these pairs are sufficiently near the p–n junction, its electric
field causes the charges to separate, electrons moving to the n-
type side and holes to the p-type side.
▪ The thickness of the n-type layer in a typical crystalline silicon cell is about 0.5 μm, whereas
that of the p-type layer is about 0.25 mm.
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
Photovoltaic effect
▪ The energy contained in a photon, EP, is given by:
𝑬𝑷 = 𝒉𝝂
where
h = Planck’s constant, = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 𝑱. 𝒔𝒆𝒄.
n = frequency (s-1)
𝒉𝒄
𝑬𝑷 =
𝝀
▪ Silicon has a band gab of 1.11 eV (1 eV = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱); therefore, by using above Eq., it can be
found that photons with wavelength of 1.12 μm or less are useful in creating electron–hole pairs
and thus electricity.
▪ The majority of solar radiation can be used effectively in PVs.
▪ The number of photons, np, incident on a cell can be estimated from the intensity of light, Ip:
𝑰𝑷
𝒏𝑷 =
𝑬𝑷
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
PV Cell Characteristics
▪ A photovoltaic PV generator is mainly an assembly of solar cells, connections, protective
parts, and supports.
▪ Solar cells are made of semiconductor materials, usually silicon, and are specially treated to
form an electric field with positive on one side (backside) and negative on the other side (front
side facing the sun).
▪ If electrical conductors are attached to the positive and negative sides, forming an electrical
circuit, the electrons are captured in the form of electric current, called photocurrent, Iph.
▪ During darkness, the solar cell is not active and works as a diode, i.e., a p–n junction that does
not produce any current or voltage.
▪ If, however, it is connected to an external, large voltage supply, it generates a current, called the
diode or dark current, ID.
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
PV Cell Characteristics
▪ A solar cell is usually represented by an electrical equivalent one-diode model.
▪ This circuit can be used for an individual cell, a module consisting of a number of cells, or an
array consisting of several modules.
▪ The model contains a current source, Iph, one diode, and a series resistance RS, which
represents the resistance inside each cell.
▪ The diode has also an internal shunt resistance, RSH.
▪ The net current is the difference between the photocurrent, Iph, and the normal diode current,
ID, given by:
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
PV Cell Characteristics
▪ It should be noted that the shunt resistance is usually much bigger than a load resistance,
whereas the series resistance is much smaller than a load resistance, so that less power is
dissipated internally within the cell.
▪ Therefore, by ignoring these two resistances, the net current is the difference between the
photocurrent, Iph, and the normal diode current, ID, given by:

▪ where
▪ k = Boltzmann’s gas constant, = 1.38110-23 J/K;
▪ TC = absolute temperature of the cell (K);
▪ e = electronic charge = 1.602  10-19 J/V;
▪ V = voltage imposed across the cell (V); and
▪ Io = dark saturation current, which depends strongly on temperature (A).
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
PV Cell Characteristics
▪ Figure shows the I–V characteristic curve of a
solar cell for a certain irradiance (Gt) at a
fixed cell temperature, TC.
▪ The current from a PV cell depends on the
external voltage applied and the amount of
sunlight on the cell.
▪ When the cell is short-circuited, the current
is at maximum (short-circuit current, Isc), and
the voltage across the cell is 0.

▪ When the PV cell circuit is open, with the leads not making a circuit, the voltage is at its
maximum (open-circuit voltage,Voc), and the current is 0.
▪ In either case, at open circuit or short circuit, the power (current times voltage) is 0.
▪ Between an open circuit and a short circuit, the power output is greater than 0. The typical
current voltage curve presents the range of combinations of current and voltage.
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
PV Cell Characteristics
▪ If the cell’s terminals are connected to a
variable resistance, R, the operating point is
determined by the intersection of the I–V
characteristic of the solar cell with the load I–
V characteristics.
▪ For a resistive load, the load characteristic is a
straight line with a slope 1/V = 1/R.
▪ If the load resistance is small, the cell operates
in the region AB of the curve, where the cell
behaves as a constant current source, almost
equal to the short-circuit current.
▪ On the other hand, if the load resistance is large, the cell operates on the region DE of the curve,
where the cell behaves more as a constant voltage source, almost equal to the open-circuit
voltage.
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
PV Cell Characteristics
▪ The maximum power passes from a maximum
power point (point C) on at which point the
load resistance is optimum, Ropt, and the
power dissipated in the resistive load is
maximum and given by:
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
PV Cell Characteristics
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
PV Cell Characteristics