PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 134, 210801 (2025)

Editors' Suggestion

Experimental Single-Photon Quantum Key Distribution Surpassing the Fundamental

Weak Coherent-State Rate Limit
Yang Zhang , Xing Ding, Yang Li , Likang Zhang, Yong-Peng Guo, Gao-Qiang Wang, Zhen Ning,
Mo-Chi Xu, Run-Ze Liu , Jun-Yi Zhao, Geng-Yan Zou , Hui Wang , Yuan Cao, Yu-Ming He, Cheng-Zhi Peng,
Yong-Heng Huo, Sheng-Kai Liao, Chao-Yang Lu, Feihu Xu , and Jian-Wei Pan
Hefei National Research Center for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and School of Physical Sciences,
University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China;
Shanghai Research Center for Quantum Science and CAS Center for Excellence in Quantum Information
and Quantum Physics, University of Science and Technology of China, Shanghai 201315, China;
and Hefei National Laboratory,
University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230088, China
(Received 27 November 2024; revised 27 March 2025; accepted 21 April 2025; published 29 May 2025)

Quantum key distribution (QKD) offers a secure means of communication based on the laws of quantum
physics. Despite its remarkable advancements, the current reliance of QKD on attenuated coherent (laser)
light sources has imposed a fundamental limit on the secure key rate (SKR) per channel use. This constraint
stems from the scarcity of single-photon components within coherent light, inherently bounded by a
maximum of 1=e. Here, we report comprehensive demonstrations of single-photon-source-based high-rate
QKD, surpassing the fundamental SKR limit imposed by the weak coherent light. By employing an on-
demand, bright single-photon source with an efficiency of 0.71(2), coupled with narrow-bandwidth
filtering and random polarization modulation, we demonstrated a field QKD trial over a 14.6(1.1) dB-loss
free-space urban channel, achieving a SKR of 1.08 × 10−3 bits per pulse. This SKR surpasses the practical
limit of weak coherent-light-based QKD by 79%. These findings unequivocally demonstrate the superior
performance of single-photon sources over weak coherent light for QKD applications, marking a pivotal
stride towards realizing a global quantum internet.

DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.134.210801

The quantum internet [1,2] promises to connect In contrast to attenuated lasers, a single-photon source
distant nodes, enabling distributed quantum informa- (SPS) offers a compelling advantage for QKD. In princi-
tion processing. One primary application is quantum ple, SPSs can emit indistinguishable single photons on
key distribution (QKD) [3] which provides information- demand, with a significantly lower probability of generat-
theoretical security for communication. Since the pioneer- ing multiple photons per pulse [19–21]. This characteristic
ing BB84 protocol [4], QKD has witnessed remarkable stems from their ability to achieve a single-photon prob-
advancements, extending transmission distance and ability approaching unity, potentially enabling SKR sur-
boosting secure key rates over optical fiber [5–10], passing those achievable with WCP. Several pioneering
terrestrial free-space [11–14], and satellite-based channels initiatives have explored SPS-QKD, demonstrating their
[15,16]. These impressive QKD experiments all use promise in both fiber [22–26] and free-space channels
attenuated laser as the photon source [5–16], together [27–32]. However, the lack of bright and efficient SPSs has
with the decoy-state protocol [17,18]. Nonetheless, the hindered progress. The efficiency of all reported on-
Poissonian nature of weak coherent pulse (WCP) emitted demand SPSs still falls short of meeting the threshold
from the attenuated laser inherently restricts the achiev- of 1=e [22–32]. As a result, experimental demonstrations
have yet to conclusively surpass the fundamental SKR
able secure key rate (SKR) in each pulse. Specifically, a
bound imposed by WCP.
phase-randomized WCP follows a Poisson distribution
Here we demonstrate, for the first time to our knowledge,
Phni ðkÞ ¼ hnik e−hni =k!, where hni represents the average SPS-based high-rate QKD that outperforms the fundamen-
photon number per pulse. The probability of a pulse tal rate limit of WCPs with decoy-state protocols. The on-
containing exactly one photon [3,4]—ideal for secure demand, bright SPS [33] boasts a collection efficiency of
key distribution—is inherently bounded by Phni ð1Þ ≤ 0.71(2), exceeding the inherent bound of coherent states by
1=e when hni ¼ 1. This bound fundamentally limits the approximately 94%. By employing narrow-linewidth filter-
SKR achievable by any QKD system relying on WCPs, ing and random polarization modulation, we achieved a
including the decoy-state QKD [17,18]. 76.13 MHz QKD transmitter with a mean photon number

0031-9007=25=134(21)=210801(6) 210801-1 © 2025 American Physical Society

 PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 134, 210801 (2025)
8
>
< − 12 gð2Þ ð0Þhni2 ðη2 þ 1Þ þ hniη η > ηth
RSPS ¼ η2
ð2Þ
>
: η ≤ ηth ;
2gð2Þ ð0Þðη2 þ1Þ

where hni is the mean photon number, gð2Þ ð0Þ is the value
of second-orderqffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
correlation function at zero delay,
 
and ηth ¼ 1 − 1 − 4ðgð2Þ ð0ÞhniÞ2 Þ=ð2gð2Þ ð0Þhni .
The calculated configuration constraints required for
single-photon QKD to surpass the rate limit of weak
coherent states are illustrated in Fig. 1. Under varying
channel losses, SPS-QKD must reach a large mean photon
FIG. 1. Configuration constraints enabling single-photon QKD number and a small value of second-order correlation
to surpass the rate limit of a weak coherent state with decoy states. function to outperform WCP-QKD. At zero channel loss,
The black lines represent the lower bounds of the mean photon the fundamental bounds of the mean photon number hni
number hni and upper bounds of the value of second-order
and the value of second-order correlation function gð2Þ ð0Þ
correlation function gð2Þ ð0Þ for different channel losses of
0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 dB, respectively. Points located
for SPS-QKD are given by
above the mean photon number curve and below the gð2Þ ð0Þ curve
1 e
represent regions where a key rate advantage is achieved for a hni ≥ ; gð2Þ ð0Þ ≤ : ð3Þ
specific link loss. e 4
As channel loss increases, the mean photon number
of 0.292(8), a value of second-order correlation function required to achieve the key rate advantage bound gradually
gð2Þ ð0Þ of 0.0070(6), and an encoding error of 2.54%. In a increases, while the value of second-order correlation
field-trial experiment, we implemented QKD over a 14.6 function gradually decreases.
(1.1) dB loss free-space channel in an urban environment, In a practical finite-key scenario (see Supplemental
Material [34]), we employ the efficient three-state QKD
achieving an SKR of 1.08 × 10−3 bits per pulse. This
protocol in our experiment [40,41], where jHi and jVi
surpasses the key rate of WCP-QKD with decoy states
states on the Z basis and jRi state on the X basis are
by approximately 79%. Our results conclusively demon-
prepared. For finite-key analysis, we utilize a tighter
strate the superior performance of SPSs for QKD applica-
multiplicative Chernoff bound to constrain the estimated
tions, paving the way for advanced single-emitter-based
parameters, thereby achieving a higher secure key rate
quantum communication and the realization of a future
(SKR). For a finite block size defined by the number of
quantum internet.
pulses sent N S or photons received N R , the total security key
The rate limit of QKD using WCP and SPS—We first
length L for SPS-QKD is given by [24]
compare the fundamental performance of WCP and SPS
for QKD in the asymptotic scenario (infinite transmitted 1 2
pulses). For WCP-QKD, we consider the efficient BB84 L ≥ N ZR;nmp ½1 − Hðϕ̄Z Þ − λEC − 2log2 − log2 ; ð4Þ
2εPA εcor
protocol with infinite decoy states as the upper bound of
the key rate [17,18]. In this scenario, the single-photon where N ZR;nmp represents the lower bound of the number of
component can be accurately estimated, and the SKR is
photons received on the basis of key generation (including
R ¼ ηhnie−hni , where η is the channel transmittance and
both vacuum and emitted photons), ϕ̄Z denotes the upper
hni is the average photon number per pulse. The maximum bound of the phase error rate on the basis of key generation,
value of R is achieved when hni ¼ 1. The SKR of WCP- λEC is the information leaked during error correction, εPA
QKD is thus given by and εcor are the secrecy and correctness parameters, respec-
tively. The secure key rate per pulse is then calculated
1 as r ¼ L=N S .
RWCP ¼ η: ð1Þ
e Experimental setup—The QKD experiments were con-
ducted on the USTC campus in Hefei city (31°49’59.4“N,
For SPS-QKD, we consider the BB84 protocol without 117°16’10.8”E) [Fig. 2(a)]. The QKD transmitter and
decoy states, which aligns with our experiments. We receiver were colocated on the first floor of the
follow the photon number distribution assumption fpn g ¼ Physicochemical building, connected by an optical fiber
fp0 ; p1 ; p2 g [24], where the multiphoton contribution is to their respective free-space launch sites for the sub-
dominated by the two-photon component. The SKR of sequent 209-meter free-space transmission. At the QKD
SPS-QKD is given by (see Supplemental Material [34]) transmitter [Fig. 2(b)], a high-efficiency single-photon

210801-2
 PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 134, 210801 (2025)
(a)

(b)

FIG. 2. Overview of the SPS-QKD experiment. (a) Birds-eye FIG. 3. Results of single-photon QKD experiments and com-
view of the QKD experiment, showcasing a free-space link parison to other experiments. The solid five-pointed star and the
between two co-located sites in Hefei. (b) The experimental hollow five-pointed stars depict results from the field experiment
setup. AWG, arbitrary wave generator; PM, phase modulator; and the laboratory experiments with varying channel losses. The
QD, quantum dot; Cpl, coupler; FP, Fabry-Perot etalon; EOM, solid triangles represent experimental results from other SPS-
electro-optic modulator; ATT, attenuator; ER, emission telescope; QKD. WCP, weak coherent pulse; SPS, single-photon source.
RM, reflecting mirror; Col, collimator; RT, receiving telescope;
BS, beam splitter; PC, polarization controller; PBS, polarization
beam splitter; SNSPD, superconducting nanowire single-photon
detector; TDC, time-to-digital converter. beam splitter (BS), two polarization controllers (PCs),
and two polarization beam splitters (PBSs). The polariza-
tion-decoded quantum photons are detected by four super-
source is realized by coupling a single InAs/GaAs quan- conducting-nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs)
tum dot (QD) to a tunable plane-concave Fabry-Perot with efficiencies of approximately 0.712 and total dark
cavity, as detailed in Supplemental Material [34]. counts of around 43 cps. A time-to-digital converter (TDC)
Under π pulse excitation, approximately 54 MHz single with 42 ps resolution measures the arrival time of the
photons are collected into the single-mode fiber, resulting in detected photons. Utilizing a quantum photon-based syn-
a collection efficiency of 0.71(2) and gð2Þ ð0Þ of 0.0205(6). chronization method [42], precise time synchronization
This high-efficiency SPS, detailed in Reference [33], sur- between the two QKD terminals is realized, simplifying
passes the fundamental rate limit of weak coherent states, a additional hardware and reducing complexity. A temporal
significant improvement over previous QKD works using filtering gate width of 3.42 ns is further employed to
QDs [22–31]. To prevent potential phase coherence between mitigate the effects of detector dark counts and urban
consecutively emitted photons, we implement phase ran- environment background noise.
domization by introducing active phase modulations on the Experimental results—We conducted a series of labo-
pump laser pulses. A Fabry-Perot etalon with a 5.4 GHz ratory and field experiments with varying channel losses.
linewidth is employed to further filter out the background of Detailed system and security parameters are provided in
the excitation laser from the emitted single photons, Supplemental Material [34]. For each experiment, a
followed by a free-space Pockels cell with a transmittance genetic algorithm was used to numerically optimize the
of 97% to implement random polarization state modulation. quantum state preparation ratio of different bases, and
We incorporate an adjustable attenuator into the optical the preattenuation was applied at the QKD transmitter. The
path and employ the preattenuation technique [24] to results of the single-photon QKD experiments and com-
enhance the key rate in scenarios involving large channel parisons with other experiments are depicted in Fig. 3. In
losses. The prepared quantum photons, with a mean photon the field experiment, the measured SKR is 82.0 kbps under
number of 0.292(8), gð2Þ ð0Þ of 0.0070(6), and polarization an average channel loss of 14.6(1.1) dB. Considering the
encoding error of 2.54% (see Supplemental Material [34]), repetition frequency of 76.13 MHz, the corresponding
are then transmitted into the free-space channel utilizing an SKR is approximately 1.08 × 10−3 bits per pulse. In
emission telescope. laboratory experiments, the measured SKRs are 4.30
At the QKD receiver [Fig. 2(b)], photons are collected Mcps, 1.29 Mcps, 330 kcps, and 82.4 kcps for channel
into the connecting optical fiber and then fed into the losses of 0.17(7), 5.11(5), 10.15(12), and 15.16(10) dB,
polarization decoding module, which comprises a 9∶1 respectively. The corresponding SKRs are approximately

210801-3
 PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 134, 210801 (2025)

Compared to other SPS-QKD experiments [23–27,29,30],

we achieved about an order of magnitude improvement
in the key rate per channel loss (see Supplemental
Material [34]).
Using the same parameters as the experiment (misalign-
ment probability of 2.54% and finite block size of 108 ), we
recompared the performance of SPS-QKD and decoy-state
WCP-QKD. The results are shown in Fig. 4(a). The black
solid line represents the fundamental bounds required for
SPS-QKD to achieve a key rate advantage, with a mean
photon number hni of approximately 0.078 and a value of
second-order correlation function gð2Þ ð0Þ of approximately
0.41. Furthermore, considering ideal state modulation and
asymptotic data size, we can more fairly compare the
performance, as shown in Fig. 4(b). The fundamental
bounds for SPS-QKD to achieve a key rate advantage shift
to a mean photon number hni of 0.268 and a value of
second-order correlation function gð2Þ ð0Þ of 0.11. In both
cases, our experiment clearly demonstrates the key rate
advantage of SPS-QKD over decoy-state WCP-QKD.
Conclusion and discussion—It has long been promised
that quantum dot SPS will solve the limits imposed by
weak coherent states on optical quantum information
protocols. Employing the widely-adopted BB84 protocol,
we present the first comprehensive experimental validation
FIG. 4. (a) Configuration constraints for single-photon QKD to that SPS-QKD can surpass the fundamental rate limit
transcend the rate limit of a weak coherent state with decoy states imposed by weak coherent states, despite varying rate
using the same protocol, system, and security parameters as the limits associated with different photon sources and protocol
field experiment with a finite block size of 108 . (b) Configuration constraints [43]. This Letter provides conclusive evidence
constraints for single-photon QKD to transcend the rate limit of a
for the superior performance of SPS-based quantum com-
weak coherent state with decoy states under the asymptotic key
regime. The solid five-pointed star represents the results of the munication and opens up exciting new avenues for research
field experiment, while the hollow five-pointed stars represent beyond weak coherent light [5–16].
several laboratory experiments. The solid triangle represents Further efforts can be devoted into the following aspects.
results from other SPS-based QKD. First, the maximum channel loss of SPS-QKD is lower than
that achievable with WCP-QKD [44]. This limitation arises
from the presence of multiphoton components in SPSs,
5.65 × 10−2 , 1.69 × 10−2 , 4.34 × 10−3 , and 1.08 × 10−3 bits which can be addressed by reducing the multiphoton
per pulse, respectively. components [45] or integrating the decoy-state theory into
As shown in Fig. 3, we performed numerical simulations SPS-QKD [24]. Second, the single-photon lifetime in this
to evaluate the SKR of SPS-QKD and WCP-QKD with Letter is tens of picoseconds, but the repetition frequency of
decoy states. For WCP-QKD with decoy states [40], the our SPS-QKD system can be further increased to several
average photon number and the ratio of each decoy intensity gigahertz via frequency doubling, bringing it in line with
and encoding basis were optimized. From simulation, the WCP-QKD systems [9,46]. Third, although our SPS oper-
SKR of SPS-QKD exceeds that of WCP-QKD under ates at visible wavelengths, frequency conversion techniques
channel loss below 19 dB, with a maximum key rate can enable operation in the telecommunication band [24,47].
improvement of approximately 247% under near-zero loss. Finally, SPSs hold immense potential for other QKD
Our experiment results are consistent with the simulation protocols beyond BB84, such as measurement-device-inde-
results. Compared to the theoretically expected key rate pendent QKD [48] and twin-field QKD [7], and developing
of WCP-QKD with decoy states, we achieved key rate sophisticated quantum network infrastructures leveraging
enhancements of approximately 98%–247% and 79% quantum teleportation [49], quantum relays [50] and quan-
in the laboratory and field experiments, respectively. tum repeaters [51] will be essential for realizing the full
Furthermore, due to its inherent advantage in photon number potential of SPS.
distribution, SPS-QKD is more robust to statistical fluctua- Note that, due to the challenges of directly applying SPS
tions than WCP-QKD (see Supplemental Material [34]). to continuous-variable QKD [52,53], this Letter’s analysis

210801-4
 PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 134, 210801 (2025)

and comparison primarily focus on discrete-variable QKD, [11] C. H. Bennett and G. Brassard, Experimental quantum
without quantum repeaters. cryptography: The dawn of a new era for quantum cryp-
tography: The experimental prototype is working, ACM
Acknowledgments—We acknowledge Ying-Ying Wang, SIGACT News 20, 78 (1989).
Jin Liu, Ji-Gang Ren, Chao-Ze Wang, Xin-Zhe Wang, and [12] T. Schmitt-Manderbach, H. Weier, M. Fürst, R. Ursin, F.
Tiefenbacher, T. Scheidl, J. Perdigues, Z. Sodnik, C.
Juan Yin for helpful discussions and assistance. This work
Kurtsiefer, J. G. Rarity, A. Zeilinger, and H. Weinfurter,
was supported by the National Key Research and Experimental demonstration of free-space decoy-state quan-
Development Program of China (2020YFA0309700, tum key distribution over 144 km, Phys. Rev. Lett. 98,
2022YFF0610100), National Natural Science Foundation 010504 (2007).
of China (62031024, 12174374, 12274398, 12374475), [13] S. Nauerth, F. Moll, M. Rau, C. Fuchs, J. Horwath, S. Frick,
Innovation Program for Quantum Science and Technology and H. Weinfurter, Air-to-ground quantum communication,
(2021ZD0300104, 2021ZD0300300), Shanghai Municipal Nat. Photonics 7, 382 (2013).
Science and Technology Major Project (2019SHZDZX01), [14] S.-K. Liao et al., Long-distance free-space quantum key
Shanghai Science and Technology Development Funds distribution in daylight towards inter-satellite communica-
(22JC1402900), Chinese Academy of Sciences Project for tion, Nat. Photonics 11, 509 (2017).
Young Scientists in Basic Research (YSBR-112), Jinan [15] S.-K. Liao et al., Satellite-to-ground quantum key distribu-
tion, Nature (London) 549, 43 (2017).
Innovation Zone, Key Research and Development Plan of
[16] Y.-A. Chen et al., An integrated space-to-ground quantum
Shandong Province (2021ZDPT01), and the New communication network over 4,600 kilometres, Nature
Cornerstone Science Foundation through the Xplorer Prize. (London) 589, 214 (2021).
[17] H.-K. Lo, X. Ma, and K. Chen, Decoy state quantum key
Y. Z., X. D. and Y. L. contributed equally to this work. distribution, Phys. Rev. Lett. 94, 230504 (2005).
[18] X.-B. Wang, Beating the photon-number-splitting attack in
practical quantum cryptography, Phys. Rev. Lett. 94,
230503 (2005).
[1] H. J. Kimble, The quantum internet, Nature (London) 453, [19] P. Senellart, G. Solomon, and A. White, High-performance
1023 (2008). semiconductor quantum-dot single-photon sources, Nat.
[2] C.-Y. Lu and J.-W. Pan, Quantum-dot single-photon sources Nanotechnol. 12, 1026 (2017).
for the quantum internet, Nat. Nanotechnol. 16, 1294 [20] F. P. García de Arquer, D. V. Talapin, V. I. Klimov, Y.
(2021). Arakawa, M. Bayer, and E. H. Sargent, Semiconductor
[3] F. Xu, X. Ma, Q. Zhang, H.-K. Lo, and J.-W. Pan, Secure quantum dots: Technological progress and future chal-
quantum key distribution with realistic devices, Rev. Mod. lenges, Science 373, eaaz8541 (2021).
Phys. 92, 025002 (2020). [21] C. Couteau, S. Barz, T. Durt, T. Gerrits, J. Huwer, R.
[4] C. H. Bennett and G. Brassard, Quantum cryptography: Prevedel, J. Rarity, A. Shields, and G. Weihs, Applications
Public key distribution and coin tossing, in International of single photons to quantum communication and comput-
Conference on Computer System and Signal Processing ing, Nat. Rev. Phys. 5, 326 (2023).
(IEEE, New York, 1984), pp. 175–179. [22] K. Takemoto, Y. Nambu, T. Miyazawa, K. Wakui, S. Hirose,
[5] C. Z. Peng, J. Zhang, D. Yang, W. B. Gao, H. X. Ma, H. Yin, T. Usuki, M. Takatsu, N. Yokoyama, K. Yoshino, A. Tomita,
H. P. Zeng, T. Yang, X. B. Wang, and J. W. Pan, Exper- S. Yorozu, Y. Sakuma, and Y. Arakawa, Transmission
imental long-distance decoy-state quantum key distribution experiment of quantum keys over 50 km using high-
based on polarization encoding, Phys. Rev. Lett. 98, 010505 performance quantum-dot single-photon source at 1.5 μm
(2007). wavelength, Appl. Phys. Express 3, 092802 (2010).
[6] D. Rosenberg, J. W. Harrington, P. R. Rice, P. A. Hiskett, [23] K. Takemoto, Y. Nambu, T. Miyazawa, Y. Sakuma, T.
C. G. Peterson, R. J. Hughes, A. E. Lita, S. W. Nam, and Yamamoto, S. Yorozu, and Y. Arakawa, Quantum key
J. E. Nordholt, Long-distance decoy-state quantum key distribution over 120 km using ultrahigh purity single-
distribution in optical fiber, Phys. Rev. Lett. 98, 010503 photon source and superconducting single-photon detectors,
(2007). Sci. Rep. 5, 14383 (2015).
[7] M. Lucamarini, Z. L. Yuan, J. F. Dynes, and A. J. Shields, [24] C. L. Morrison et al., Single-emitter quantum key distribu-
Overcoming the rate–distance limit of quantum key dis- tion over 175 km of fibre with optimised finite key rates,
tribution without quantum repeaters, Nature (London) 557, Nat. Commun. 14, 3573 (2023).
400 (2018). [25] M. Zahidy et al., Quantum key distribution using deter-
[8] Y. Liu et al., Experimental twin-field quantum key distri- ministic single-photon sources over a field-installed fibre
bution over 1000 km fiber distance, Phys. Rev. Lett. 130, link, npj Quantum Inf. 10, 2 (2024).
210801 (2023). [26] J. Yang, Z. Jiang, F. Benthin, J. Hanel, T. Fandrich, R. Joos,
[9] W. Li et al., High-rate quantum key distribution exceeding S. Bauer, S. Kolatschek, A. Hreibi, E. P. Rugeramigabo, M.
110 mb s−1 , Nat. Photonics 17, 416 (2023). Jetter, S. L. Portalupi, M. Zopf, P. Michler, S. Kück, and
[10] F. Grünenfelder et al., Fast single-photon detectors and real- F. Ding, High-rate intercity quantum key distribution with a
time key distillation enable high secret-key-rate quantum semiconductor single-photon source, Light Sci. Appl. 13,
key distribution systems, Nat. Photonics 17, 422 (2023). 150 (2024).

210801-5
 PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 134, 210801 (2025)

[27] E. Waks, K. Inoue, C. Santori, D. Fattal, J. Vuckovic, G. S. [39] A. Al-Juboori, H. Z. J. Zeng, M. A. P. Nguyen, X. Ai, A.
Solomon, and Y. Yamamoto, Quantum cryptography with a Laucht, A. Solntsev, M. Toth, R. Malaney, and I.
photon turnstile, Nature (London) 420, 762 (2002). Aharonovich, Quantum key distribution using a quantum
[28] T. Heindel, C. A. Kessler, M. Rau, C. Schneider, emitter in hexagonal boron nitride, Adv. Quantum Technol.
M. Fürst, F. Hargart, W.-M. Schulz, M. Eichfelder, R. 6, 2300038 (2023).
Roßbach, S. Nauerth, M. Lermer, H. Weier, M. Jetter, [40] C. C. W. Lim, M. Curty, N. Walenta, F. Xu, and H.
M. Kamp, S. Reitzenstein, S. Höfling, P. Michler, H. Zbinden, Concise security bounds for practical decoy-
Weinfurter, and A. Forchel, Quantum key distribution state quantum key distribution, Phys. Rev. A 89, 022307
using quantum dot single-photon emitting diodes in the (2014).
red and near infrared spectral range, New J. Phys. 14, [41] F. Xu, K. Wei, S. Sajeed, S. Kaiser, S. Sun, Z. Tang, L. Qian,
083001 (2012). V. Makarov, and H.-K. Lo, Experimental quantum key
[29] M. Rau, T. Heindel, S. Unsleber, T. Braun, J. Fischer, S. distribution with source flaws, Phys. Rev. A 92, 032305
Frick, S. Nauerth, C. Schneider, G. Vest, S. Reitzenstein, (2015).
M. Kamp, A. Forchel, S. Höfling, and H. Weinfurter, Free [42] C.-Z. Wang, Y. Li, W.-Q. Cai, W.-Y. Liu, S.-K. Liao, and
space quantum key distribution over 500 meters using C.-Z. Peng, Synchronization using quantum photons for
electrically driven quantum dot single-photon sources—a satellite-to-ground quantum key distribution, Opt. Express
proof of principle experiment, New J. Phys. 16, 043003 29, 29595 (2021).
(2014). [43] M. Takeoka, S. Guha, and M. M. Wilde, Fundamental rate-
[30] Ç. Samaner, S. Paçal, G. Mutlu, K. Uyanık, and S. Ateş, loss tradeoff for optical quantum key distribution, Nat.
Free-space quantum key distribution with single photons Commun. 5, 5235 (2014).
from defects in hexagonal boron nitride, Adv. Quantum [44] A. Boaron et al., Secure quantum key distribution over
Technol. 5, 2200059 (2022). 421 km of optical fiber, Phys. Rev. Lett. 121, 190502
[31] T. Gao, M. von Helversen, C. Antón-Solanas, C. Schneider, (2018).
and T. Heindel, Atomically-thin single-photon sources for [45] L. Schweickert et al., On-demand generation of back-
quantum communication, npj 2D Mater. Appl. 7, 4 (2023). ground-free single photons from a solid-state source, Appl.
[32] G. Murtaza, M. Colautti, M. Hilke, P. Lombardi, Phys. Lett. 112 (2018).
F. S. Cataliotti, A. Zavatta, D. Bacco, and C. Toninelli, [46] F. Grünenfelder, A. Boaron, D. Rusca, A. Martin, and H.
Efficient room-temperature molecular single-photon Zbinden, Performance and security of 5 ghz repetition rate
sources for quantum key distribution, Opt. Express 31, polarization-based quantum key distribution, Appl. Phys.
9437 (2023). Lett. 117 (2020).
[33] X. Ding, Y.-P. Guo, M.-C. Xu, R.-Z. Liu, G.-Y. Zou, J.-Y. [47] X. Wang, X. Jiao, B. Wang, Y. Liu, X.-P. Xie, M.-Y. Zheng,
Zhao, Z.-X. Ge, Q.-H. Zhang, H.-L. Liu, L.-J. Wang, M.-C. Q. Zhang, and J.-W. Pan, Quantum frequency conversion
Chen, H. Wang, Y.-M. He, Y.-H. Huo, C.-Y. Lu, and J.-W. and single-photon detection with lithium niobate nano-
Pan, High-efficiency single-photon source above the loss- photonic chips, npj Quantum Inf. 9, 38 (2023).
tolerant threshold for efficient linear optical quantum [48] H.-K. Lo, M. Curty, and B. Qi, Measurement-device-
computing, Nat. Photonics 19, 387 (2025). independent quantum key distribution, Phys. Rev. Lett.
[34] See Supplemental Material at http://link.aps.org/supplemental/ 108, 130503 (2012).
10.1103/PhysRevLett.134.210801, which includes Refs. [35– [49] D. Bouwmeester, J.-W. Pan, K. Mattle, M. Eibl, H.
39], for details on the QKD protocols, experimental setup and Weinfurter, and A. Zeilinger, Experimental quantum tele-
results, and state-of-the-art comparison. portation, Nature (London) 390, 575 (1997).
[35] M. Tomamichel, J. Martinez-Mateo, C. Pacher, and [50] B. C. Jacobs, T. B. Pittman, and J. D. Franson, Quantum
D. Elkouss, Fundamental finite key limits for one-way relays and noise suppression using linear optics, Phys. Rev.
information reconciliation in quantum key distribution, A 66, 052307 (2002).
Quantum Inf. Process. 16, 280 (2017). [51] H.-J. Briegel, W. Dür, J. I. Cirac, and P. Zoller, Quantum
[36] D. Bunandar, L. C. Govia, H. Krovi, and D. Englund, repeaters: The role of imperfect local operations in quantum
Numerical finite-key analysis of quantum key distribution, communication, Phys. Rev. Lett. 81, 5932 (1998).
npj Quantum Inf. 6, 104 (2020). [52] C. Weedbrook, S. Pirandola, R. García-Patrón, N. J. Cerf,
[37] F. Basso Basset et al., Quantum key distribution with T. C. Ralph, J. H. Shapiro, and S. Lloyd, Gaussian quantum
entangled photons generated on demand by a quantum information, Rev. Mod. Phys. 84, 621 (2012).
dot, Sci. Adv. 7, eabe6379 (2021). [53] E. Diamanti and A. Leverrier, Distributing secret keys
[38] T. Gao et al., A quantum key distribution testbed using a with quantum continuous variables: Principle, security
plug&play telecom-wavelength single-photon source, Appl. and implementations, Entropy 17, 6072 (2015).
Phys. Rev. 9 (2022).

210801-6