SAMPLING

Sampling

WHY?
 lower cost.
 greater speed of data collection
 availability of population cases.
 greater accuracy of results.

(Schindler, (2019), Business Research Methods, 13th ed.)

 Sampling

The population refers to the entire group of people,

events, or things of interest that the researcher wishes
to investigate. It is the group of people, events, or
things of interest for which the researcher wants to
make inferences (based on sample statistics).

A sample is a subset of the population.

... by studying the sample, the researcher should be
able to draw conclusions that are generalizable to the
population of interest
(Sekaran & Bougie, (2016), Research Methods for Business, 7th edition)
 Sampling

A sample is a relatively small subset of the

population. It is drawn using either probability or
nonprobability procedures. Whether a probability or
nonprobability approach is used, careful
consideration of sampling design issues is necessary
in selecting the sample.

An element is the object about which, or from

which, the information is desired.
(Hair, J. F., (2020), Essentials of Business Research Methods)
 Sampling

A sampling unit is an element, or a unit containing

the element, that is available for selection at some
stage of the sampling process.

A sampling frame is a representation of the

elements of the target population. It consists of a list
or set of directions for identifying the target
population.

Sample size refers to the number of elements to be

included in the study.
 Sampling

“Sampling” refers to the process of selecting the sample

from a population in order to obtain information
regarding a phenomenon in a way that represents the
study population.

(Brink et al,, (2018), Fundamentals of Research Methodology for Healthcare Professionals, 4th ed.)
 Random Sampling

Sample
Population

Estimation & Testing

Sources of Error

(Schindler, (2019), Business Research Methods, 13th ed.)

Sampling Error & Non-sampling Error
 Sample & Census

(Malhotra et al., (2017), Marketing Research, p.413)

 Sampling Process

 Defining the target population

 Choosing the sampling frame
 Selecting the sampling method
 Determining the sample size
 Implementing the sampling plan

(Hair, J. F., (2020), Essentials of Business Research Methods)

 Sampling Methods

(Hair, J. F., (2020), Essentials of Business Research Methods)

(Malhotra et al., (2017), Marketing Research)
 Simple sampling & Systematic Sampling

Simple random sampling is a straightforward

method of sampling that assigns each element of the
target population an equal probability of being
selected.
Systematic sampling is a process that involves
randomly selecting an initial starting point on a list,
and thereafter every nth element in the sampling
frame is selected.

(Hair, J. F., (2020), Essentials of Business Research Methods)

 Stratified Sampling

Stratified sampling requires the researcher to

partition the sampling frame into relatively
homogeneous subgroups that are distinct and
nonoverlapping, called strata.

 proportionate stratified sampling

 disproportionate stratified sampling

(Hair, J. F., (2020), Essentials of Business Research Methods)

(Hair, J. F., (2020), Essentials of Business Research Methods)
 Cluster Sampling

Cluster samples are samples gathered in groups or

chunks of elements that, ideally, are natural
aggregates of elements in the population.

...in cluster sampling, the target population is

viewed as being made up of heterogeneous groups
called clusters.

(Hair, J. F., (2020), Essentials of Business Research Methods)

 Cluster Sampling

(Hair, J. F., (2020), Essentials of Business Research Methods)

 Stratified sampling & Cluster sampling

(Malhotra et al., (2017), Marketing Research, p.430)

 Nonprobability Sampling

A convenience sample involves selecting sample

elements that are most readily available to
participate in the study and that can provide the
information required.

A judgment sample, sometimes referred to as a

purposive sample, involves selecting elements in the
sample for a specific purpose.
 Nonprobability Sampling

Quota sampling is similar to stratified random

sampling. The objective is for the total sample to
have proportional representation of the strata of the
target population.
A snowball sample, also called a referral sample, is
one where the initial respondents are typically chosen
using probability methods. The researcher then uses
the initial respondents to help identify the other
respondents in the target population. This process is
continued until the required sample size is reached.
(Hair, J. F., (2020), Essentials of Business Research Methods)
Non-probability & Probability sampling

(Malhotra et al., (2017), Marketing Research, p.433)

 Sample size

(Hair, J. F., (2023), Essentials of Business Research Methods)

 Sample size

(Hair, J. F., (2023), Essentials of Business Research Methods)

 Sample size

Large population

(Hair, J. F., (2023), Essentials of Business Research Methods)

 Sample size

(Hair, J. F., (2023), Essentials of Business Research Methods)

 Sample size

Small population

(Hair, J. F., (2023), Essentials of Business Research Methods)

 Sample size

(Nichols & Edlund (2023), The Cambridge Handbook of Research

Methods and Statistics for the Social and Behavioral Sciences,
Cambridge University Press)
 Sample size

(Nichols & Edlund (2023), The Cambridge Handbook of Research

Methods and Statistics for the Social and Behavioral Sciences,
Cambridge University Press)
 Sample size

(Schindler, P. S., (2022), Business research methods, McGraw Hill)

 Sample size
SEM relies on tests which are sensitive to sample size as
well as to the magnitude of differences in covariance
matrices. There are a litany of suggestions in regards to
necessary sample size using SEM. One of the most
common suggestions for sample size is Nunnally and
Bernstein’s (1994) rule of 10. The rule of 10 states that you
should have 10 observations for each indicator in your
model. Another rule of thumb, based on Stevens (1996), is
to have at least 15 cases per indicator. Bentler and Chou
(1987) argue that a more accurate calculation should be
based on free parameters of your model where you should
have at least 5 cases for each parameter estimate (including
error terms as well as path coefficients).
(Collier, J.E., Applied Structural Equation Modeling Using AMOS, Routledge)
 Sample size

Schreiber et al. (2006) made the argument that it should be

10 participants for every parameter estimated.

There is no shortage of cites and methods for suggesting

how large a sample is needed. More recently, a simple rule
of thumb is that a “critical sample size” of 200 (Garver and
Mentzer 1999; Hoelter 1983) provides stable parameter
estimates and has sufficient power to test a model. While
this critical sample size of 200 simplifies things, it fails to
address the idea of power.

(Collier, J.E., Applied Structural Equation Modeling Using AMOS, Routledge)

 Sample size

Your sample should be determined by the effect size you

desire to capture, or put another way, the ability to
capture the smallest correlation between latent variables
that you wish to detect. Your sample size should be
based on the complexity of your model rather than on
the bare minimum sample necessary to run the analysis.
If you want to understand how to calculate the specific
sample size for a desired level of power, see Kim (2005)
or McQuitty (2004).

(Collier, J.E., Applied Structural Equation Modeling Using AMOS, Routledge)

 Sample size

(Hair et al., (2019), Multivariate Data Analysis, 8th edition, Cengage Learning)
 Sample size

(Hair et al., (2019), Multivariate Data Analysis, 8th edition, Cengage Learning)
 Sample size

The general guideline is when it is possible to obtain more

observations, such as with most consumer research projects,
then researchers should do so. But in some situations, such as
business-to-business research, the population size is quite
small (e.g., ,100) and PLS-SEM is the only structural modeling
approach that can obtain meaningful solutions with such small
sample sizes.
(Hair et al., (2019), Multivariate Data Analysis, 8th edition, Cengage Learning)