Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

Module-5
TRENDS IN BIOENGINEERING (QUALITATIVE):
• Muscular and Skeletal Systems as scaffolds, scaffolds and tissue engineering, Bioprinting
techniques and materials. Electrical tongue and electrical nose in food science, DNA origami and
Biocomputing, Bioimaging and Artificial Intelligence for disease diagnosis. Bioconcrete.
Bioremediation. Biomining.
• Bioprinting techniques and materials, 3D printing of ear, bone and skin.

1
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

3D-Bioprinting
Method of printing biomedical structures with the use of viable cells, biological molecules,
and biomaterials.
3D bioprinting is the deposition of biological material in a layer-by-layer fashion to create
3D structures like tissues and organs
The main objective of bioprinting is to mimic the structure and function of human tissues and
organs, leading to the development of replacement parts for damaged or diseased organs.
provide an appropriate alternative to tissue implants and animal testing procedures during
research on diseases and the development of treatments.
the use of 3D bioprinting is limited to the formation of organs and tissues to estimate the
efficiency of drugs, but 3D bioprinting has great scope in its use for replacing lost and failed
organs in patients.
require special attention to allow the cells to grow and divide and prevent the cytotoxic
activity of solvents used during the process.
Principle of 3D Bio-printing: Based on the precise placement of biological components,
biochemicals, and living cells in a layer-by-layer fashion with the spatial control of the placement of
functional constituents onto the fabricated 3D structure.
The process of 3D bioprinting is based on three distinct approaches; biomimicry or biomimetics,
autonomous self-assembly, and mini-tissue building blocks.

Bioinks
are biological materials used in the manufacture of engineered live tissues by the process of
3D bioprinting.
The term bioink doesn’t only indicate the cells used in manufacturing, but also carrier
molecules that provide support to the growing cells.
Common carrier materials used with cells during bioprinting are biopolymer gels that act as
a 3D molecular scaffold so that cells can attach, grow, and increase.
The biopolymers used in bioink are essential as they retain water which provides mechanical
stability to the engineered tissues.
The selection of bioink for a particular process is an important step as the selected bioinks
should have desired physicochemical properties that include mechanical, chemical,
biological, and rheological characteristics.
The bioinks used in the bioprinting process should have the following properties:
1. The bioinks used should be able to provide adequate mechanical strength and robustness
while maintaining the tissue-matching mechanics in the resulting tissue constructs.
2. The bioink molecules should have adjustable gelation and stabilization.
3. The bioinks should be biocompatible and can undergo biodegradability according to the
natural microenvironment of the tissue.
4. The bioinks should be suitable for chemical modifications to form specific tissues.

2
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

Bioprinting Materials or Bioinks types

Hydrogels: Hydrogels are water-based polymer networks that closely mimic the extracellular matrix
(ECM) found in living tissues. They offer excellent biocompatibility, mechanical support, and can
be formulated to have similar physical properties to native tissues.
Examples of hydrogels used as bioinks include:
•Gelatin-based hydrogels
•Alginate hydrogels
•Fibrin-based hydrogels
•Collagen-based hydrogels

Synthetic Polymer-based Bioinks: Synthetic polymers can be used to create bioinks with well-
defined mechanical properties and degradation rates. These bioinks provide control over various
parameters, such as stiffness, porosity, and degradation, to support specific tissue engineering goals.
Examples of synthetic polymer-based bioinks include:
•Polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based bioinks
•Polycaprolactone (PCL)-based bioinks
•Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-based bioinks

Bioprinters or 3D bioprinters
are automated devices for the additive fabrication of 3D functional tissues and organs based
on the digital models that are created via various scans using biomaterials.
Bioprinters are automated robotic devices that work on the basis of different mechanisms.
3D printers that can only print cell-free scaffolds but cannot dispense living cells are not
considered bioprinters.
The first commercial 3D bioprinter was prepared in Germany at Freiburg University by Prof.
Ralf Mulhaupt’s group.
There are different types of bioprinters depending on the technique of bioprinting employed
by the machines; inkjet bioprinters, extrusion-based bioprinters, and laser-based bioprinters.
These bioprinters work on different mechanisms and are generally used for different purposes
depending on the type of biomaterials used.

3
Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

Most Commonly used Bioprinting Techniques

Inkjet-based Bioprinting:
Inkjet bioprinting works similarly to standard inkjet printing.
The bioink is loaded into cartridges, and droplets of the
bioink are ejected through fine nozzles onto a substrate.
The droplets form layers, and the structure is built by
depositing subsequent layers.
Inkjet bioprinting allows for high-resolution printing and
precise control over droplet size, but it may be limited by
the viscosity of the bioink and cell viability during the
ejection process.

4
Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

Extrusion-based Bioprinting:
Extrusion-based bioprinting uses a syringe or a
similar mechanism to extrude the bioink through a
nozzle.
The bioink is deposited layer-by-layer to create the
desired structure.
This technique is versatile and can handle a wide
range of bioinks with varying viscosities
Can produce structures with controlled porosity.
Limitations: achieving high resolution and
complex geometries.

Laser-assisted Bioprinting:
Laser-assisted bioprinting utilizes laser energy to precisely deposit bioinks onto a
substrate.
The bioink is placed on an energy-absorbing layer, and the laser creates a pressure wave
that propels the bioink onto the substrate in a controlled manner.
This technique offers high resolution, precision, and the ability to print complex structures.
Limitation: can be relatively slow and may have limitations in terms of bioink viscosity.

5
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

The Basic Steps of Bioprinting Process

Preparation of the bioink:
The bioink used in bioprinting is a mixture of cells, growth factors, and other
biological materials that are formulated to promote cell growth and tissue formation.
↓
Design of the tissue structure:
The tissue structure to be printed is designed using computer-aided design (CAD)
software, which is then used to control the movement of the bioprinter's print head.
↓
Printing:
The bioprinter dispenses the bioink in a controlled manner, layer by layer, to build up
the final tissue structure. The bioink is deposited in a manner that promotes cell
survival and tissue formation.
↓
Incubation/Bioreactor
After printing, the tissue is incubated in a controlled environment, such as a cell culture
incubator, to promote cell growth and tissue formation.
↓
Assessment:
The printed tissue is assessed for its functional properties, such as cell viability, tissue
structure, and tissue function.

3D Printing of Ear
This process involves using a 3D printer to create an ear-shaped structure using a
special material, such as a biocompatible polymer or a hydrogel, as the "ink."
The printed ear structure is then seeded with human cartilage cells, which grow and
develop into functional ear tissue over time.
Preparation of the bioink:
The bioink used in bioprinting is a mixture of cells, growth factors, and other biological
materials that are formulated to promote cell growth and tissue formation.
↓
Design of the tissue structure:
The tissue structure to be printed is designed using computer-aided design (CAD)
software, which is then used to control the movement of the bioprinter's print head.
↓
Printing:
The bioprinter dispenses the bioink in a controlled manner, layer by layer, to build up the

6
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

final tissue structure. The bioink is deposited in a manner that promotes cell survival and
tissue formation.
↓
Incubation/Bioreactor
After printing, the tissue is incubated in a controlled environment, such as a cell culture
incubator, to promote cell growth and tissue formation.
↓
Assessment:
The printed tissue is assessed for its functional properties, such as cell viability, tissue
structure, and tissue function.

Personalized ear prosthesis:3D printing allows for the creation of customized ear
prostheses that match the unique anatomy of each patient.
Faster production and lower costs: Traditional methods of ear prosthesis
fabrication can be time-consuming and expensive.3D printing can reduce the
production time and cost of ear prosthesis.
Biocompatibility:3D printing can use biocompatible materials for the production of
ear prostheses, reducing the risk of adverse reactions and improving patient
outcomes.
Medical education:3D printing of human ears can be used to educate medical
students and healthcare professionals on the anatomy and treatment of ear defects
and injuries.

7
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

3D Printing of Bone: This process involves using a 3D printer to create a bone-shaped

structure using a special material, such as a biocompatible polymer or a ceramic material, as
the "ink." The printed bone structure can then be implanted into a patient to replace missing
or damaged bone tissue.
Steps involved in scaffold-based 3D printing of bone
Design:
A digital model of the desired bone structure or defect is created using computer-aided
design (CAD) software. The design takes into account factors such as shape, size, pore
architecture, and mechanical properties.
↓
Material Selection:
Biocompatible and biodegradable materials are chosen for the fabrication of the scaffold.
Common materials include synthetic polymers, such as polycaprolactone (PCL) or
poly(lactic- co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), and natural polymers, such as collagen or gelatin.
↓
3D Printing Process:
The 3D printing process begins by loading the selected material into the 3D printer. The
printing technology can vary, including extrusion-based methods, inkjet printing, or
stereolithography.
↓
Pore Formation:
During the printing process, the scaffold is designed to have a porous structure with
interconnected pores. These pores provide space for cell infiltration, nutrient supply, and
vascularization. Various techniques can be used to control the pore size, distribution, and
interconnectivity.
↓
Post-Processing:
After the scaffold is printed, post-processing steps: include removing any support
structures, sterilization, and surface treatments to enhance biocompatibility.
↓
Cell Seeding and Culture:
Once the scaffold is prepared, it can be seeded with bone-forming cells, such as
mesenchymal stem cells or osteoblasts. The seeded scaffold is then cultured under
appropriate conditions to promote cell attachment, proliferation, and the formation of new
bone tissue within the scaffold.
↓
Implantation:
Once the scaffold-based construct has undergone sufficient maturation, it can be implanted
into the patient's body. The scaffold provides structural support while the surrounding cells
and blood vessels infiltrate and replace the scaffold with newly formed bone tissue. Over
time, the scaffold degrades, leaving behind functional regenerated bone.

8
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

3D Printing of Skin
3D printing of skin refers to the process of creating three-dimensional human skin tissue
using a 3D printer.
The goal of 3D printing skin is to create functional, living
tissue that can be used for a variety of purposes, such as
cosmetic testing, wound healing, and drug development.
The process involves the use of bioprinting technology,
where a bioink made from living cells and growth factors
is printed in a specific pattern to create the desired tissue
structure.

The Process of 3D Printing of Skin

The process of 3D printing skin typically involves the following steps:
Preparation of the bioink:
A bioink is made by mixing human skin cells, such as fibroblasts and keratinocytes, with a
hydrogel matrix that provides a supportive environment for cell growth.
↓
Design of the tissue structure:
The tissue structure to be printed is designed using computer-aided design (CAD)
software, which is then used to control the dispensing of the bioink.
↓
Printing:
The bioink is printed layer by layer using a 3D printer to create the desired tissue structure.
↓
Incubation:
After printing, the tissue is incubated in a controlled environment, such as a cell culture
incubator, to promote cell growth and tissue formation.
↓
Assessment:
The printed tissue is assessed for its functional properties, such as cell viability, tissue
structure, and tissue function.

9
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

Technological Importance of 3D Printing of Human Skin

1. Better wound healing: 3D printing of skin can produce customized skin grafts that
promote wound healing and reduce the risk of infection. This is particularly important
for patients with burns, chronic wounds, or other skin injuries.

2. Reduced scarring: 3D printed skin can promote more natural healing and reduce
scarring, improving the cosmetic appearance of the skin after injury.

3. Replication of skin structure:3D printing can replicate the structure and properties of
natural skin, such as the thickness and elasticity of different layers of the skin. This can
improve the functionality and durability of the skin graft.

4. Reduced donor site morbidity: 3D printing of skin can reduce the need for skin grafts
from other parts of the patient's body, reducing donor site morbidity and promoting
faster healing.

5. Alternative to animal testing: 3D printing of skin can provide an alternative to animal

testing in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, reducing the ethical concerns and
improving the accuracy and relevance of testing.

6. Research and development: 3D printing of skin can be used in research and

dev1elopment to study the properties and behavior of different skin types, test the
effectiveness of new treatments, and develop new skin care products.

3D Printed Foods
3D printed food refers to food items that are created using 3D printing technology.
This technology allows for the creation of food items with intricate shapes and designs,
which can be customized based on individual preferences and dietary needs.
The process of 3D printing food involves the use of edible materials, such as pastes,
gels, and powders, which are combined and printed layer by layer to create the final
product.
The use of 3D printing in the food industry has the potential to revolutionize the way
food is produced, as it allows for the precise control of portion sizes and ingredients,
which can be beneficial for individuals with specific dietary needs or restrictions.
Additionally, 3D printing technology can be used to create unique and customized food
items that would be difficult to achieve using traditional cooking methods

10
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

Materials used for 3D Printing of Food

• Edible pastes: Edible pastes, such as pureed fruit, chocolate, and cream cheese, can
be used in 3D printing of food. These materials are easily printable and can be used
to create intricate shapes and designs.
• Edible gels: Edible gels, such as agar and gelatin, can be used in 3D printing of food.
These materials are flexible and can be used to create 3D structures that are both
aesthetically pleasing and functional.
• Edible powders: Edible powders, such as flour and sugar, can be used in 3D printing
of food. These materials can be combined with liquids to form a printable mixture
that can be used to create 3D structures.

PRINTING TECHNIQUE:
1. Extrusion-based printing:
2. Hot-melt and room temperature: the extrusion head heats the food material slightly
above the material's melting point. The melted material is then extruded from the head
and then solidifies soon thereafter.
3. Selective laser sintering: enables the construction of complex shapes and models and
the ability to create different food textures by bonding the powdered material layer by
layer with a laser as the heat source.
4. Binder jetting: uses powdered food materials to create a model layer by layer but
instead of using heat to bond the materials together, a liquid binder is used.
5. Inkjet printing: used for surface filling or image decoration. By utilizing gravity,
edible food ink is dropped onto the surface of the food, typically a cookie, cake, or
other candy.
6. Multi-printhead and multi-material: multiple ingredients are printed at the same
time
Advantages:
3D printing has gained significant importance in the food industry due to its potential to
revolutionize various aspects of food production, customization, and innovation.
1. Customization and Personalization: 3D printing enables the creation of customized
and personalized food products. It allows for the precise control of ingredients, textures,
flavors, and nutritional content, catering to individual preferences, dietary restrictions,
and specific nutritional needs. This customization capability opens up new possibilities
for personalized nutrition and addressing food allergies, intolerances, and specific
dietary requirements.
2. Novelty and Creativity:3D printing in the food industry allows for the creation of
intricate and visually appealing food designs that are difficult to achieve with traditional
food preparation methods. It offers the opportunity to experiment with shapes,
structures, colors, and patterns, thereby enhancing the dining experience and
presentation of food.
3. Enhanced Food Safety: With 3D printing, the entire food production process can be
tightly controlled and automated, reducing the risk of contamination and human error.

11
Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

The technology allows for the use of fresh, high-quality ingredients and eliminates the
need for excessive processing and preservatives. Additionally, 3D printing enables the
production of food in a controlled, sterile environment, minimizing the potential for
bacterial growth and contamination.
4. Supply Chain Efficiency:3D printing has the potential to streamline the food supply
chain by enabling on-demand production. It eliminates the need for long-distance
transportation and storage of certain food products, reducing food waste and improving
overall efficiency. With 3D printing, food can be produced locally, minimizing the time
and resources required for distribution.
5. Sustainable Food Production:3D printing has the potential to reduce food waste by
using precise ingredient measurements and optimizing production processes. It allows
for the utilization of alternative food sources and byproducts, reducing the strain on
traditional food resources. Furthermore, 3D printing can promote sustainable farming
practices by reducing water usage and minimizing environmental impact.
6. Food Innovation and Research:3D printing provides a platform for food scientists,
chefs, and researchers to explore new culinary concepts, textures, and flavors. It
facilitates the development of novel food products and techniques that push the
boundaries of traditional food preparation. This innovation can lead to the creation of
unique food experiences and contribute to advancements in the field of gastronomy.

Electrical Tongue in Food Science

Human tongue
The human tongue plays a crucial role in the sense of taste, allowing
us to perceive and distinguish various tastes.
The surface of the tongue is covered with tiny structures called taste
buds. Taste buds contain specialized cells called taste receptor cells,
which are responsible for detecting different taste qualities.
There are five primary taste qualities recognized by taste receptor
cells: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami (savory).
Each taste receptor cell is sensitive to specific taste compounds
associated with these qualities.
When taste compounds enter the taste pores and come into contact with the taste
receptor cells, they bind to specific receptors on the surface of the cells. Each taste
receptor cell is specialized to detect a particular taste quality.
The binding of taste compounds to the taste receptor cells triggers an electrical
signal in the form of action potentials.
The brain combines the information from different taste receptor cells to create
the perception of taste.

12
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

The Electrical Tongue

• The electrical tongue is a device used in food science to analyze the taste and flavor of food
and beverages. It works by measuring the electrical conductivity, impedance, and capacitanceof
a food or beverage sample, which are related to the concentration of ions in the sample and the
texture of the sample.
• This technology allows for the rapid and non-invasive analysis of food and beverages, as it
does not require human taste testers.
• Instead, the electrical tongue provides a numerical representation of the taste and flavor of
the sample, which can be used to compare and analyze different food and beverage products.
• The technology behind the electrical tongue involves the measurement of electrical
properties of a food or beverage sample.
• The electrical tongue typically consists of a sensor array, which is placed in contact with the
food or beverage sample.
• A sensor array in the electrical tongue refers to a collection of multiple sensors that are
designed to detect and measure different taste qualities.
• These sensors are often specific to particular taste components and provide information
about the presence and intensity of specific taste attributes.

Sensors in Electrical Tongue

1. Potentiometric Ion-Selective Electrodes: measure the concentration of specific ions
associated with taste. For example, a sodium-selective electrode can detect the salty
taste by measuring the concentration of sodium ions in a sample.
2. Voltametric Sensors: measure changes in electrical current resulting from the
oxidation or reduction of specific chemical compounds.
3. Impedance Sensors: measure changes in electrical impedance caused by the
interaction of taste compounds with the sensor surface.
4. Optical Sensors: Optical sensors can be used to measure changes in light absorbance or
fluorescence caused by specific taste compounds. For instance, an optical sensor may
measure changes in fluorescence intensity resulting from the binding of a sour
compound to a fluorescent indicator.
5. Conductometric Sensors: Conductometric sensors detect changes in electrical
conductivity resulting from the interaction of taste compounds with the sensor surface.
6. Mass-Sensitive Sensors: Mass-sensitive sensors measure changes in mass or resonance
frequency caused by the adsorption of taste compounds.

13
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

Materials Used in Electrical Tongue Technology

1. Polymers: Polymers, such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polyethylene oxide (PEO),
are often used as the substrate or matrix material in electrical tongue sensors, as they
have high sensitivity to changes in ion concentration and are flexible.
2. Metal Oxides: Metal oxides, such as tin dioxide (SnO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO), are
commonly used in electrical tongue sensors because of their high sensitivity to changes
in ion concentration and ability to undergo changes in electrical conductivity in
response to different tastes.
3. Carbon Nanotubes: Carbon nanotubes are small tubes made of carbon atoms that have
high electrical conductivity and sensitivity to changes in ion concentration, making
them an attractive material for use in electrical tongue sensors.\
4. Microfluidic Devices: Microfluidic devices, which are small devices that can
manipulate small volumes of fluid, are being used in the development of electrical
tongue sensors. These devices can be made from a variety of materials, including
silicon, glass, and polymers, and can be functionalized with specific receptors or
enzymes to target specific tastes.

Advantages of Electrical Tongue Technology

• Non-invasive: The electrical tongue is a non-invasive technology, meaning that it does
not require human taste testers. This reduces the risk of contamination and allows for
the rapid and consistent analysis of food and beverage products.
• High-throughput: The electrical tongue can analyze multiple samples in a short period
of time, making it well suited for high-throughput applications in the food and beverage
industry.
• Objective analysis: The electrical tongue provides a numerical representation of the
taste and flavor of a food or beverage sample, which is less subjective than human taste
testing. This allows for the objective comparison and analysis of different products.
Cost effective: The electrical tongue is a relatively low-cost technology compared to
other methods of food and beverage analysis, such as human taste testing.

Limitations of Electrical Tongue Technology

• Limited sensory experience: The electrical tongue only measures a limited number of
aspects of taste and flavor, and may not be able to fully replicate the complex sensory
experience of tasting food and beverages.
• Incomplete understanding: The technology behind the electrical tongue is still in the
early stages of development, and more research is needed to fully understand its
capabilities and limitations.
• Interfering factors: The electrical properties of a food or beverage sample can be
influenced by factors such as temperature, humidity, and storage conditions, which can
affect the accuracy of the electrical tongue analysis.
• Calibration issues: The electrical tongue requires calibration to ensure accurate and
consistent results. Calibration procedures may be time-consuming and may need to be
repeated regularly to maintain the accuracy of the analysis.

14
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

The Electronic Nose

The electrical nose, also known as an electronic nose, is a technology used in food
science for the analysis and characterization of food and beverage aromas and
flavors.
The electrical nose typically consists of
a sensor array that is capable of
detecting and quantifying volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) in food
and beverage samples.
The sensors in the electrical nose work
by measuring the changes in electrical
resistance or capacitance that occur
when the sensors are exposed to
volatile organic compounds.
Each sensor in the array is designed to respond to a specific range of volatile organic
compounds, and the combination of signals from all of the sensors allows for the
analysis of the overall aroma and flavor profile of a sample.
In electronic nose applications, a sensory array refers to a collection of multiple
sensors that are designed to detect and analyze odor molecules.
The sensors in the array are often selective to different chemical properties or
patterns, allowing for the identification and differentiation of various odors.

1. The sample delivery system: The sample delivery system enables the generation of
headspace of sample or volatile compounds which is a fraction analysed. The system
then sends this head space into the detection system of the electronic nose.
2. The detection system: The detection system which consists of a group of sensors is
the reactive part of the instrument. When in contact with volatile compounds at that
time the sensors react causing changes in electrical characteristics.
3. The Computing system: In most electronic noses each sensor is sensitive to all
molecules in their specific way. However, in bioelectric noses the receptor proteins
which respond to specific smell molecules are used. Most of electronic noses use sensor

15
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

arrays that react to volatile compounds. Whenever the sensors sense any smell, a
specific response is recorded that signal

Types of Sensors
1. Metal Oxide Sensors (MOS): Metal oxide sensors, such as tin oxide (SnO2) or zinc
oxide (ZnO) sensors, are widely used in electronic noses. They detect changes in
electrical resistance when exposed to different odor molecules. MOS sensors offer
broad sensitivity to a wide range of volatile organic com-pounds (VOCs).
2. Conducting Polymer Sensors: Conducting polymer sensors are made of organic
polymers that undergo changes in electrical conductivity when exposed to specific odor
molecules.
3. Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM) Sensors: QCM sensors measure changes in
the resonance frequency of a quartz crystal due to the adsorption of odor molecules.
These sensors are highly sensitive and can provide information about the mass and
viscoelastic properties of the detected odorants.
4. Optical Sensors: Optical sensors employ various principles such as absorbance,
luminescence, or refractive index changes to detect and analyze odor molecules. These
sensors can utilize techniques like colorimetry, fluorescence, or surface plasmon
resonance (SPR) to provide information about the chemical properties of the detected
odors.
Materials Used in Electrical Nose Technology
1. Polymers: Polymers, such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), are often used as the matrix or
substrate material in electrical nose sensors, as they are flexible and have a high
sensitivity to volatile organic compounds.
2. Carbon Nanotubes: Carbon nanotubes are small tubes made of carbon atoms that have
high electrical conductivity and sensitivity to volatile organic compounds, making them
an attractive material for use in electrical nose sensors.
3. Metal Oxides: Metal oxides, such as tin oxide (SnO2) or zinc oxide (ZnO), are
commonly used in electrical nose sensors because of their high sensitivity to volatile
organic compounds and ability to undergo changes in electrical conductivity in
response to different aroma com-pounds.
4. Microfluidic Devices: Microfluidic devices, which are small devices that can
manipulate small volumes of fluid, are being used in the development of electrical nose
sensors. These devices can be made from a variety of materials, including silicon, glass,
and polymers, and can be functionalized with specific receptors or enzymes to target
specific aroma compounds.

16
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

Advantages of Electrical Nose in Food Science

1. Rapid Analysis: The electrical nose can provide rapid and objective analysis of food
and beverage aromas and flavors, making it an important tool for quality control and
product development.
2. Non-Invasive: The electrical nose does not physically come into contact with the food
or beverage sample, making it a non-invasive method for aroma and flavor analysis.
3. Objective Analysis: The electrical nose provides an objective measurement of food
and beverage aromas and flavors, reducing the potential for human error or subjective
bias.
4. Repeatability: The electrical nose provides consistent and repeatable results, making
it a reliable tool for product development and quality control.
5. Cost-Effective: The electrical nose is a cost-effective alternative to traditional sensory
analysis methods, as it can perform large numbers of analyses in a relatively short
amount of time.

Limitations of Electrical Nose in Food Science

1. Limited Sensory Experience: The electrical nose may not be able to fully replicate the
complex sensory experience of smelling food and beverages, as it only measures a
limited number of aspects of aroma and flavor.
2. Calibration Challenges: The electrical nose requires calibration and validation to ensure
accurate results, which can be time-consuming and challenging.
3. Limited Range of Volatile Organic Compounds: The electrical nose is only capable of
detecting and quantifying a limited range of volatile organic compounds, which may
limit its ability to fully characterize the aroma and flavor of a sample.
4. Technical Challenges: The electrical nose technology is still in the early stages of
development and further research is needed to fully understand its capabilities and
limitations.
5. High Cost: Some electrical nose systems can be expensive, making them less accessible
for some food and beverage companies.

17
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

Applications
1. Food Industry
• Analyze ripeness of fruit, such as apples, to determine storage time
• Determine when crops are ready for harvest
• Monitor aging liquor
• Differentiate types of black tea and predict tea quality
• Tobacco recognition
• Indoor air quality monitoring
2. Medical Industry
• Breath analysis for biomarkers and disease diagnosis
• Detection of lung cancer and brain cancer
• Detection of COPD exacerbations
• Measuring blood glucose levels from breath
3. Manufacturing
• Testing batch consistency
• Detecting contamination and spoilage
• Storage condition monitoring
• Measuring the effect of new or altered manufacturing processes on products
• Clean-up analysis and monitoring after production

4. Environmental
• Environmental monitoring
• Identification of volatile organic compounds in environmental samples such as air,
water and soil
5.Security
• Detection of explosives and other illicit substances
• Detection of dangerous bacteria

DNA Origami
DNA Origami is a technique in nanotechnology that involves folding DNA molecules
into specific shapes.
The process involves using a long, single strand of DNA, called the scaffold, to guide
the folding of short, complementary DNA strands, called staples, into a desired shape.
The technique has been widely used in a variety of applications, including the creation
of nanoscale structures, the study of molecular interactions, and the development of
new drug delivery systems.
DNA origami involves the folding of DNA to create 2D and 3D objects at the
nanoscale.
The concept of DNA origami relies on folding a long ssDNA called the scaffold
(typically viral DNA ~7,000 nucleotides long), with hundreds of designed short
ssDNAs called staples.

18
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

Applications: including nanotechnology, materials science, and biomedicine. Some of the

key ways in which DNA origami can impact technology include:
Nanoscale manufacturing: DNA origami can be used as a template for the precise
assembly of nanoscale structures, which have applications in areas such as electronics,
photonics, and materials science.
Drug delivery: DNA origami can be used to develop new approaches for drug delivery,
as it can be de-signed to carry therapeutic agents directly to specific cells or tissues.
Biosensors: DNA origami can be used to develop new biosensors that can detect
specific biological molecules and signals in real-time.
Biomedical imaging: DNA origami can be used as a tool for biomedical imaging, as it
can be designed to target specific cells or tissues and provide high-resolution images.
Gene therapy: DNA origami can be used as a delivery vehicle for gene therapy, as it
can be programmed to target specific cells and deliver therapeutic genes to those cells.
Bio catalysis: DNA origami can be used to develop new approaches for bio catalysis,
as it can be de-signed to perform specific chemical reactions and act as a catalyst.
Nanopatterning: DNA origami can be used as a tool for nanopatterning, as it can be
programmed to arrange and position nanoscale structures with precise control.

Advantages of DNA Origami

Programmability: DNA origami allows for the precise and controlled folding of DNA
molecules into specific shapes, which can be programmed to fit the requirements of a
particular application.
Versatility: DNA origami can be used to create a wide range of shapes, from simple
2D shapes to complex 3D structures, which makes it a versatile tool for various
applications.
High precision: DNA origami is capable of creating nanoscale structures with high
precision and accuracy, which is useful for many applications in the field of
nanotechnology.
Functionality: DNA origami structures can be functionalized with additional
molecules or materials, such as proteins, nanoparticles, or other materials, which makes
them useful for a variety of applications.
Biocompatibility: DNA is a naturally occurring molecule, which makes it
biocompatible and less likely to cause an immune response. This makes DNA origami
a promising tool for biomed-ical applications, such as drug delivery.
Limitations of DNA Origami
Complexity: Creating complex DNA origami structures can be challenging and time-
consuming, and requires specialized knowledge and expertise.
Cost: The cost of producing and synthesizing the DNA required for DNA origami can
be high, making it an expensive technique.

19
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

Stability: DNA origami structures are relatively fragile and can be degraded by
enzymes or other factors, which can limit their stability and shelf-life.
Scalability: The scalability of DNA origami remains a challenge, as producing large
quantities of complex DNA origami structures is difficult and expensive.

Bio-computing
Bio-computing refers to the use of biological systems, such as cells, enzymes, and
DNA, for computing and information processing.
Biocomputers are computers made of proteins, genes, and cells, and capable of
performing mathematical operations, IF/THEN tests, and Boolean logic gate
operations.
This field combines the principles of computer science, biology, and engineering to
create novel systems for computing and data storage.
Biocomputing is typically done either with live cells or with non-living, enzyme-free
molecules.
Live cells can feed themselves and can heal, but it can be difficult to redirect cells from
their ordinary functions toward computation.
Non-living molecules solve some of the problems of live cells, but have weak output
signals and are difficult to fine-tune and regulate.
Biocomputing nanoplatforms are designed to detect and integrate single or multiple
inputs under defined algorithms, such as Boolean logic gates
Generate functionally useful outputs, such as delivery of therapeutics or release of
optically detectable signals.
Small molecules, polymers, nucleic acids, or proteins/peptides, nanoplatforms have
been programmed
Detect and process extrinsic stimuli, such as magnetic fields or light, or intrinsic stimuli,
such as nucleic acids, enzymes, or pH.
Stimulus detection can be transduced by the nanomaterial via three different
mechanisms: system assembly, system disassembly, or system transformation.

Advantages
1. Computational power: Bio-computing systems have the potential to provide
new levels of computational power, as they can perform complex tasks and
calculations using biological processes.
2. Data storage: Bio-computing systems can be used to store and process large
amounts of data, as DNA has a high information density [consider that a single
gram of DNA can theoretically store up to 215 petabytes (1 petabyte = 1 million
gigabytes) of data] and can be easily synthesized and amplified.

20
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

3. Medical applications: Bio-computing systems can be used to develop new

diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in medicine, such as biosensors and gene
therapies.
4. Environmental monitoring: Bio-computing systems can be used to monitor
and track environmental conditions, such as air and water quality, in real-time.
5. Energy efficiency: Bio-computing systems are energy-efficient, which is
becoming increasingly important as we face the challenge of climate change
and the need to reduce our energy consumption.
6. Robustness: Bio-computing systems are highly robust, as they are less
susceptible to errors and failures compared to traditional electronic systems.
7. Versatility: Bio-computing systems can be programmed and reprogrammed to
perform different tasks, which makes them highly versatile and adaptable.

Applications/Case studies
Biocomputing May Be Used In The Identification And Treatment Of Various Diseases
And Cancers.
Bacteria as a biocomputers are capable of detecting and treating certain
inflammatory diseases: Inflammatory Bowel Disease, or IBD.
A portion of the bacteria’s DNA will determine whether it has come in contact with a
specific chemical or not (in this case, one that indicates the presence of IBD).
Requires only an IF/THEN test, simple logic gates, and fewer than three bits of
memory.
An AND gate requires both inputs to be true for the logic statement to return true.
When the chemical is present: two sensors for IBD activate the AND gate control region
simultaneously, turning on a gene that instructs the cell to produce an enzyme called
luciferase.
Luciferase glows in the dark and exits the body through the fecal matter.
The glow can be detected using a microscope, evidencing the presence or absence of
IBD in an individual.

Study of Cancer cells

When cancer cells are detected, the new genes tell the T cell to destroy the cell, thereby
combating the spread of malignant cells.
Scientists are currently working on adding a form of logic to these genes, in order to
enable the T cells to recognize and attack multiple cancers.

21
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

Biocomputing nanoplatforms accept inputs that are either intrinsic or extrinsic to biological
systems, compute the inputs using defined functions, and produce outputs that manipulate the
biological environment (therapeutics) or act as an externally detectable readout

22
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

Bio-imaging for Disease Diagnosis

Bio-imaging is the use of imaging technologies to visualize biological processes and
structures in living organisms.
It plays a crucial role in disease diagnosis by providing detailed images of the body's
internal structures and functions, and can help healthcare professionals to identify and
diagnose a wide range of diseases and conditions.

Bioimaging Techniques
Bioimaging techniques used for disease diagnosis include X-rays, CT scans, MRI, PET scans,
ultrasound, and optical imaging.
These technologies can be used to visualize a wide range of structures and functions, including
bones, tissues, organs, blood vessels, and more.
Bioimaging Techniques
Bioimaging techniques used for disease diagnosis include X-rays, CT scans, MRI, PET scans,
ultrasound, and optical imaging. These technologies can be used to visualize a wide range of
structures and functions, including bones, tissues, organs, blood vessels, and more.
Imaging Analyzed
Advantages Limitations
Technique Structures/Conditions
Quick, widely Limited soft tissue
Bones, fractures, lung
X-rays available, relatively detail, exposure to
conditions, etc.
low cost radiation
Exposure to radiation,
CT scans (computed Organs, bones, blood Detailed images, good
not suitable for some
tomography scans) vessels, tumors for trauma cases
patients
MRI (Magnetic Long scan times,
Soft tissues, organs, Excellent soft tissue
Resonance restricted for some
brain, tumors contrast
Imaging) patients
PET (Positron Limited anatomical
Metabolic activity, Detects diseases at
Emission detail, requires
cancer, brain cellular level
Tomography) scans radioactive tracer
Organs, fetus, blood Real-time imaging, no Limited penetration,
Ultrasound
flow radiation exposure operator-dependent
Limited depth
Cellular and molecular Non-invasive, high-
Optical Imaging penetration, restricted to
processes resolution imaging
surface

Technological Importance
The technological importance of bio-imaging for disease diagnosis lies in its ability to provide
detailed images of the body's internal structures and functions, which can help healthcare
professionals to make accurate diagnoses and provide effective treatments.

23
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

Advantages of bio-imaging
Improved accuracy: Bio-imaging technologies can provide high-resolution images of
the body's internal structures, which can help healthcare professionals to identify subtle
changes and make accurate diagnoses.
Early detection: Bio-imaging can be used to detect diseases in their early stages, when
they are often more treatable. This can lead to earlier treatment and better outcomes for
patients.
Multi-modality: Bio-imaging technologies can be combined to provide a multi-modal
view of the body's internal structures and functions, which can provide a more
comprehensive under-standing of a disease or condition.
Cost-effectiveness: Many bio-imaging technologies are relatively low-cost, which
makes them accessible to a wider range of patients.
Minimally invasive: Many bio-imaging techniques are non-invasive, which means that
they do not require incisions or the insertion of instruments into the body. This makes
them less painful and less risky than many traditional diagnostic procedures.
Improved patient outcomes: By providing healthcare professionals with detailed
images of the body's internal structures and functions, bio-imaging can help to improve
patient out-comes by enabling earlier and more accurate diagnoses, and more effective
treatments.
Advancements in research: Bio-imaging technologies are also important in advancing
medical research, by providing detailed images of the body's internal structures and
functions, which can help researchers to better understand the underlying mechanisms
of diseases and develop new treatments.

Artificial Intelligence for Disease Diagnosis

Correctly diagnosing diseases takes years of medical training. Even then, diagnostics is
often time-consuming process. In many fields, the demand for experts far exceeds the
available supply. This puts doctors under strain and often delays life-saving patient
diagnostics.
Machine Learning – particularly Deep Learning algorithms – have recently made huge
advances in automatically diagnosing diseases, making diagnostics cheaper and more
accessible.
Machine Learning algorithms can learn to see patterns similarly to the way doctors see
them. A key difference is that algorithms need a lot of concrete examples – many
thousands – in order to learn.
Researchers have used various AI-based techniques such as machine and deep learning
models to detect the diseases such as skin, liver, heart, alzhemier, etc. that need to be
diagnosed early. Hence, in related work, the techniques like Boltzmann machine, K
nearest neighbour (kNN), support vector machine (SVM), decision tree, logistic
regression, fuzzy logic, and artificial neural network to diagnose the diseases are
presented along with their accuracies.

24
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

So Machine Learning is particularly helpful in areas where the diagnostic information

a doctor examines is already digitized.
1. Detecting lung cancer or strokes based on CT scans
2. Assessing the risk of sudden cardiac death or other heart diseases based on
electrocardiograms and cardiac MRI images
3. Classifying skin lesions in skin images
4. Finding indicators of diabetic retinopathy in eye images
Artificial Intelligence (AI) has the potential to revolutionize the field of disease diagnosis by
providing healthcare professionals with more accurate and efficient tools for identifying and
treating various conditions.

Framework for Disease diagnosis system

Advantages

25
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

Image analysis: AI algorithms can analyze medical images, such as X-rays, CT scans,
and MRIs, to detect signs of diseases. For example, AI algorithms can identify patterns
in medical images that may indicate the presence of a particular condition, such as a
tumor or an injury. This type of image analysis is known as computer-aided diagnosis
(CAD).
Data analysis: AI algorithms can analyze large amounts of patient data, such as
electronic health records, to identify patterns and trends that may indicate a disease.
This type of data analysis is known as predictive analytics.
Diagnosis: AI algorithms can be used to diagnose diseases by evaluating symptoms,
test results, and other patient information. AI algorithms can help healthcare
professionals make faster and more accurate diagnoses, reducing the risk of
misdiagnosis.
Personalized medicine: AI algorithms can be used to create personalized treatment
plans for patients based on their specific medical histories, lifestyles, and other factors.
For example, AI algorithms can analyze a patient's medical history, lifestyle habits, and
genetic in-formation to recommend the best course of treatment for their condition.
Clinical decision support: AI algorithms can be integrated into electronic health
records to provide healthcare professionals with real-time decision-making support. For
example, AI algorithms can provide physicians with information about the best
diagnostic tests to or-der, the most effective treatments to consider, and the best ways
to manage patient care.
Analysis of data: Machine Learning algorithms can more easily analyse all the
available data and can even learn to automatically identify good target proteins.
Speed: Machine Learning can speed up the design of clinical trials by automatically
identifying suitable candidates as well as ensuring the correct distribution for groups of
trial participants.
Limitations
Lack of understanding of the underlying algorithms: AI algorithms can be complex
and difficult to understand, making it difficult for healthcare professionals to interpret
the results. This can lead to confusion and mistrust of AI-based tools, particularly
among healthcare professionals who are not familiar with AI technology.
Bias: AI algorithms may be biased, leading to inaccurate or unfair diagnoses. For
example, if an AI algorithm is trained on data from a predominantly male population,
it may not accurately diagnose conditions that affect women differently.
Regulation: The use of AI in healthcare is heavily regulated, and it can be challenging
to get approval for new AI technologies. In many countries, AI algorithms must
undergo a rigorous evaluation process before they can be used in healthcare.
Cost: The development and implementation of AI algorithms can be expensive, which
may limit access to these technologies for some patients and healthcare facilities. This
is particularly true in low- and middle-income countries, where access to healthcare is
already limited.

26
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

Self-Healing Bio-concrete
Self-healing bio-concrete is a type of concrete that incorporates microorganisms, such
as Bacillus, into the concrete mixture, along with calcium lactate as a nutrient source.
The microorganisms are activated when the concrete cracks, and they produce calcium
carbonate, which fills in the cracks and repairs the concrete. This process is known as
bio-mineralization.
The benefits of self-healing bio-concrete include increased durability, reduced
maintenance costs, and improved sustainability, as the concrete is able to repair itself
without the need for human intervention.
Self-healing bio-concrete is considered to be environmentally friendly.
Self-healing Process
Process Flow Chart
Mix Bacillus bacteria and calcium lactate with concrete
↓
Bacteria remain dormant within the concrete
↓
Concrete cracks
↓
Water and oxygen enter the crack
↓
Bacteria become activated
↓
Activated bacteria produce calcium carbonate
↓
Calcium carbonate fills in the cracks
↓
Concrete is repaired and structural integrity is restored
Self-healing bio-concrete works by incorporating Bacillus bacteria into the concrete
mixture, along with calcium lactate as a nutrient source. The bacteria are dormant
within the concrete and do not become active until the concrete cracks.
When the concrete cracks, water and oxygen enter the crack and activate the Bacillus
bacteria.
The bacteria then produce calcium carbonate, which is a type of mineral that is
commonly found in natural stone.

27
 Atria Institute of Technology Biology for Engineers Module 5 : Trends in Bioengineering

The calcium carbonate acts as a binder and fills in the cracks, repairing the concrete
and restoring its structural integrity. This process is known as biomineralization.
The Bacillus bacteria used in self-healing bioconcrete are naturally occurring and non-
toxic, so they are considered to be environmentally friendly. They are also able to
survive in a wide range of temperatures and pH levels, making them well-suited for use
in concrete.
In addition to repairing cracks, self-healing bioconcrete also has the potential to improve the
overall durability of concrete by reducing the amount of water that is able to penetrate the sur-
face. This can help to prevent the development of further cracks and increase the longevity of
the concrete.
Advantages
Increased durability: Self-healing bio-concrete has the ability to repair itself, which
can help to increase its overall durability and reduce the need for maintenance.
Improved sustainability: By using naturally occurring and non-toxic microorganisms,
self-healing bioconcrete is considered to be a more environmentally friendly alternative
to traditional concrete.
Reduced maintenance costs: Because self-healing bioconcrete is able to repair itself,
it has the potential to reduce the need for costly maintenance and repairs over time.
Increased longevity: By repairing cracks and reducing the amount of water that is able
to penetrate the surface, self-healing bioconcrete can help to extend the lifespan of
concrete structures.
Reduced carbon footprint: The biomineralization process used in self-healing
bioconcrete has the potential to reduce the carbon footprint associated with concrete
production, as it eliminates the need for concrete to be transported and replaced when
it becomes dam-aged

28