Vector Analysis

Definition:
Vector:
There are quantities in Physics and Science characterized by both magnitude
and direction, such as displacement, velocity, force and acceleration etc. Such
quantities are called Vectors.

The following comments apply,

 
(a) Two vectors Α and B are equal if they have the same magnitude and
direction regardless of their initial point. Thus Α  B.

(b) A vector having direction opposite  to that of a given vector Α but
 having
same magnitude is denoted by  Α and is called the negative of Α.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Scalar:
Quantities that are characterized by magnitude only but no direction, such as
mass, length, charge and temperature etc. Such quantities are called Scalars.

Vector Addition

Fig. 3
Unit Vector

A Unit vector is a vector having unit magnitude. If Αis a vector with magnitude

A0, then Α A is a unit vector in the direction of Α . An important set of unit
vectors denoted by iˆ, ˆj and kˆ are those having the directions of the positive x, y,
and z axes of a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system as in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4
Component of a Vector

 Any vector Α in three dimensions can be represented with an initial point at
the origin O = (0,0,0) and its end point at some point (A1, A2, A3). Then the

vectors A1î, A 2 ĵ, A 3k̂ are called the component vectors of Α in the x, y, z
directions, and the scalars A1, A2, A3 are called the components of Α in the
x, y, z directions, respectively.

The sum of A1î, A 2 ĵ and A3k̂ is the vector Α, so we may write

A  A1 ˆi  A 2 ˆj  A 3 kˆ

The magnitude of Α is

A  A12  A22  A32

Fig. 5
Position Vector
 If the coordinates of a point P be (x, y ,z) relative to the origin of a

Cartesian coordinate system, then the vector r from the origin O to the

point P is called the position vector (or radius vector). Thus r may be
written as

r  xiˆ  y ˆj  zkˆ

The magnitude of r is given by

r  x y z 2 2 2

Fig. 6
 Scalar Field and Vector Field
 Suppose that to each point (x,y,z) of a region R in space, there corresponds
a number (x,y,z). Then  is called a scalar function of position and we say
that  is scalar field defined on R.
Example:
The temperature at any point within or on the Earth‟s surface at a certain time defines a scalar
field. The function φ(x,y,z) x3 y  z 2 defines a scalar field. Consider the point P(2, 3, 1).
Then (P) = 83 – 1 = 23.
A scalar field , which is independent of time, is called a steady-state scalar field.
 Suppose that to each point (x,y,z) of a region R in space, there corresponds
 
a vector V(x, y,z) . Then V is called a vector function of position and we

say that V is vector field defined on R.
Example:
The velocity at
 any point within a moving fluid at a certain time is known as a vector field.
The function V(x,y,z)  xy2iˆ  2 yz3 ˆj  x2 zkˆ defines a vector field. Consider the point P(2,
3, 1). Then V(P) 18iˆ  6 ˆj  4kˆ

A vector field V , which is independent of time, is called a steady-state vector field.
 Determine the vector having initial point P(x1, y1, z1) and terminal
point Q(x2, y2, z2) and find its magnitude.
Solution :
Considering the figure 6, we have the
position vectors of P and Q are
respectively as

r1  x1iˆ  y1 ˆj  z1kˆ and

r2  x2 iˆ  y 2 ˆj  z 2 kˆ
Fig. 7
Then r1  PQ  r2

Or, PQ  r2  r1  ( x2 iˆ  y 2 ˆj  z 2 kˆ)  ( x1iˆ  y1 ˆj  z1kˆ)

 ( x2  x1 )iˆ  ( y2  y1 ) ˆj  ( z2  z1 )kˆ

Magnitude of PQ is PQ  ( x2  x1 ) 2  ( y2  y1 ) 2  ( z2  z1 ) 2
 Problems

 Find a unit vector parallel to the resultant vectors of r1  2iˆ  4 ˆj  5kˆ

and r2  iˆ  2 ˆj  3kˆ.
 Show that the addition of vectors is commutative.
 Show that the addition of vectors is associative.
 Determine a set of equations for the straight line passing through the
points P(x1,y1,z1) and Q(x2,y2,z2).
 Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
 Dot Product
 
 The dot or scalar product of two vectors A and Bis defined as the product
 
of the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of the angle  between them.
In symbols,

A.B  A B cos 

Cross Product    
 The cross product of vectors A and B is a vector C  A  B defined as follows:
    
The magnitude of C  A  B is equal to the product of the magnitudes of A and B
  
and the sine of the angle  between them. The direction of C  A  B is
    
perpendicular to the plane of A and B so that A, B and C form a right-handed
system. In symbols,

A  B  A B sin  u
 
where, û is a unit vector indicating the direction of A  B .
 Triple Product
 Dot and cross multiplication of three vectors A, B, and C may produce
meaningful products, called triple products, of the form
( A.B)C , A.( B.C ) and A  ( B  C )

 Prove that A.B  B. A

 Prove that A  B  B  A
Solution : (i) From the definition of dot product, we have

A.B  A B cos  B A cos  B. A (Proved).

(ii) Fig. 8
#
#
 Suppose A.B  0 and A and B are not zero. Show that A is perpendicular to B.

 Suppose A  B  0 and A and B are not zero. Show that A is parallel to B.

Solution :

(i) From the definition of dot product, we have A.B  A B cos

If A.B  A B cos  0 ,
then cos  0 or ,   90

That is A is perpendicular to B.

(ii)
Since A  B  AB sin   0 , we have

sin   0 or ,   0 or 180

That is A is parallel to B.
 Determine the value of „‟ so that A  2iˆ  aˆj  kˆ and B  iˆ  3 ˆj  8kˆ
are perpendicular.

Solution :
   
A and B are perpendicular when A. B  0
Thus

A .B  (2iˆ   ˆj  kˆ).(iˆ  3 ˆj  8kˆ)  0

Or, (2iˆ   ˆj  kˆ).(iˆ  3 ˆj  8kˆ)  0

Or, (2)(1)  ( )(3)  (1)(8)  0

or , 3   6    2
 Prove that the projection of A on B is equal to A.b where b is a unit vector in the
direction of B. Find the projection of the vector A  i  2 j  3k on the vector
B  i  2 j  2k
Solution :
Through the initial and terminal points of A pass planes perpendicular to B at G and H
as in Fig. 8. Thus
Projection of A on B = GH  EF  A cos  A.b
where b is a unit vector in the direction of B.

A unit vector in the direction of B is

B i  2 j  2k i 2 j 2k
b     
B 12  2 2  2 2 3 3 3

Thus the projection of A on B is

Fig. 08
i 2 j 2k 1 4 6
A.b  (i  2 j  3k ).(   )    1
3 3 3 3 3 3
 PROBLEMS
1. Find the angles that vectors A  4iˆ  8 ˆj  kˆ makes with the coordinates axes.
2. Determine a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of A  2iˆ  6 ˆj  3kˆ and B  4iˆ  3 ˆj  kˆ.

3. Find the work done in moving an object along a vector r  iˆ  2 ˆj  3kˆ. if the
applied force is F  2iˆ  ˆj  kˆ
4. Find an equation of the plane perpendicular to the vector A  2iˆ  3̂  6kˆ and
passing through the terminal point of the vector B  iˆ  2 ˆj  3kˆ. Find the distance
from the origin to that plane.
5. Find the area of the triangle having vertices at P(1, 3, 2), Q(2, -1, 1) R(-1, 2, 3).
6. Determine a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of A  2iˆ  6 ˆj  3kˆ and B  4iˆ  3 ˆj  kˆ
7. Find the projection of the vector A  4iˆ  3 ˆj  kˆ on the line passing through the points
(2, 3, -1) and (-2, -4, 3).
8. Find the volume of the parallelepiped whose edges are represented by A  iˆ  2 ˆj  2kˆ
B  iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ , and C  3iˆ  ˆj  2kˆ.
9. Find the constant  such that the vectors A  2iˆ  ˆj  kˆ, B  iˆ  2 ˆj  3kˆ
and C  3iˆ  ˆ  5kˆ are coplanar.
10. Find a unit vector parallel to the xy plane and perpendicular to the vector 4iˆ  3 ˆj  kˆ.
   
11. Show that the vectors A  3iˆ  2 ˆj  k , B  iˆ  3 ˆj  5k , C  2iˆ  ˆj  4kˆ
ˆ ˆ
form a right-angled triangle.
12. Prove the law of cosines for plane triangles.
13. Prove that the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular.
14. Prove the law of sines for plane triangles.
15. Find an expression for the moment of a force F about a point P.
 
16. For what values of  are A  i  2 j  k and B  2iˆ  ˆj  4kˆ perpendicular?
ˆ ˆ ˆ
17. Find the acute angles which the line joining the points (1, -3, 2) and (3, -5, 1)
makes with the coordinate axes.
 
18. Two sides of a triangle are formed by the vectors A  3iˆ  6 ˆj  2kˆ and B  4iˆ  ˆj  3kˆ.
Determine the angles of the triangle.
19. Find the work done in moving an object along a straight line from (3, 2, -1)

to (2, -1, 4)in a force field given by F  4iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ.
20. Find
 the area of a triangle with
 vertices at (3, -1, 2), (1, -1, -3) and (4, -3, 1).
21. If A  2iˆ  ˆj  3kˆ and B  iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ, find a vector of magnitude 5
perpendicular to both A and B.

22. A force given by F  3iˆ  2 ˆj  4kˆ is applied at the point (1, -1, 2). Find
the moment of F about the point (2, -1, 3).
23. Find the acute angle formed by two diagonals of a cube.
 
24. Suppose A  A1i  A2 j  A3 k and B  B1iˆ  B2 ˆj  B3 kˆ. Prove that
ˆ ˆ ˆ

iˆ ˆj kˆ
 
A  B  A1 A2 A3
B1 B2 B3
  
25. If A  A1i  A2 j  A3k , B  B1i  B2 j  B3k , and C  C1iˆ  C 2 ˆj  C3kˆ show that
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ

A1 A2 A3
           
A.( B  C )  B1 B2 B3 and hence prove that A.(B  C )  B.(C  A)  C.( A  B).
C1 C 2 C3

26. Find an equation for the plane determined by the points P1(2, -1, 1), P2(3, 2, -1)

and P3(-1, 3, 2).

(3)

(4)

(13)
(15)

(23) (26)
 Vector Differentiation
PROBLEMS
(1) A particle moves along a curve whose parametric equation are x = e-t, y = 2cos3t,
z=2sin3t, where t is the time. (a) Determine its velocity and acceleration at any
time. (b) Find the magnitude of the velocity and acceleration at t = 0..

(2) A particle moves along the curve x = 2t2, y = t2-4t, z = -t-5, where t is the time. Find the
components of its velocity and acceleration at time t = 1 in the direction i  3 j  2k .

(3) If A  (2 x 2 y  x 4 )i  (e xy  y sin x) j  ( x 2 cos y)k , find

 A  A 2 A 2 A 2 A 2 A
, , 2 , 2 , , .
x y x y xy yx
 3

(4) If  (x,y,z) = xy2z and A  xz i  xy 2 j  yz 2 k , find 2 ( A) at the

point (2, -1, 1). x z
(5) If A  x yz i  2 xz j  xz k , and B  2 z i  2
2 3 2
yj x 2
k , find ( A  B) at
the point (1, 0, -2). xy
 Vector Differentiation
PROBLEMS
(6) Find the velocity and acceleration of a particle which moves along the curve x =
2sin 3t, y = 2 cos 3t, z = 8t at any time t > 0. Find the magnitude of the velocity and
acceleration.

(7) If A  cos xyi  (3xy  2 x 2 ) j  (3x  2 y )k , find

 A  A 2 A 2 A 2 A 2 A
, , , , , .
x y x 2 y 2 xy yx
Gradient, Divergence and Curl
Introduction
The vector differential operator,  is defined as follows:

         
 i  j  k i j k
x y z x y z
This vector is useful in applications as the gradient, the divergence and the
curl. The operator  is also known as nabla.
Gradient
Let  (x, y, z) be a scalar function defined and differentiable at each point
(x, y, z) in a certain region of space [ That is,  defines a differentiable

scalar field]. Then the gradient of , written  or grad , and defined as
follows:

     
  ( i  j  k )  i  j k
x y z x y z

Note that  defines a vector field.

Example: Suppose ( x, y, z)  3xy3  y2 z2. Find  at the point P(1,1,2).

  
  ( i j  k )(3xy3  y 2 z 2 ),
x y z
 3 y 3 i  (9 xy 2  2 yz 2 ) j  2 y 2 z k
Therefore,  (1,1,2)  3i  (9  8) j  4k  3i  j  4k
 Physical Significance of Gradient
The physical significance of gradient:

1. Gradient of a scalar quantity is a vector quantity. It tells us how much of a

physical quantity changes from one point to another point.
2. The magnitude of that vector quantity is equal to the maximum rate of
change of that scalar quantity.
3. The gradient always points in the direction of the maximum rate of change in
a field.
4. Change of scalar quantity does not depend only on the coordinate of the
point, but also on the direction along which the change is shown.
 
5. The component of  in the direction of a unit vector is given by .â
and is called the directional derivatives of  in the direction a. This is the rate

of change of  at (x,y,z) in the direction a..
 Divergence of a Vector
Let V ( x, y, z )  V1 i  V2 j  V3 k is defined and differentiable at each point
(x, y, z) in a region of space. Then the divergence of V, written .V or div V,
is defined as follows:
  
.V  ( i  j  k ).(V1 i  V2 j  V3 k )
x y z
V1 V2 V3
   Although V is a vector, .V is a scalar.
x y z

Example: Suppose A  x 2 z 2 3i  2 y 2 z 2 j  xy 2 z k . Find .V at the point (1,-1,1).

  
.V  ( i  j  k ).( x 2 z 2 i  2 y 2 z 2 j  xy 2 z k ),
x y z
 2 2  
 ( x z )  (2 y 2 z 2 )  ( xy 2 z )  2 xz 2  4 yz 2  xy 2
x y z
At the point (1, -1, 1), .V  2(1)(1) 2  4( 1)(1) 2  (1)( 1) 2  7
 Physical Significance of Divergence
The physical significance of divergence of a vector are as follows:
  
1. The divergence of a vector (.V) is a measure of how much the vector V spreads out
(diverges) from a point or converges at a point in the space.
2. Positive value of divergence indicates the vector is spreading out as the vectors move
away from a point.
3. Negative value of divergence indicates that the vector is converging i.e. the vectors are
closer together instead of spreading out. .
4. It is zero when the vectors are not spreading out at all. Since the vector field is
constant everywhere and the derivative of a constant is zero. Zero value of divergence
implies that the vector is solenoidal.
5. A point or region with positive divergence is often referred to as a “source” or “faucet”
while a point or region with negative divergence is a “sink” or “drain”.
For example
• The vector function in Fig.(a)
has large (+ve) divergence (if the
arrows pointed in, it would be a
negative divergence).
• The vector function in Fig.(b)
has zero divergence
• The function in Fig.(c) again has
a positive divergence
Practical examples of divergence

1. In a pipe, if
Net flow of liquid into the pipe = Net flow of liquid out of the pipe, then
Divergence = 0
• Consider a magnet. The magnetic field lines originate at one pole and ends at
the other pole. Thus, divergence of magnetic filed is zero, that is,
 
. B  0
There are no sources or sinks of magnetic field, a solenoidal field.
  
• For an electric field: . E  , that is there are sources of electric field.
0
Curl of a Vector
Suppose V ( x, y, z )  V1 i  V2 j  V3 k is a differentiable vector field. Then the curl

or rotation of V, written   V or curl V is defined as follows:
  
 V  ( i  j  k )  (V1 i  V2 j  V3 k )
x y z

i j k
     
  
  y z i  x z i  x y i
x y z
V2 V3 V1 V3 V1 V2
V1 V2 V3

V3 V2 V V V V
  V  (  )i  ( 1  3 ) j  ( 2  1 )k
y z z x x y
 Example
 
Suppose A  x 2 z 2 i  2 y 2 z 2 j  xy 2 z k . Find   A or curl A at the point (1,-1,1).
  
 A  ( i j  k )  ( x 2 z 2 i  2 y 2 z 2 j  xy 2 z k )
x y z
i j k
     
  
  y z i  x z j  x y k
x y z
 2 y 2 z 2 xy 2 z x 2 z 2 xy 2 z x2 z 2  2 y2 z 2
x2 z 2  2 y2 z 2 xy 2 z
     
  V  [ ( xy 2 z )  (2 y 2 z 2 )]i  [ ( x 2 z 2 )  ( xy 2 z )] j  [ (2 y 2 z 2 )  ( x 2 z 2 )]k
y z z x x y

 (2 xyz  4 y 2 z )i  (2 x 2 z  y 2 z ) j  0k

At the point P(1, -1, 1),   A  2i  j

 Physical Significance of Curl
The physical significance of curl of a vector are as follows:
  
1) The curl of a vector field ( V ) is a measure of how much the vector V swirls
or rotates or spin around the point of a given region of space.
2) When the rotation is counter clock-wise, curl is positive and when it is clock-
wise, curl is negative.
3) At every point in the field, the curl of that point is represented by a vector.
4) The direction of the curl is the axis of rotation, as determined by the right
hand rule, and the magnitude of the curl is the strength of the rotation. The
effect of curl is maximum when the object is kept perpendicular to the flow
of the continuously curling field.
  
5) If   F  0 , then such a vector is said to be irrotational. The force F is then
called conservative force.

Curl is an operation, which when applied to

a vector field, quantifies the circulation of
that field. The concept of circulation has
several applications in electromagnetics.
PROBLEMS
 1
1. Find  if (a)   ln r , (b)   .
r
2. Show that r  nr r.
n n2


3. Show that  is a vector perpendicular to the surface (x, y, z) = c where
c is a constant.
4. Find a unit normal to the surface –x2yz2 +2xy2z = 1 at the point P(1, 1, 1).
5. What is directional derivatives? Let  = x2yz – 4xyz2. Find the directional
derivatives of  at P(1, 3, 1) in the direction of 2i  j  2k .
6. Find the angle between the surfaces z  x 2  y 2 and z  ( x  6 6) 2  ( y  6 6) 2 at
the point P  ( 6 12 , 6 12 ,1 12).
7. Let R be the distance from a fixed point A(a, b, c) to any point P(x, y, z).
  
Show that R is a unit vector in the direction AP  R.

8. Given  = 6x3y2z. (a) Find . (b) Show that .   2 where
2 2 2
  2  2  2 denotes the Laplacian operator.
2

x y z
PROBLEMS
9. Prove (a) 2 ( 1 )  0
r
10. (a) .( A  B )  . A  .B (b) .( A)  ( ). A   (. A)

11. Determine the constant a so that the following vector is solenoiddal

V  ( 4 x  6 y  3z )i  ( 2 x  y  5z ) j  (5 x  6 y  az )k .

12. Evaluate 2 (ln r ).

2 r n  n(n  1)r n 2 ,where n is a constant.
13. Prove that
r 
14. If A  , find grad div A.
r
15. Prove that the divergence of a vector field which obeys the inverse square
law is zero.
16. Show that A  (2x 2  8xy 2 z)i  (3x 3 y  3xy) j  (4y 2 z 2  2x 3 z)k is not
solenoidal but B  xyz 2 A is solenoidal.
    
17. Prove: (a)   ( )  0 (curl grad  = 0) (b) .(  A)  0 (div curl A = 0 ).
18. Suppose A  x 2 z 2 i  2y 2 z 2 j  xy 2 zk . Find   (  A ).
19. Suppose   A  0. Evaluate .( A  r ).
20. Prove that   (  A )   2 A  (.A ).
21. (a) Find constants a, b, and c so that
V  ( 4 x  3 y  az)i  (bx  3 y  5 z ) j  (4 x  cy  3z )k is irrotational.
(b) Show that V can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar function.
22. Given A  xz 2 i  2 y j  xz k and B  3xzi  2 yz j  z 2 k . Find
A  (  B) and ( A   )  B ) at the point (1, -1, 2).
   
23. Show that E  r2 is irrotational. Find  such that E  φ.
  r  
24. If A and B are irrotational, prove that A  B is solenoidal.

25. Show that A  (6 xy  z 3 )iˆ  (3x2  z) ˆj  (3xz2  y)kˆ is irrotational. Find  such
 
that A  φ.