SMA 230 Vector Analysis Notes
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INSTITUTE OF OPEN LEARNING
SMA 230: VECTOR ANALYSIS
IYAYA WANJALA DEPARTMENT
OF MATHEMATICS
1
PREFACE
This module is designed to be used either as a text book for a formal course in
vector analysis or as a very useful supplement to all current standard texts.
Topics covered include the algebra and the differential and integral calculus of
vectors, Stokes‟ theorem, the divergence theorem and other integral theorems
together with many applications drawn from various fields. Added is a chapter on
curvilinear coordinates which is extremely useful in the study of advanced
engineering, physics and mathematics.
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS PAGE
PREFACE ................................................ 1
CHAPTER 1 VECTORS AND SCALARS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Vector Representation, Addition of Vectors, Vector Algebra,
Direction Cosines, Scalar Field, Vector Field, Further Examples,
Intersection of Two Planes
CHAPTER 2 THE DOT AND VECTOR PRODUCTS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
The Dot Product, The Cross Product, Triple Products, Coplanar
Vectors, Vector Triple Products of Three Vectors
CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION OF VECTORS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Differentiation of Vectors, Sums and Products, Unit Tangent
Vectors, Partial Differentiation of Vectors, Elements of Differential
Geometry
CHAPTER 4
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Gradient, Divergence And Curl
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Line Integrals, Surface Integrals, Volume Integrals, Divergence
Theorem, Green‟s Theorem, Stokes‟ Theorem
CHAPTER 6
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Cylindrical Polar Coordinates , , z , Spherical Polar Coordinates
r, , , Scale Factors, Rectangular Coordinate System, Cylindrical
Coordinate System, General Curvilinear Coordinates System,
Transformation of Coordinates, Arc Lengths Ds and Volume
Element Dv, Grad, Divergence and Curl in Orthogonal Curvilinear
Coordinates.
0
CHAPTER 1
VECTOR AND SCALARS
1
CHAPTER 1
VECTOR AND SCALARS
Introduction:
This is an introductory chapter that gives the overview of the course. The definitions
of scalar and vector quantities are given.
2
CHAPTER 1
VECTOR AND SCALARS
Physical quantities can be divided into two main groups, scalar quantities and vector
quantities.
Definition: A vector is a quantity having both magnitude and direction, such as
displacement, velocity, force, and acceleration.
Definition: A scalar is a quantity having magnitude but no direction, e.g. mass,
length, time, temperature and any real number.
VECTOR REPRESENTATION
A vector quantity can be represented graphically by a line, drawn so that:
The length of the line denotes the magnitude of the quantity, according to
some stated vector scale.
The direction of the line denotes the direction in which the vector quantity
acts. An arrow head indicates the sense of the direction, e.g.
O
the vector OP has as initial point O and final point P and is analytically represented
by a letter with an arrow over it, as A . The magnitude of the vector quantity
denoted by OP or A .
PO would represent a vector quantity of the same magnitude but with opposite
sense.
P O
A A
O P
3
CHAPTER 1
VECTOR AND SCALARS
Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if they have the same magnitude and
direction regardless of the position of their initial points.
A B
Thus A = B
ADDITION OF VECTORS
The sum of two vectors AB and BC is defined as the single or equivalent or
resultant vector AC .
i.e. AB BC AC C
or a b c
c
b
A B
a
To find the sum of two vectors a and b , we draw them as a chain, starting the
second where the first ends; the sum c is then given by the single vector joining the
start of the first to the end of the second.
Example 1.1
Let P a force of 5N acting in the direction due East and Q a force of 12N acting
in the direction due North, then the magnitude of the vector sum r of these two
forces will be r=13N.
For by Pythagorean
theorem
p2 q2 r 2
25 144 169 r q
r 169 13N
p
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CHAPTER 1
VECTOR AND SCALARS
The sum of a number of vectors a b c d L
(i) Draw the vectors as a chain.
E
d
D
c
A
a C
B b
(ii) Then:
a b AC
AC c AD
a b c AD
AD d AE
a b c d AE
Thus the sum of all vectors a, b, c, d is given by the single vector joining the start of
the first to the end of the last – in this case, AE . If the vector diagram is a closed
figure e.g.
e E
~
F d
~
f D
~
c
~
A C
a b
~
B ~
the end of the last vector coincides with the beginning of the first, the resultant sum
is a vector with no magnitude.
5
CHAPTER 1
VECTOR AND SCALARS
Example 1.2
Find the sum or resultant of the following displacements:
A :10m Northwest; B : 20m 300 north of east; C :35m due south.
N
Q
B
0
30
C
A 0
45 E
W
O
0
60
D
R
Scale:5m S
The resultant D is formed by joining the initial part of A to the terminal part of C,
i.e. D A B C . Graphically, the resultant is measured to have magnitude of 4.1
units=20.5m and direction 600 south of E.
VECTOR ALGEBRA
If A , B and C are vectors and m and n are scalars, then
1. A B B A Commutative law of addition. Example;
B Q
P
C AB
A
A
CBA
O R
B
We note that OP PQ OQ or A B C
and OR RQ OQ or B A C
then A B B A
2.
A BC A B C Associative law of addition. As an
illustration, we show that addition of vectors is associative, i.e.
A B C A B C
6
CHAPTER 1
VECTOR AND SCALARS
P B Q
A C
A B B C
O R
D
OP PQ OQ A B
and PQ QR PR B C
OP PR OR D i.e. A B C D
OQ QR OR D i.e. A B C D
then A B C A B C
Thus the order of addition of any number of vectors is immaterial.
COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR
Any vector A in 3-dimensions can be represented with initial point at the origin O of a
rectangular coordinate system.
Z
A1iˆ Y
O A3 kˆ
A2 ĵ
X
Let (A1, A2, A3) be the rectangular coordinates of the terminal point of vector A with
initial point at O. The vectors A1î , A2 ĵ and A3 kˆ are called the component vectors of
A in the x, y and z directions respectively. The resultant of A1î , A2 ĵ and A3 kˆ is the
vector A so that A A1î A2 ĵ A3 k̂
The magnitude of A is A A12 A22 A32 . In particular, the position vector or radius
vector r from O to the point (x, y, z) is written as
r xî yĵ zkˆ
7
CHAPTER 1
VECTOR AND SCALARS
and has magnitude
r r x 2 y 2 z 2
Definition: A unit vector is a vector having unit magnitude. If A is a vector with
magnitude A 0 then, A A â is a unit vector having the same
direction as A .
Example 1.3
Find the unit vector paralleled to the resultant of vectors:
r1 2î 4 ĵ 5k̂ , r2 î 2 ĵ 3kˆ
Resultant
R r 1 r 2 2iˆ 4 ĵ 5k̂ iˆ 2 ĵ 3k̂ 3î 6 ĵ 2k̂
R R 3î 6 ĵ 2k̂ 3 6 2 7
2 2 2
Then a unit vector parallel to R is r̂ R R 17 3iˆ 6 ĵ 2k̂ . Verify that r̂ has
magnitude 1.
Example 1.4
Determine the vector having initial point P (x1, x1, x1) and terminal point Q (x2, y2,z2)
and find its magnitude.
Z P(X11,1Y,Z
Q(X22,2Y,Z
r1
r2
Y
O
X
The position vector of P is r 1 x1iˆ y1 ĵ z1kˆ
The position vector of Q is r 2 x2 î y2 ĵ z2 kˆ
r1 PQ r2
or PQ r2 r1 x 2 x1 iˆ y 2 y1 ĵ z 2 z1 k̂
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CHAPTER 1
VECTOR AND SCALARS
Magnitude of PQ PQ x2 x1 2 y2 y1 2 z 2 z1 2 Which is the distance
between P and Q.
DIRECTION COSINES:
The direction of a vector in three dimensions is determined by the angles that the
vector makes with the three axes of reference.
Z
P
r
Y
b
X
Let OP r aî bĵ ck̂
Then a cos a r cos
r
b cos a r cos
r
c
r cos a r cos
Also a 2 b2 c 2 r 2
r 2 cos 2 r 2 cos 2 r 2 cos 2 r 2
cos 2 cos 2 cos 2 1
If l cos , m cos , n cos ;
Then l 2 m2 n 2 1
Note: [l,m,n] written in square brackets are called the direction cosines of the
vector OP and are the values of the cosines of the angles which the vector
makes with the three axes of reference.
So for the vector r aî bĵ ckˆ
l a r ; m b r ; n c r and of course r a 2 b 2 c 2
Example 1.5
Find the direction cosines [l,m,n] of the vector r 3î 2 ĵ 6k̂
Here a=3, b=-2, c=6;
r 9 4 36 7
l 3 7 , m 2 7 , n 6 7
9
CHAPTER 1
VECTOR AND SCALARS
SCALAR FIELD
If to each point (x,y,z) of a region R in space there corresponds a number or
scalar ( x, y, z) , then is called a scalar function of position and we say that a scalar
field has been defined in R.
Example 1.6 The temperature at any point within or on the earth‟s surface at
a certain time defines a scalar field.
Example 1.7 ( x, y, z) x 3 y z 2 defines a scalar field.
Example 1.8 Given the scalar field defined by ( x, y, z) 3x 2 z xy 3 5 , find
at the point (-1,-2,-3).
(1,2,3) 3(1) 2 (3) (1)(2) 3 5 12
VECTOR FIELD
If to each point (x,y,z) of a region R in space there corresponds a vector V ( x, y, z) ,
then V is called a vector function of position and we say that a vector field V has
been defined in R.
Example 1.9 If the velocity at any point (x,y,z) within a moving fluid is known
at a certain time, then a vector field is defined.
Example 1.10 V ( x, y, z) xy 2 î 2 yz 3 ĵ x 2 zk̂ defines a vector field. A vector
field that is independent of time is called a steady-state vector
field.
FURTHER EXAMPLES
Example 1.11
Given two non-collinear vectors a and b , find an expression for any vector r lying
in the plane determined by a and b . R
Non-collinear vectors are vectors that are not parallel to D
A
the same line. Thus when their initial points coincide, r
a
they determine a plane. Let r be any vector lying in
O B
C
the plane of a and b and having its initial point b
coincident with the initial points of a and b at O.
10
CHAPTER 1
VECTOR AND SCALARS
From the adjoining figure;
OD x ( OA ) x a , where x is a scalar
OC y ( OB ) y b , where y is a scalar
But OR OD OC (parallelo gram law of vector addition)
or r x a y b
Which is the required expression. Similar treatment for three non-coplanar vectors
a , b and c results into the expression:
r x a y b z c
in three dimensional space where x, y and z are scalars.
Example 1.12
Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
We have
AC a b and
~ ~
BD b a
~ ~
b
B ~ C
a
a ~
~ P
A D
b
~
AP x AC ; BP y BD
But AB BP AP a y b a x a b
~ ~
~ ~
Comparing coefficients of a and of b on left and right we find that x y 1
2
and P is the midpoint of the diagonals.
11
CHAPTER 1
VECTOR AND SCALARS
Example 1.13
Find the equation of a straight line that passes through two given points A and B
having position vectors a and b with respect to an origin O.
A
a P
r
O B
b
Let r be the position vector of any point P on the line through A and B. Then,
OA AB OB
OA AP OP
But AP t AB ; t scalar
Thus OP OA t AB
i .e . r a t ( b a )
~
If the equation is written A t a t b r 0 , the sum of the coefficients of
a , b and r is 1-t+t-1=0. Alternatively, since AP and PB are collinear, we have
for some scalars m and n
m AP n PB or m ( r a ) n ( b r )
so that
ma nb
r
m n
which we call the symmetric form.
Example 1.14
At noon, two boats P and Q are at points whose position vectors are 4 iˆ 8 ĵ and
4 iˆ 3 ĵ respectively. Both boats are moving at constant velocity; the velocity of P is
4 iˆ ĵ and the velocity of Q is 2 iˆ 5 ĵ (all distances are in kilometers and the
time is measured in hours). Find the position vectors of P and Q, and PQ after t
hours, and hence express the distance PQ between the boats in terms of t. Show
that the least distance between the boats is 5 km .
12
CHAPTER 1
VECTOR AND SCALARS
After t hours the displacement of P from its starting point is t 4 iˆ ĵ , hence
P 4 iˆ 8 ĵ t 4 iˆ ĵ 4 4 t iˆ 8 t ĵ
Similarly
q 4 2t iˆ 3 5t ĵ
Hence
PQ q p 2tî 5 4t ĵ
PQ 2 2t 5 4t 20t 2 40t 25
2 2
Hence the distance between the boats is given by
PQ 20t 2 40t 25 km
To find the least distance, we consider
PQ 2 20t 2 40t 25 20(t 1) 2 5
Least value is obtained if t-1=0, since for any other value of t 1, t 1 is always
2
positive. Hence least distance PQ 5 .
Example 1.15
Given that A,B,C are the points (1,1,1), (5,0,0) and (3,2,1) respectively, find the
equation which must be satisfied by the coordinates (x,y,z) of any point P in the
plane ABC.
As P lies in the plane ABC, we may write AP m AB n AC . Then, since
4 2 x 1
AB 1 ; AC 1 and AP y 1
0 z 1
1
x 1 4 2
y 1 m 1 n 1
z 1
1 0
Thus
x 1 4m 2n
y 1 m n
z 1 m
13
CHAPTER 1
VECTOR AND SCALARS
Eliminating n, x-2y=-1+6m
And eliminating m, x-2y+6z=5
This is the equation of the plane ABC.
INTERSECTION OF TWO PLANES
Two non-parallel planes will always meet in a straight line. If we are given the
equations of two such planes, say, 3x-5y+z=8 and 2x-3y+z=3, the equation of the
line of intersection can be found as follows:
For any point (x,y,z) which lies in both planes, the values of x, y and z fit both
equations simultaneously. Hence eliminating z from both equations (in this case by
subtracting the second equation from the first), we obtain
x-2y=5
There are infinitely many points of values of x and y which satisfy this equation, but
if we choose a value for x then the value of y is fixed and vice-versa. Let y=t, then
x=5+2t and substituting these expressions for x and y into the first of the original
equations, we obtain
35 2t 5t z 8
z 7 t
x 5 2
Thus y 0 t 1
z 7 1
this is the equation of the line parallel to the vector
2
1
1
and it passes through the point (5,0,-7). A typical point on the line can be written
(5+2t, t, -7-t) and it can easily be verified that, for all values of t, this point lies in
both of the planes. If we substitute its coordinates into the first equation, we obtain:
3x 5 y z 3(5 2t) 5t (7 t ) 8
and substituting in the second equation gives:
2 x 3 y z 2(5 2t ) 3t (7 t ) 3
14
CHAPTER 1
VECTOR AND SCALARS
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. If a and b are non-collinear vectors and
~ ~
A x 4 y a~ 2 x y b~ and B y 2 x 2 a 2 x 3 y 1 b
~ ~
find x and y such that 3 A 2 B
Ans. x 56
43 , y 22
43
2. Prove that if a and b are non-collinear, then x a y b 0 implies that
~ ~ ~ ~
x=y=0.
3. If x 1 a y 1 b x 2 a y 2 b , where a and b are non-collinear then x1=x2
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
and y1=y2.
4. If a , b , c are non-coplanar vectors determine whether the vectors
~ ~ ~
r 1 2 a 3 b c , r 2 3 a 5 b 2 c and r 3 4 a 5 b c are
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
linearly independent or dependent.
5. Prove that the medians of a triangle meet in a common point that is a point of
trisection of the medians.
6. Find the resultant of the following displacements: A, 20 km300 South of East;
B, 50 km due West; C, 40 km Northeast; D, 30 km 600 South of West.
Ans. Magnitude 20.9 km, direction 21039ˈSouth of West
7. A 100 kg mass is suspended from the 0
60
0
60
center of a rope as shown in the adjoining figure. T T
Determine the tension T in the rope.
Ans. 100kg. 100kg
15
CHAPTER 1
VECTOR AND SCALARS
8. In the adjoining figure, ABCD is a
A B
parallelogram with P and Q the midpoints of
F
sides BC and CD respectively. Prove that AP P
E
and AQ trisect diagonal BD at the points E
D C
and F. Q
9. a) Prove that the vectors A 3iˆ ĵ 2k̂, B î 3 ĵ 4k̂, C 4î 2 ĵ 6kˆ
can form the sides of a triangle.
9. b) Find the lengths of the medians of the triangle.
Ans. (b), 6 ; 12 114 ; 12 150
10. Determine the vector equation of the centroid of an equilateral triangle.
Ans. 1
3 a b c
~ ~ ~
11. Find the equation of the line of intersection of the planes:
4x+3y+z=10
x+y+z=6
16
CHAPTER 2
THE DOT AND CROSS PRODUCTS
Introduction:
The product of two vectors, which yield a scalar, is called the dot or scalar product
and the product of two vectors, which yield a vector, is called a vector or cross
product. These products are useful in discussing the properties of vectors.
Objectives:
We discuss various properties of vectors and physical situations using properties of
the two types of products.
17
CHAPTER 2
THE DOT AND CROSS PRODUCTS
THE DOT OR SCALAR PRODUCT:
If A and B are two vectors, the scalar product of A and B is defined as AB cos ,
where A and B are the magnitudes of the vectors A and B , and is the angle
between them.
A
The scalar (dot) product is denoted by A.B
B
A.B AB cos A projection of B on A
In either case, the result is a scalar quantity
or B projection of A on B
Example 2.1
B
7
A
70
0 5
O 25 0
X
OA o OB OA.OB. cos 5.7 cos 45 35. 2
2
Example 2.2
The scalar product of a and b ,
~ ~
a .b ab cos 90 0 ab.0 0 .
~ ~
b
Thus the scalar product of any two vectors at right 0
90
angles to each other is always zero and we say that
a
the two vectors are orthogonal or perpendicular to one
another.
18
CHAPTER 2
THE DOT AND CROSS PRODUCTS
In the case where two vectors are in the same direction, the angle between them is
zero.
a
So a . b ab cos 0 ab
~ ~
b
On writing the two vectors A and B in their component form, i.e.
A A 1î A2 ĵ A3 k̂
B B1iˆ B2 ĵ B3 k̂
Then
A B A î ĵ A k̂ B î ĵ B k̂
A 1 2 B 3 1 2 3
A1 B1iˆ î A ˆ ˆ
2 i ĵ 1 A3 B i k̂
1 B
A B ĵ î A ĵ ĵ A ĵ k̂
2 1B 2 2 B 2 3
A3 B1kˆ iˆ A
3 B
ˆ ˆ
2 k ĵ 3 A3B k̂ k
Now iˆ î ĵ ĵ kˆ k̂ 11cos 0 1
Also iˆ ĵ iˆ k̂ ĵ k̂ 11cos 90 0
We are left with
A B A1 B1 A2 B2 A3 B3
Example 2.3
If A 2î 2 ĵ k̂ and B 6î 3 ĵ 2k̂
Then A B AB cos A1 B1 A2 B2 A3 B3
3.7 cos 12 6 2 4
Thus A B 4 and the angle between A and B is cos 214
79 0
Example 2.4
Determine the values of a so that A aî 2 ĵ k̂ and B 2aî aĵ 4k̂ are
perpendicular (⊥). A and B are ⊥if their dot product is zero.
Thus
aiˆ 2 ĵ k̂ 2aiˆ aĵ 4k̂ 2a 2
2a 4 0
or a a 2 0
2
19
CHAPTER 2
THE DOT AND CROSS PRODUCTS
from which we obtain a=2, or –1.
20
CHAPTER 2
THE DOT AND CROSS PRODUCTS
Example 2.5
Show that the vectors A 3iˆ 2 ĵ k̂ , B î 3 ĵ 5kˆ, C 2î ĵ 4kˆ form a right-
angled triangle. This can be shown in two ways. Either we show that the sum of two
vectors equals the third or the sum of the three vectors is identically zero. By trial
and error we find that A B C , so that the vectors do form a triangle.
On determining the dot products of the vectors in turn we discover that A C 0 .
Thus A and C are ⊥and the triangle is a right-angled triangle.
Example 2.6
Find the angles that the vector A 3î 6 ĵ 2k̂ makes with the coordinate axis. We
let the angles be , that A makes with the positive x,y,z axes respectively.
,
A î A cos 3 2 6 2 2 cos 7 cos
2
then
and
A î 3iˆ 6 ĵ 2k̂ i 3
Thus cos 3 7 cos 1 3
7
64.6 0
Similarly
cos 7 6 cos 1
7
6
149 0
and cos 2 cos 1 2 73.4 0
7 7
Example 2.7
Find the projection of the vector A î 2 ĵ k̂ on the vector B 4î 4 ĵ 7kˆ .
A
P Q
B
R S
Projection of A on B RS PQ A cos Q A where b̂ is the unit vector in the
b̂
direction of B .
21
CHAPTER 2
THE DOT AND CROSS PRODUCTS
B 4î 4 ĵ 7k̂ 4 4 7
Thus b̂ î ĵ k̂
B 4 2 4 7 2 9 9 9
2
and 4 4 7 19
A ˆb iˆ 2 ˆj kˆ i ˆ ˆj kˆ
9 9 9 9
Example 2.8
Prove that C 2 A 2 B 2 2 AB cos where A , B , C are the three sides of a triangle
with the angle between the vectors A and B .
C
B
From the diagram we have A B C or C A B
Thus
C C A B A B
A A 2 A B B
Hence B C 2 A 2 B 2 2 AB
cos
We call the Cosine rule for plane triangles.
C A B 2 AB cos
2 2 2
Example 2.9
Find an equation for the plane perpendicular to the vector A 2î 3 ĵ 6kˆ and
passing through the terminal point of the vector B î 5 ĵ 3kˆ . Also find the
distance from the origin to the plane.
Z
P(x,y,z)
r
A
B
Y
O
22
CHAPTER 2
THE DOT AND CROSS PRODUCTS
We let r be the position vector of point P and Q, the terminal point of B . Since
PQ B r is perpendicular to A, B r A 0 or r A B gives the equation of
A
the plane. In rectangular coordinates, we have
xiˆ yĵ zk̂ 2iˆ 3 ĵ 6k̂ iˆ 5 ĵ 3k̂ 2iˆ 3 ĵ 6k̂
or 2x 3 y 6 z 35
The distance from the origin to the plane is the projection of B on A . Thus, a unit
vector â in the direction of A is A
A
27 î 37 ĵ 67k̂ .
Then the projection of B on A B â iˆ 5 ĵ 3k̂
7
2
î 7 3 ĵ 7 6 k̂ 5 .
Example 2.10
Given that A 3î ĵ 2kˆ and B î 2 ĵ 4kˆ are position vectors of points P and Q
respectively,
a) Find an equation for the plane passing through Q and perpendicular to
line PQ.
Z
P R
Q
A r
B
Y
O
X
Let position vector of some point R on the plane be r .
Then PQ OQ OP 2î 3 ĵ 6kˆ
Since the plane is perpendicular to PQ
Then PQ QR 0
23
CHAPTER 2
THE DOT AND CROSS PRODUCTS
QR OR OQ x
1iˆ y 2 ĵ z
4k̂
24
CHAPTER 2
THE DOT AND CROSS PRODUCTS
Hence
2î 3 ĵ 6k̂ x 1iˆ y 2 ĵ z 4k̂ 0
2x 3 y 6 z 28 0
b) What is the distance from the point (-1,1,1) to the plane?
The distance from the point (x1,y1,z1) to the plane is given by:
ax1 by1 cz1 d
distance
a 2 b2 c2
Where ax+by+cz=d is the equation of the plane. Thus the distance
from (-1,1,1) to the plane is
2 1 3 1 6 1 35
28 5 Z
7
2 2 32 6 2
THE CROSS PRODUCT
For vectors in space, we normally define axes of
reference by the „right-hand rule‟.
OX, OY, OZ form a right-handed set if rotation
from OX to OY takes a right-handed corkscrew
y
action along the positive direction of OZ. Similarly,
rotation from OY to OZ gives right-hand corkscrew
X
action along the positive direction of OX etc.
Definition: The cross or vector product of A and B written A B and read as „ A
cross B ‟ is defined as a vector having the magnitude AB sin , where
is the angle between the two vectors. The product vector acts in a
direction perpendicular to A and B in such a sense that A , B , and
A B form a right-handed system-in that order.
A B AB sin
A B
B A reverses the direction of rotation and the product
B
vector would now act downward i.e. B A A B .
A
B A
25
CHAPTER 2
THE DOT AND CROSS PRODUCTS
If 0 0 ; then A B AB sin 0 0 0
and if 90 0 ; then A B AB sin 90 0 AB
if A and B are given in terms of position vectors, then A A1î A2 ĵ A3 k̂ and
B B1iˆ B2 ĵ B3 k̂
Then
A B A1î A2 ĵ A3 k̂ B1î B2 ĵ B3 k̂
A1 B1iˆ î A1 B2 iˆ ĵ A1 B3iˆ k̂
A2 B1 ĵ î A2 B2 ĵ ĵ A2 B3 ĵ k̂
A B k̂ î A B kˆ ĵ A B k̂ k̂
3 1 3 2 3 3
Now, since iˆ iˆ 11 sin 0 0 , we iˆ iˆ ĵ ĵ k̂ k̂ 0 . Also iˆ ĵ 11 sin 90 0 1 in
have
direction OZ, i.e. iˆ ĵ kˆ
iˆ
ĵ
iˆ ĵ kˆ ; ĵ iˆ kˆ
k̂
ĵ kˆ iˆ ; k̂ ĵ iˆ
k̂ iˆ ĵ ; iˆ k̂ ĵ
Thus A B b1c 2 b2 c1 iˆ a 2 c1 a1c 2 ĵ a1b2 a 2 b1 kˆ
or b1c 2 b2 c1 iˆ a1c 2 a 2 c1 ĵ a1b2 a 2 b1 kˆ
Which we may recognize as the expansion of the determinant
iˆ ĵ kˆ
A B A1 A2 A3
B1 B2 B 3
Example 2.11
If A 3iˆ 2 ĵ 4k̂ and B 2iˆ 3 ĵ 2kˆ then
î ĵ k̂
A B 3 2 4 16î 14 ĵ 5k̂
2 3 2
We note that the scalar product of two vectors is a scalar but the vector product of
two vectors is again a vector.
26
CHAPTER 2
THE DOT AND CROSS PRODUCTS
To determine the angle between the vectors A and B ; we have
A B AB sin
Now A B 16 2 14 2 5 2 477
A A 3 2 2 2 4 2 29
B B 2 2 3 2 2 2 17
477 129 17 sin
477
or sin
29 17
1
sin 79 0 40
477
29 17
Example 2.12
If A 3iˆ ĵ 2k̂ , B 2iˆ ĵ kˆ and C iˆ 2 ĵ 2kˆ
Find (a) A B C ,
(b) A B C .
A B iˆ 7 ĵ 5kˆ
(a)
A B C iˆ 7 ĵ 5k̂ iˆ 2 ĵ 2k̂ 24iˆ 7 ĵ 5kˆ
(b)
B C 2iˆ ĵ k̂ iˆ 2 ĵ 2k̂ 0iˆ 5 ĵ 5k̂
A B C 3iˆ ˆj 2kˆ 0iˆ 5ˆj 5k
ˆ 15iˆ 15 ˆj 15kˆ
Thus A B C A B C , showing the need for parentheses in A B C to avoid
ambiguity.
Example 2.13
The area of a parallelogram with sides A and B is A B
i.e. area of parallelogram
h B A h
where h A sin
B
27
CHAPTER 2
THE DOT AND CROSS PRODUCTS
Thus area A sin B
A B
We can also deduce from this that the area of a triangle is half the area of a
parallelogram. Hence area of a triangle is 1
2
A B .
Example 2.14
Find the area of the triangle having vertices at P(1,3,2), Q(2,-1,1), R(-1,2,3). We
have PQ î 4 ĵ k̂ ; PR 2î ĵ k̂ , and
area of triangle
1 PQ PR
2
1 î 4 ĵ k̂ 2î ĵ k̂
2
1 107
2
TRIPLE PRODUCTS
Scalar Triple Product: If A, B, C are three vectors, the scalar formed by the product
A B C is called the scalar triple product.
If A A1î A2 ĵ A3 k̂ , B B1î B2 ĵ B3 k̂ and C C1î C 2 ĵ C3 k̂ .
î ĵ k̂
Then B C B1 B2 B3
C1 C 2 C3
A1 A2 A3
A B C B
1B2 B3
C1 C 2 C 3
28
CHAPTER 2
THE DOT AND CROSS PRODUCTS
Example 2.15
If A 2î 3 ĵ 4k̂ , B î 2 ĵ 3k̂ and C 2î ĵ 2k̂ .
î ĵ k̂
Then B C 1 2 3
2 1 2
î 8 ĵ 5k̂
î 8 ĵ 5k̂
A B C 2iˆ 3 ĵ 4k̂ iˆ 8 ĵ 5k̂
2 24 20
42
Scalar triple products satisfy the following properties:
B B B A A A A A A
(i)
1
B C A C C
1
2
2
3 1
C C C
3 1
2
2
3 1
C B B
3 1
2
2
B
3
3
A A A B B B C C C
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
A B C
Since interchanging two rows in a determinant reverses the sign.
Then A B C B C A C A B
A A A
(ii) 1
A B A B B
1
2
2
3
B 0 since two rows are identical
3
A1 A2 A3
The scalar triple product in absolute represents the volume of a parallelepiped with
sides A , B and C .
COPLANAR VECTORS
The scalar triple product provides a test to show whether three given vectors lie in
the same plane.
BC B C is a vector product of B and C of magnitude
C B C acting in a direction perpendicular to the plane
A of B and C and forming a right-handed set.
29
CHAPTER 2
THE DOT AND CROSS PRODUCTS
If A happens to be in the same plane as B and C , then A will be perpendicular to
B C . Hence A B C A B C cos 90 0 .
Therefore, three vectors A , B and C are coplanar if A B C 0 .
Example 2.16
The vectors A iˆ 2 ĵ 3k̂ , B 2î ĵ 2k̂ and C 3î ĵ k̂ are coplanar since
1 2 3
A B C 2 1 2 0
3 1 1
Example 2.17
Find the volume of a parallelepiped whose edges are represented by
A 2î 3 ĵ 4k̂ , B î 2 ĵ k̂ and C 3î ĵ 2k̂
2 3 4
Volume of parallelepiped is
A B C 2 1 7
1
3 1 2
Example 2.18
Find the constant a such that the vectors 2î ĵ k̂ , î 2 ĵ 3k̂ and 3iˆ aĵ 5k̂ are
coplanar.
Solution:
If coplanar then 2iˆ ĵ k̂ iˆ 2 ĵ 3k̂ 3iˆ a ĵ 5k̂ 0
2 1 1
i.e. 1 2 3 0
3 a 5
from which we obtain a=-4.
Example 2.19
Find an equation for the plane determined by the points P1(2,-1,1), P2(3,2,-1) and
P3(-1,3,2).
The position vectors of P1, P2, P3 and any point P(x,y,z) are respectively
r 1 2î ĵ k̂, r 2 3î 2 ĵ k̂, r 3 î 3 ĵ 2k̂ and r xî yĵ zkˆ .
30
CHAPTER 2
THE DOT AND CROSS PRODUCTS
Then PP 1 r r1 , P2 P 1 r2 r1 , PP3 r3 r1 all lie in the required plane, so that
r r o r r r r 0
1 2 1 3 1
i.e x 2iˆ y 1 ĵ z 1k̂ o î 3 ĵ 2k̂ 3î 4 ĵ k̂ 0
or 11x 5 y 13z 30
VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCTS OF THREE VECTORS
If A , B and C are three vectors, then A B C and A B C are called vector
triple products.
î ĵ k̂
A B C A1î A2 ĵ A3 k̂ B1 B 2 B3
C1 C 2 C3
A1iˆ A2 ĵ A3 k̂ B 2 C 3 B3 C2 î B1 C3 B3 C1 ĵ B1C 2 B2 C1 k̂
î ĵ k̂
A1 A2 A3
B2 C 3 B3 C 2 B3 C1 B1C 3 B1 C 2 B 2 C1
A2 B1 C 2 B 2 C1 A3 B3 C1 B1C 3 î A1 B1C 2 B2 C1 A3 B 2 C 3 B3 C 2 ĵ
A1 B3 C1 B1C 3 A2 B 2 C 3 B3 C 2 k̂
Also we have
B A o C C A o B A 2B1C 2 A3 B1C3 A2 C1 B2 A3 C1 B3 î
B 2 A1C1 B2 A3 C 3 C 2 A1 B1 C 2 A3 B3 ĵ
B3 A1C1 B3 A2 C 2 C 3 A1 B1 C 3 A2 B2 k̂
and so we have shown that
A B C B A o C C A o B .
Now since A B C C A B we interchange the roles of A, B and C in the
above argument and have
A B C C A B
A C o B B C o A
B A o C AB o C
and as such we use the above relations to easily show that
A B C B C A C A B 0
31
CHAPTER 2
THE DOT AND CROSS PRODUCTS
QUESTIONS
1. If A 5î 2 ĵ 3k̂ ; B 3iˆ ĵ 2k̂ ; C î 3 ĵ 4k̂ ; determine
a) The scalar triple product
Ao BC Ans. -12
b) The vector triple products i.) A B C Ans. 62iˆ 44 ĵ 74k̂
ii.) A B C Ans. 109î 7 ĵ 22k̂
2. Determine the value of p such that the vectors A, B and C are coplanar when
A 2î ĵ 4k̂ ; B 3î 2 ĵ pk̂ ; C î 4 ĵ 2k̂ ;
Ans. P=6
3. Find the area of a parallelogram having diagonals
A 3iˆ ĵ 2kˆ and B î 3 ĵ 4k̂ .
Ans. 5 3
4. Find the shortest distance from (6,-4,4) to the line joining (2,1,2) and
(3,-1,4).
Ans. 3
5. A force given by F 3iˆ 2 ĵ 4k̂ is applied at the point (1,-1,2). Find the
moment of F about the point (2,-1,3).
Ans. 2î 7 ĵ 2k̂
32
CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENTIATION OF VECTORS
Introduction:
We discuss ordinary and partial differentiation of vectors. Some elements of
differential geometry are also discussed.
Objectives:
We show that ordinary rules of differentiation in differential calculus are also
applicable to vector calculus, where dot and vector products retain their nature. We
shall also committee ourselves to the study of space curves and surfaces in the
name of differential geometry.
33
CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENTIATION OF VECTORS
If a vector A depends on a scalar variable t, then A can be represented as At and
A is then said to be a function of t and t is called a parameter. In the component
form we write
A A1 t iˆ A2 t ĵ A3 t k̂;
Differentiating w r t , we get
t
d
dt
At iˆ A1 t ĵ A2 t k̂ A3 t
d
dt
d
dt
d
dt
At is itself a vector depending on t, we can consider its derivative
d
Since
dt
d2
w r t . If this derivative exists it is denoted by At . In like manner higher
t
dt 2
order derivatives are described.
Example 3.1
If Au 3u 2 4 î 2u 5 ĵ 4u 3 k̂, find
dA d2 A
;
du du 2
dA
6uî 2 ĵ 12u 2 k̂
du
d2A
6î 24uk̂
du 2
If we wanted these derivatives at u=2, then we would have obtained
dA
u 2 12î 2 ĵ 48k̂ and
du
d2 A
u 2 6î 48kˆ
du 2
Example 3.2
If A e t î Int 2 1 ĵ tan t k̂ , find
d A d2 A d A d2 A
, 2 , , 2 at t 0
dt dt dt dt
dA 2t
e t î 2 ĵ sec 2 t k̂ t 0 î 0 ĵ k̂
dt t
34
CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENTIATION OF VECTORS
dA
12 02 12
dt
Differentiating the second time w r t t ;
d 2 A t 2 2t 2
e î ĵ 2 sec 2 t tan t k̂
dt 2
t 1
2
2
t 0
î 2 ĵ 0k̂
and
d2 A 2
2
1 22 02 5
dt
Example 3.3
A particle moves along a curve whose parametric equations are
x e t , y 2 cos 3t, , z 2 sin 3t , where t is the time.
a) Determine its velocity and acceleration at any time.
The position vector r of the particle is
r xî yĵ zkˆ e t î 2 cos 3tĵ 2 sin 3tk̂
dr
r e t î 6 sin 3tĵ 6 cos 3tk̂
dt
and
d2 r
a 2
e t î 18 cos 3tĵ 18 sin 3tk̂
dt
b) Find the magnitudes of the velocity and acceleration at t=0.
dr d2r
At t=0, î 6k̂ and î 18 ĵ.
dt dt 2
Then
dr
t 0 12 6 2 37
dt
d2r
and t 0 12 182 325
dt 2
35
CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENTIATION OF VECTORS
The following formulae are useful for the differentiation of sums and products of
vectors:
If A At and B Bt , then
a)
d
dt
cA c
dA
dt
b)
d
dt
A B
dt
d A dB
dt
c)
d
dt
Ao B Ao
dB d A
dt
dt
oB
d)
d
dt
A B A
dB dA
dt
dt
B
Example 3.4
If A t 2 î tĵ 2t 1k̂ and B 2t 3î ĵ tk̂ , find
a)
d
dt
Ao B b)
d
dt
A B c)
d d B
A at t=1
dt dt
a) A o B t 2 2t 3 t t 2t 1
2t 3 5t 2 2t
d
dt
Ao B t 1
d
dt
2t 3 5t 2 2t t 1
6t 2 10t 2 t 1 6
or apply
d
dt
Ao B Ao
dt
dB d A
dt
oB
î ĵ k̂
b) A B t 2
t 2t 1
2t 3 1 t
t 2 2t 1 î t 3 4t 2 4t 3 ĵ 3t 2 3t k̂
d
dt
A B 2t 2î 3t 8t 4 ĵ 6t 3k̂
t 1
2
t 1
0î 7 ĵ 3k̂
36
CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENTIATION OF VECTORS
dB
c) 2î k̂
dt
î ĵ k̂
t t 2t 1 tî t 2 4t 2 ĵ 2tk̂
dB
A 2
dt
2 0 1
d
dt
d B
dt
A t 1 iˆ 2t 4 ĵ 2k̂ î 6 ĵ 2k̂
UNIT TANGENT VECTORS:
If OP is a position vector At in space, then the direction vector denoting
d
dt
At is
parallel to the tangent to the curve at P. The unit tangent vector T at P can be found
d
At
from Tˆ dt T
d
dt
At
P
O At
Example 3.5
Find a unit tangent vector to any point on the curve
x a cos wt, y a sin wt, z bt where a, b, w are constants. The vector equation of the
curve is
r a cos wtî a sin wtĵ btk̂
dr
aw sin wtî aw cos wtĵ bk̂
dt
d r ds 2 2
a w b2
dt dt
dr d r aw sin wtî aw cos wtĵ bk̂
Thus Tˆ
dt dt a 2w2 b 2
37
CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENTIATION OF VECTORS
Example 3.6
Show that r e t C1 cos 2t C 2 sin 2t satisfies the differential equation
d2r dr
2
2 5r 0 where C1 and C2 are constants.
dt dt
e t C1 cos 2t C2 sin 2t e t 2C1 sin 2t 2C2 cos 2t
dr
dt
e t C1 cos 2t 2 sin 2t C2 2 cos 2t sin 2t e t C1 2 sin 2t 4 cos 2t C2 4 sin 2t 2 cos 2t
d2r
dt 2
On substituting these derivatives; on the left, the claim follows
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION OF VECTORS:
If a vector A is dependent on more than one scalar variable i.e. A=A(x1,y2,z3) say,
then we differentiate A with respect to each independent variable partially denoted
by A i 1, 2, 3
x
For A A1iˆ A2 ĵ A3 kˆ , the partial derivative of A w.r.t. x1 is
A A1 A2 A
î ĵ 3 k̂ etc
x1 x1 x1 x1
Similarly, the second partial derivative w.r.t. x1 is
2 A 2 A1 2 A2 A3 k̂
2
î ĵ
x1 2 x1 2 x1 2 x1 2
Example 3.7
If A x 2 yziˆ 2xz 3 ĵ xz 2 k̂ and B 2 zî yĵ x 2 kˆ , find
2
xy
A B at (1,0, -2).
î ĵ k̂
We have A B x yz 2 xz 3 2
xz 2
2z y x 2
2x 3 z 3 xyz 2 î x 4 yz 2xz 3 ĵ x 2 y 2 z 4xz 4 k̂
x
A B 6x 2 z 3 yz 2 î 4x 3 yz 2z 3 ĵ 2xy 2 z 4z 4 k̂
A B z iˆ 4x zĵ 4xyzk̂
2
2 3
xy
2
xy
A B 1,0, 2 4î 8 ĵ
38
CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENTIATION OF VECTORS
ELEMENTS OF DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY
Differential Geometry involves a study of space curves and surfaces. If C is a space
curve defined by the function r s where s is arc length, then we have
dr
which is a unit tangent vector to C denoted by Tˆ .
ds
Suppose r r t is an arbitrary representation of the curve C with the same
orientation as r r s , then we find
o
d r d r ds
r
dt ds dt
o
ds d r dr dr dr r d r dt
the quantity . We thus find that T̂ o
dt dt ds dt dt dt ds
r
Example 3.8
Find the unit tangent vector along the helix
r a cos tî a sin t ĵ btkˆ
where a and b are non-zero.
Solution:
dr
a sin tî a cos t ĵ bk̂
dt
a 2 b 2 2
d r ds 1
dt dt
Thus Tˆ
dr
dt
ds
dt
a 2 b2 a sin tiˆ a cos tĵ bk̂ .
1 2
Definition: The rate at which Tˆ changes with respect to S is a Z
dTˆ N̂
measure of the curvature of C and is given by .
ds C
dTˆ d 2 r T̂
The direction of at any given point on C is normal to
ds ds 2 B̂
the curve at that point. (See adjoining figure). If N̂ is a unit y
O
vector in this normal direction, it is called the principal normal to
the curve.
X
39
CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENTIATION OF VECTORS
dTˆ
Then kN̂ , where k is called the curvature of C at the specified point. The
ds
quality P 1 k is called the radius of the curvature.
Example 3.9
Find Tˆ , k and N̂ for the curve
r 3 sin 2t iˆ 3 cos t ĵ
We have
6 cos 2t iˆ 6 sin 2t ĵ
dr
dt
dr
36 cos 2 2t 36 sin 2 2t 6
dt
cos 2t iˆ sin 2t ĵ
dr dr
Tˆ
dt dt
Next
dTˆ
2 sin 2t iˆ 2 cos 2t ĵ
dt
dTˆ dTˆ ds 1
ds dt dt 3
2 sin 2t iˆ 2 cos 2t ĵ KN̂
dTˆ 1
KN̂ K
ds 3
And
1 dTˆ
N 2 sin 2tiˆ 2 cos 2t ĵ
K ds
Example 3.10
Find the curvature of the helix
r t a cos wtî a sin wtĵ btk̂
We have
dr
aw sin wtiˆ aw cos wtĵ bk̂
dt
dr 2 2 2
a w sin wt a w cos wt b a w b
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
dt
Thus Tˆ
dr dr
aw sin wtiˆ cos wtĵ bk̂
dt dt a 2 w2 b2
40
CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENTIATION OF VECTORS
And
dTˆ dTˆ dt aw 2
ds ds dt a 2 w 2 b 2
cos wtî sin wt ĵ
dT̂ aw 2
So that K 2 2 *
ds a w b 2
Two limiting cases of (*) are worth noting. First if b=0, then z=0, and the helix
reduces to a circle of radius a in the xy-plane, while equation (*) reduces to K 1 a .
Secondly, if a=0, then x=y=0 and z=bt. This tells us that the point moves along the
z-axis. In this case the curvature k=0 i.e. a straight line (see following figure)
y
X
Definition: We defined a vector B̂ perpendicular to both Tˆ and N̂ by the formula
B̂ Tˆ N̂
This vector is called the binormal vector of the curve. The three vectors
Tˆ N̂ and B̂ (in this order) define a moving right-handed coordinate
system at any specified point of C.
Definition: A plane to a curve at a point P containing the tangent and principal
normal at P is called an osculating plane.
Definition: The normal plane is the plane through P perpendicular to the tangent.
Definition: The rectifying plane is the plane through P which is perpendicular to
the principal normal.
dB̂
Definition: The arc of rotation of the binormal vector (i.e. ) is called the torsion
ds
vector of the curve and its magnitude is denoted by . 1 is called
the radius of torsion.
41
CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENTIATION OF VECTORS
A set of relations involving derivatives of the fundamental vectors Tˆ N̂ and B̂ is
known collectively as the Frenet-Serret formulae given by
dTˆ dN̂ dB̂
ˆ ,
kN ˆB KT
ˆ , ˆN
ds ds ds
Or in matrix form as
dTˆ
ds Tˆ
ˆ
dN
ds
N̂
dBˆ B̂
ds
and they obey the cyclic vector multiplication in an anticlockwise sense:
T̂
N̂ B̂
So that Tˆ N̂ B̂ ; N̂ B̂ Tˆ and B̂ Tˆ N̂
Clockwise move gives the negatives.
Example 3.11
Prove that the curvature of the space curve r r t is given numerically by
o oo
r r
K , where dots denote differentiation with respect to t
o 3
We have
o o
d r d r ds ˆ
r T r
dt ds dt
dTˆ
oo 2 o o
d r
d ˆ ˆ d
o
r 2 T r T r r
dt dt dt dt
2 2
dTˆ
o o o o
d d
Tˆ r r Tˆ r KNˆ r
dt ds dt
o oo o d o o
2
o o o
3
o
3
ˆ ˆ
r r T r T̂ r KN̂ r T̂ T r
d ˆ
r KT N̂ r KB̂ r
dt dt
42
CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENTIATION OF VECTORS
o oo
o oo r r
r r
Thus KB̂ and K
o 3 o 3
r r
Example 3.12
o oo oo o
ro r r
Prove that for the space curve r r t .
o oo 2
r r
Given curve is r r t
o
d r d r dt dt
Tˆ r
ds dt ds ds
dT̂ ˆ d r dt dt
KN
o
ds ds
dt ds
oo 2 o
dt
2
d t
r r 2
ds ds
o o o dt 2 o o d 3 o o 2 t o d 3
K
B̂ KT̂ r
r
t d
r
t dt
3
r 2 3
ds ds ds ds ds
oo o
3 oo 2
dt
o 3
d t dt d
r 3 r r
t dt
2 3
ds ds ds ds ds
dN̂
where B̂
ds
KTˆ
KN̂ K B̂ KT̂ K 2 T̂ KB̂
2
d 2 t dt
oo o oo
o 5
o oo o 2 ooo 3 oo
dt dt d t d 2t dt
2
r r r r r r 2 3 r r
ds ds ds ds ds
2 2
ds ds
Taking dot product with Tˆ ; we obtain
o
K r
2 dt
ds
o
dt
oo 6 o
o o o dt 3 d 2 t o o o o o d 2t dt 4
oo o o o oo
d 2 t dt
2
ro r r ro r r 2 ro r r 2 3 r r r
ds ds ds ds ds
43
CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENTIATION OF VECTORS
ds 2 ds
44
CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENTIATION OF VECTORS
o oo oo o
o oo oo o 6
dt ro r r dt 1 1 1
ro r r 6
; since o
ds o ds ds
r dt d r dt r
o oo oo o o oo oo o o oo oo o
6
o
ro r r ro r r ro r r
Thus 6 2 6
r 2
o o oo o o oo
2
K r r r r r r
QUESTIONS
1. Find Tˆ and k for the space curve x sin , y 1 cos , z 4 sin 2 .
3 cos cos2 2 sin sin 2
Ans. K 18 6 2 cos , T
12 cos 4
2t 1 t2
2. Find the torsion of the curve x , y , z t 2 . Explain your answer.
t 1 t 1
Ans. T=0. The curve lies on the plane x-3y+3z=5
3. Show that the equation of the tangent line, principal normal and bi-normal to
the space curve r r t at the point t=to can be written respectively
r r o t Tˆo , r r o t N̂ o , r r o t B̂ o , where t is a parameter.
4. Find equations for (a) tangent, (b) principal normal and (c) bi-normal to the
curve x=3cos t, y=3sin t, z=4t at the point where T .
Ans. (a) Tangent:
r 3iˆ 4 kˆ t 35 ĵ 45 k̂ .
(b) Normal: r 3iˆ 4 ĵ tiˆ .
(c) Bi-normal: r 3iˆ 4 ĵ t 4
5
ĵ 35 k̂
45
CHAPTER 4
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL
Introduction:
In this chapter, scalar and vector fields are defined. Gradient, divergence and curl
are also discussed.
Objectives:
We show that gradient is a vector differentiation that results into a vector,
divergence is equivalent to the dot product of the dot operator with a differentiable
field and the curl of a vector field is a vector. Various identities are also discussed.
46
CHAPTER 4
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL
If every point P(x,y,z) of a region R of space has associated with it a scalar quantity
x, y, z , then x, y, z is a scalar function and a scalar field is said to exist in the
region R.
Z
x, y, z
P x, y, z
y y
X O
Once again, if every point P(x,y,z) of a region R has associated with it a vector
quantity F x, y, z , then F x, y, z is a vector function and a vector field is said to
exist in the region R.
Z
F x, y, z
P x, y, z
y y
X O
Definition: If a scalar x, y, z is continuously differentiable with respect to its
variables x,y,z throughout the region, then we denote the gradient of
by grad and define as the vector
grad xî y
ĵ
z
k̂
where the operator (del) is given as
x
î y ĵ
z
k̂ .
47
CHAPTER 4
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL
Example 4.1
The gradient of 2x 2 yz 3 is
2 x 2 yz 3
4xyz 3 î 2 x 2 z 3 ĵ 6x 2 yz 2 k̂
Now given that x, y, z is continuously differentiable with respect to its
variables x,y,z, then if we let x=x(t), y=y(t), z=z(t) where t is a parameter, we have
t x(t ) , y(t ), z(t )
On differentiating with respect to t, we obtain
d dx dy dz
dt x dt y dt z dt
or d dx dy dz
x y z
î ĵ k̂ o dxiˆ dyĵ dzk̂ d r
x y z
where r xiˆ yĵ zk̂
Hence total differential d of is given by
d grad o d r
If ds is a small element of an arc, then
d d r
o grad
ds ds
d r d r ds d r dr
Now if we take r r̂ t , then
dt ds dt ds dt
dr dr dr
Meaning that , a unit vector in the direction of d r .
ds dt dt
dr d
If we denote this unit vector by ̂ i.e. ̂ , the result becomes ̂ o grad
ds ds
d
is called the directional derivative of in the direction of ̂ .
ds
d
will be maximum if ̂ and grad have the same direction, emanating from the
ds
definition of the dot product.
48
CHAPTER 4
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL
Example 4.2
Find the directional derivative of x 2 yz 4xz 2 at (1,-2,-1) in the direction
2î ĵ 2k̂ .
x 2 yz 4xz 2
2 xyz 4 z 2 iˆ x 2 z ĵ x 2 y 8zx k̂
8î ĵ 10k̂ at (1,2,1)
Unit vector in the direction of 2î ĵ 2k̂ is
2î ĵ 2k̂
̂
3
Required directional derivative is
̂ 13 8iˆ ĵ 10k̂ 2iˆ ĵ 2k̂
16
3
1
3
20
3 37
3
If x, y, z constant , this relationship represents a surface in space, depending on
the value ascribed to the constant. If d r is the displacement in this surface, then
d 0 since is constant over the surface.
Thus from
grad o d r d
we have
d grad o d r 0 such small displacements d r in the surface.
But
grad o d r grad d r cos 0
2
grad is perpendicular to d r
The unit vector N̂ in the direction of grad is called the unit normal vector at P.
Unit Normal Vector N̂
49
CHAPTER 4
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL
Example 4.3
Find the unit normal to the surface x 2 y 2 xz 4 at the point (2,-2,3)
x 2 y 2xz 4
2xy 2z iˆ x 2 ĵ 2xk̂
2î 4 ĵ 4k̂ at (2,2,3)
Unit normal to the surface
31 î 32 ĵ 32 kˆ
If and are differentiable scalars, then we have;
1.)
2.)
Example 4.4
If x 2 yz xz 2 and xy 2 z z 3 , evaluate at the point (2,1,3).
x 2 yz xz 2 y 2 zî 2 xyzĵ xy 2 3z 2 k̂
xy z z 2xyz z iˆ x zĵ x y 2xz k̂
2 3 2 2 2
303iˆ 12 ĵ 25k̂ 2121iˆ 12 ĵ 16k̂
3117iˆ 36 ĵ 362k̂
Example 4.5
3
Find r
r xiˆ yĵ zk̂, r x 2 y 2 z 2 2 r, r x 2 y 2 z 2 2 r 3
1 3 3
r 3 x 2 y 2 z 2 2
3
x
î y ĵ 2
z k̂ x y z
2
3
2 2
3 2 x 2 y 2 z 2 2 2xiˆ 2 yĵ x 2 y 2 z 2 2 2 zk̂ x 2 y 2 z 2 2
1 1 1
3x 2 y 2 z 2 2 xiˆ yĵ zk̂ 3rr
1
50
CHAPTER 4
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL
Example 4.6
f r
Prove that f r r
r
f r î ĵ k̂ f x 2 y 2 z 2 2
1
x y z
12 f x 2 y 2 z 2
1 2
2xiˆ 2 yĵ 2zk̂ f rr r
Example 4.7
Find if In r 12In x 2 y 2 z 2 .
In x 2 y 2 z 2
1
2
1
î ĵ k̂ In x 2 y 2 z 2
2 x y z
2xi 2 yj 2zk
2 x 2 y 2 z 2 r2
1 ˆ ˆ ˆ r
Example 4.8
Show that is a vector perpendicular to the surface ( x, y, z) c where c is a
constant.
Let r xî yĵ zk̂ be the position vector to any point P(x,y,z) on the surface. Then
d r dxî dyĵ dzk̂ lies in the tangent plane to the surface at P.
But
d dx dy dz 0
x y z
or
î ĵ k̂ o dxî dyĵ dzk̂ 0
y z
x
i.e. o d r 0 so that is perpendicular to d r and therefore to the surface.
Example 4.9
Let V x 2 y 4z iˆ 2x 3 y z ĵ 4x y 2z k̂ . Show that V can be expressed as
the gradient of a scalar function.
51
CHAPTER 4
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL
Assume V î ĵ k̂
x y z
52
CHAPTER 4
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL
x 2 y 4z x 2 2xy 4xz f y, z on integrating partially w.r.t. x,
1
So that
x 2
holding y and z constant.
Similarly,
2x 3 y z 2xy 3 2y 2 yz g x, z
y
4x y 2z 4xz yz z 2 h x, y
z
Comparing the three equations, we have a common value of if we choose
z 2 , hx, y
3 y2 x2
f y, z z 2 , g x, z
2 2
2 2
x 3y
2 2
2
x 3y 2
So that z 2 2 xy 4 xz yz
2 2
DIVERGENCE:
Let A x, y, z A1 iˆ A2 ĵ A3 k̂ be defined and differentiable at every point (x,y,z) in a
specified region. Then the divergence of A , written o A or div A is defined by
o A î
ĵ
k̂ o A1 î A2 ĵ A3 k̂
x y z
A A A
1 2 3
x y z
We note that the gradient operator acts on a scalar and gives a vector while
divergence operation acts on a vector and gives a scalar.
Example 4.10
If A 2 x 2 yiˆ 2xy 2 y 3 z ĵ 3 y 2 z 2 k̂ , determine o A .
o A iˆ ĵ k̂ o 2 x 2 yiˆ 2 xy 2 y 3 z ĵ 3 y 2 z 2 k̂
y
x z
4 xy 4 xy 6 y 2 z 6 y 2 z 0
Definition A vector whose divergence is zero at all points i.e. for all values of x,y,z
is called a solenoid vector.
53
CHAPTER 4
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL
Example 4.11
Find o where x, y, z is a differentiable scalar function.
ˆ ˆ
iˆ j k
x y z
ˆi ˆj kˆ o ˆi ˆj kˆ
o
x y z x y z
x x y y z z
2 2 2
2
x 2
y 2
z 2
2 2 2
The operator 2 is called the Laplacian operator.
x 2 y 2 z 2
Example 4.12
Evaluate o r 3 r .
o ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
o xi yĵ zk̂ x y z
2 2
3 2 2
3
3
r r i j k
x y z
2 2
3
2 2
y2 z2
2
2 2
3
z x 2
x
x x y 2 2
y
yx y z
z z
3x
3 1
3 x2 y2 z2 2 2
y 2 z2 x2 y2 z 2 2
6x 6r
3
2
y2 z2 2 3
Example 4.13
Evaluate o r
r
r
r
1
o o xiˆ yjˆ zkˆ x2 y2 z2 2
1
x x2 y2 2 2 y x2 y2 2 2 z x2 y2 2z 2
1 1
x y z
z z
3x 2 y z2 2 x 2 y z 2 x 2 y z 2 2
2 2 1 2 3
2x 2 y 2 z 2
1
2
r
2 x 2 y 2 z 2
o
1
2
r
54
CHAPTER 4
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL
2 î
y
ĵ k̂ x 2 y 2 z 2 1
2
x z
3
2 xiˆ yĵ zk̂ x 2 y 2 z 2 2
2r 3 r
55
CHAPTER 4
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL
Example 4.14
Evaluate 2 In r
2 In r o In r
1
xî y ĵ z k̂ o xî y ĵ z k̂ In x y z
2 2 2 2
î
ĵ k̂ o xî yĵ zk̂ x y z 2 2 2
1
x y
z
x
x x 2 y 2 z2
1
1
y x 2 y 2 z 2 z x2 y2 2z
y
z
1
1
1 2
3 x 2 y 2 z 2 2 x 2 y 2 z 2 x 2 y 2 z 2 x 2 y 2 z 2 1
r2
CURL
If Ax, y, z is a differentiable vector field, then the curl or rotation of A , written
A , curl A is defined by
A î ĵ
k̂ A î A ĵ A k̂
1
x y z
2 3
î ĵ k̂
A3 A2 A1 A3 A2 A1 ˆ
î
ĵ k
x y z y z z x x y
A1 A2 A3
Curl A is a vector function.
Example 4.15
If A y 2 x 2 z 2 iˆ x 2 y 2 ĵ x 2 yz k̂ , determine curl A at the point (1,3,-2).
iˆ ĵ k̂
Curl A A
x
y
z
y 2 x 2 z 2 x2 y2 x yz 2
x 2 zî 2 xyz 2 x 2 z ĵ 2 x 4 y 3 k̂ 2î 8 ĵ 106 k̂ at 1,3,2
56
CHAPTER 4
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL
Example 4.16
Evaluate A if A is a differentiable vector field.
iˆ ĵ k̂
A ˆ A1 A
A 3 ˆ A 2 A1
A 3 2 i j k̂
x y z y z z x x y
A1 A2 A3
iˆ ĵ k̂
A
x
y
z
A3 A2 A1 A3 A2 A1
y z z x x y
A
A A A A
A A A
2
1 1 3 î 3 2 2 1 ĵ
y y z x z z x y
x z y x
A A A A
1 3 3 2 kˆ
x x y z
z y
2 2
2
2 2
A1î A2 ĵ A3 k̂
x y z
2
A1 A2 A3 A1 A2 A3 A1 A2 A3 ˆ
î ĵ k
x x y z y x y z z x y z
A
2 A1
A2 A
3 2 A o A
x y z
Example 4.17
Evaluate o where is a scalar field.
î ĵ k̂
2
2 2 2 2 2
o
x
y
z
î ĵ k̂ 0
yz zy zx xz xy yx
x y z
Provided has continuous second partial derivatives so that the order of
differentiation is immaterial.
Thus o 0
57
CHAPTER 4
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL
Example 4.18
Evaluate o A
iˆ ĵ k̂
o A o
x
y
z
A1 A2 A3
A A A A A A
o 3 2 î 1 3 ĵ 2 1 k̂
y z z x x y
A A A A A A
3 2 1 3 2 1 0
x y z y z x z x y
Thus o A 0
Definition: A vector F is called irrotational if curl F 0
Example 4.19
Show that the vector r
r2
is irrotational.
i j k
r
2
r x y z
x x 2 y 2 z 2 1
y x2 y2 z 2 1
z x2 y2 z 2
1
2 yz x 2 y 2 z 2
2
2 yz x 2 y 2 z 2
2
iˆ ĵ k̂
0î 0 ĵ 0k̂ 0
Hence irrotational.
58
CHAPTER 4
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL
QUESTIONS
1) Find the angle between the surfaces x 2 y 2 z 2 9 and z x 2 y 2 3 at
the point (2,-1,2)
Ans. 54 0 25
2) Let R be the distance from a fixed point A(a,b,c) to any point P(x,y,z).
Show that R is a unit vector in the direction AP R .
3) Prove that o 0
r3
r
4)
Evaluate r f r
Ans. 0
5) Evaluate 2 f r
d 2 f 2 df
Ans.
dr 2 r dr
6) Show that A 6 xy z 3 iˆ 3x 2 z ĵ 3xz 2 y k̂ is irrotational.
7) If A and B are irrotational, prove that A B is solenoidal.
59
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
Introduction:
In this chapter of the Riemann Integral of a function of a single real variable is
extended to functions of three variables. Line, surface and volume integrals are
treated.
In chapter 4, scalar and vector fields we defined and the properties of gradient,
divergence and curl were discussed; preparing the ground for the three central
theorems in vector analysis:
(i) The divergence theorem (also the Gauss‟ Theorem), which relates the
integral of a vector field F over a closed surface S to the volume
integral of div F over the region bounded by S.
(ii) Stokes‟ Theorem which relates the integral of a vector field F around
a closed curve C to the integral of curl F over any open surface S
bounded by C, and
(iii) The Green‟s Theorem.
Objectives:
We address properties of line integrals. Double and triple integrals have to be
evaluated by expressing them as repeated integrals. We also wish to show that
Green‟s Theorem in the plane is a special case of Stokes‟ Theorem.
Also, it is of interest to notice that Gauss‟ divergence theorem is a generalization of
Green‟s theorem in the plane where the region R and its closed boundary C are
replaced by a (space) region V and its closed boundary (surface) S. hence the
divergence theorem is often called Green‟s theorem in space.
60
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
LINE INTEGRALS
Let r t x t iˆ y t ĵ z t k̂ where r t is the position vector of (x,y,z,) define a curve
C joining points P1 and P2 where t=t1 and t=t2 respectively.
The curve C is composed of a finite number of curves (see figure) for each of which
r t has a continuous derivative.
P2
r d r
dr
C
O r P1
Let F x, y, z F1î F2 jˆ F3 kˆ be a vector function of P2
dr
n
position defined and continuous along C. Then the dr
n 1
integral of the tangential component of F along C from
dr2 dr C
1 P
P1 to P2 1
P1 F o d r C F o d r
P2
is an example of a line integral. If F is a force on a particle moving along C, this line
integral represents the work done by the force. If C is a simple closed curve, the
integral around C is often denoted by
F o dr
In general, any integral, which is to be evaluated along a curve is called a line
integral.
If is a scalar field, then the line integral of V along the curve C from P1 to P2 is
C d r
61
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
Example 5.1
If xy 2 z evaluate C d r along the curve C having parametric equations
x 3t, y 2t 2 , z t 3 between P1 (0,0,0) and P2 (3,2,1).
xy 2 z 3t 2t 2 t 3 12t 8
r xî yĵ zkˆ 3tî 2t 2 ĵ t 3 k̂
d r dxî dyĵ dzkˆ 3î 4tĵ 3t 2 k̂ dt
Then 1P d r 0 3i 4tj 3t k dt
12t
P2 1 8 ˆ ˆ 2 ˆ
120 3t 8 î 4t 9 ĵ 3t 10 k̂ dt
1
24 36
4î ĵ k̂
5 11
Example 5.2
If xy y 2 z evaluate C d r along the curve C defined by x t 2 , y 2t, z t 5
between P1 (0,0,5) and P2 (4,4,7).
C d r 0 6t 20t k̂ 2tî 2 ĵ k̂ dt
2 3 2
444î 290 ĵ 145k̂
8
15
Example 5.3
Find the total work done in moving a particle in a force field given by
F 3xyiˆ 5zĵ 10 xk̂ along the curve x t 2 1, y 2t 2 , z t 2 from t=1 to t=2.
Total Work CF o d r C 3xyiˆ 5zĵ 10 xk̂ o dxî dyĵ dzk̂
C 3xydx 5zdy 10xdz
1 12t 5 10t 4 12t 3 30t 2 dt 303
2
Example 5.4
If F 3xyiˆ y 2 ĵ , evaluate F o d r where C is the curve in the xy plane, y 2x 2 , from
(0,0) to (1,2).
For x 0, y 0 and x 1, y 2
Thus C F o d r C 3xydx y
62
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
2
dy
63
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
Since y 2x 2 dy 4xdx
and hence we have
3x2x 2 2x 2 4 x dx
x 0
1 2
x 0 6x 16 x dx 6
1 3 5 7
Example 5.5
Find the work done in moving a particle once around a circle C in the xy plane, if the
circle has center at the origin and radius 3 and if the force field is given by
F 2x y z iˆ x y z 2 ĵ 3x 2 y 4z k̂
In the plane z 0 So that d r dxî dyĵ where x 3 cos , y 3 sin where 0 2
Then
F o d r 2x y î x y ĵ 3x 2 y k̂ o dxî dyĵ
C C
C 2 x y dx x y dy
0 23 cos 3 sin 3 sin d 3 cos 3 sin 3 cos d
2
0 9 9 sin cos d
2
2
9
9 cos 2
4 0
1 1
9 2 0
4 4
18
Theorem: If F everywhere in a region R of space, where x, y, z is single-
valued and has continuous derivatives in R, then:
1) PP12 F o d r is independent of the path C in R joining P1 and P2.
2) C F o d r 0 around any closed curve C in R. In such a case F is called a
conservative vector field and is its scalar potential. A vector field F is
conservative if and only if F 0 or F so that
F o d r F1 dx F2 dy F3 dz d , an exact differential.
64
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
Example 5.6
a) Show that F 2xy z 3 î x 2 ĵ 3xz 2 k̂ is a conservative force field.
b) Find the scalar potential.
c) Find the work done in moving an object in this field from (1,-2,1) to (3,1,4).
a) F is conservative if F 0
i j k
F
x
y
z
0
2xy z 3
x 2
3xz 2
Hence F is conservative.
b)
F î ĵ k̂
x y z
F o dr dx dy dz d
x y z
C F o d r C 2xy z dx x dy 3xz dz const.
3 2 2
C 2xydx x 2 dy z 3 dx 3xz 2 dz const.
d x y d xz const.
C
2 3
x, y, z x 2 y xz 3 const.
c)
CF o d r x, y, z
P2
Work done
P1
x 2 y xz 3 const. 1, 2,1
3,1,4
202
65
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
Example 5.7
If F 2x y 2 î 3 y 4 x ĵ , evaluate CF o d r around the triangle (i) in the indicated
direction.
Y Y
(2,1) 2
(1,1)
y x
2
x y
O X O X
(2,0)
(I) (II)
C F o d r 1C 2 C3
C
Where C1 is from (0,0) to (2,0) where y is constant.
Where C2 is from (2,0) to (2,1) where x is constant.
Where C3 is from (2,1) to (0,0) where x=2y.
Hence F o d r
2x y dx 3 y 4x dy
2
C C
and C F o d r x02 x 0dx y 03 y 42dy y124 y y 3 y 8 y dy
2 1 0 2
x2
2
0
3
2
y 2 8 y 1
0
3
2
y 2 32 y 3 0
4 3
2
8 23 23 143
14
Traversing in the opposite direction gives .
3
Example 5.8
Evaluate C F o d r around the closed curve C (fig (ii) above), if F x y iˆ x y ĵ .
C F o d r x y dx x y dy C C 1 2
C
Where C1 is curve y=x2 and C2 is y2=x.
C1 F o d r x0x x dx x x o 2xdx where y x 2
1 2 2
Thus
1
12 x 13 x 12 x 43
4 3 2
0
1 2
C2 F o d r y12 y y y y y dy
2
0
1 4
2
y 13 y 3 12 y 2 21 13 31 32
1
C2 F o d r 34 32 2
3
66
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
SURFACE INTEGRALS
If P(x,y) is a point in the xy-plane, the element of area dxdy Z
has a vector area
d S î dx ĵdy k̂dxdy dx dyn̂
O Y
dx p
ds
X dy
Where k̂ is a vector normal to the plane made by î and ĵ directions.
Thus we write d S dxdyn̂ . On writing dS dxdyn̂ we have d S dsn̂ dSn̂
where S is a general surface in space, and ds is an element of S
ds
surface.
We also know from the previous chapter that the unit normal n̂ to a surface S is
given by
grad S S
n̂
grad S S
S
Hence d S ds
S
For F a vector field and a scalar field, the integrals
S
F o d S F o n ds F o ds, d n d S
S
s, ds, F
S S
S S S S
are examples of surface integrals.
To evaluate surface integrals, it is convenient to
express them as double integrals taken over the Z
n̂
projected area of the surface S on one of the n̂
F
coordinate planes.
The adjacent figure shows a piece S of the surface r
S k
F(x,y,z)=C lying above its “shadow” R on ground
plane directly beneath it. We show how to define
O Y
and determine the area of such a surface from the
formula for F as an integral over R when F and its R Ak
X
first partial derivatives are continuous.
67
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
We first define the area of S by dividing the region R into small rectangles Ak .
Directly above each Ak there lies a patch of surface S k that we may approximate
with a portion of Pk of the tangent plane since F(x,y,z)=C may not be a plane. The
vector u and v lie along the edges of the patch Pk in the tangent plane. Both u v
and F are normal to Pk . Now u v o n̂ is the area of the orthogonal projection of
the parallelogram determined by u and v onto a plane whose normal is n̂ .
This translates into the statement
u v o n̂ A k .....( A)
Now u v is the area Pk . Hence (A) becomes u v n cos Ak where is the
angle between u v and n̂ .
Pk cos Ak so that
Ak
Pk provided that cos 0.
cos
On summing;
A
P cos
k
k
P cos
dA
or k
R
We therefore define the area of S to be the value of this integral whenever the
integral exists. For any particular surface F(x,y,z)=C we have
F o n̂ F n cos
1 F n̂ F
or
cos F o n̂ F o n̂
which results into
F
Surface area
dA
R F o û
provided F o n̂ 0 .
68
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
In case of a smooth surface S given by an equation Z=f(x,y) defined over a region
Rxy in the xy- plane, we write
F(x,y,z)=f(x,y)-z=0
and consider S as the level surface
F(x,y,z)=0
of the function F. Taking the normal to be n̂ k̂ to Rxy we have
F f x î f y ĵ k̂ f x 2 f y 2 1
F o n̂ k̂ o k 1
F
S dA f x f y 1 dxdy
2 2
F o n̂
Rxy Rxy
Similarly, formulations are easily given for the area of smooth surface x=f(y,z) over
a region Ryz and y=f(x,z) over region Rxz.
Example 5.9
Find the area of the upper cap cut from the sphere x 2 y 2 z 2 2 by the cylinder
x 2 y 2 1.
Z
x2 y2 z2 2
x2 y2 1
1 Y
1
The cap part of the surface F x, y, z x 2 y 2 z 2 2 , projects onto the disc
R : x 2 y 2 1 in the xy- plane. At any point (x,y,z) in the space we have
F x2 y2 z2
F 2xiˆ 2 yĵ 2 zk̂
F 2 x 2 y 2 z 2
On the level surface F x 2 y 2 z 2 2
F 2 2
69
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
Taking n̂ k̂ ;
F o n̂ 2xî 2 yĵ 2zk̂ o k̂ 2z
Then
F
dA d 2
2 2 dA
S
R F o n̂ R 2z R z
Now since we are in the xy- plane, we have from
x 2 y 2 z 2 2 that z 2 x 2 y 2
Hence
dxdy
S 2
x 2 y 2 1 2 x 2 y 2
We let x r cos , y r sin , 0r1, 02 then, dxdy Jdrd , where J is the
Jacobian of (x,y) with respect to r, , i.e.
x y
r cos sin
J r r
x y r sin r cos
Hence dxdy rdrd
rdrd
2 1d 2 2 2
1 2
2
2
Then S 2
2 r 2 0
r 0 0
Example 5.10
Find the area of the surface cut from the bottom of the paraboloid z x 2 y 2 by the
plane z 1 .
The surface projects onto the disk R : x 2 y 2 1 in the xy- plane. We apply
z f x, y x 2 y 2 to get
Area fx 2 fy 2 1dxdy 4x
2
4 y 2 1 dxdy Z
z 1
z x2 y2
Rxy x y 1
2 2
2 1
S
4r 2 1 drd 5 5 1
6
R0 r 0
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O
Y
X
71
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Example 5.11
Evaluate F o n̂ dS , where F 18zî 12 ĵ 3 and S is that part of the plane
yk̂
S
2x 3 y 6z 12 which is located in the first octant.
If S is part of the level surface G(x,y,z)=C then n̂ may be taken to be one of the two
vectors
G G
n̂ or n̂
G G
depending on which vector gives the preferred direction. Thus let
G 2x 3 y 6z
G 2î 3 ĵ 6k̂
n̂
G 7
G 7
dS dA dA
G o k̂ 6
ˆ ˆ ˆ
On the surface S, the value F o n̂ is given by the formula
18zî 12 ĵ 3 yk̂ o 2i 37j 6k 36 z 367 18 y
Thus the flux of F outward through S is
36 z 36 18 y 7
F o n̂ dS 3 x
o dA where 6z 12 2 x 3 y
7 6
dxdy
R xy
S S
Now, along the x-axis; y=0, z=0 and we integrate from 0 to 6. From the given
surface on the xy-plane, z=0 so that along the y-axis, we integrate from 0 to
12 2 x
.
3
6
12 2 x
6 2x dydx
2
12 x 4 x
dx 24
6
x 0 y 0
3
x 0
24
3
Example 5.12
A vector field F yî 2 ĵ k̂ exists over a surface S defined by x 2 y 2 z 2 9
bounded by x 0, y 0, z 0 in the first octant. Z
Evaluate F o d S over the indicated surface.
n̂
p
S
d S n̂dS; n̂ ;
S Y
3
3
S : x 2 y 2 z 2 9 0 X x 2 y 2 9, z 0
S 2xiˆ 2 yĵ 2zk̂
S 4x 2 4 y 2 4z 2 2 x 2 y 2 z 2 2 9 6
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CHAPTER 5
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1 ˆ
n̂
3
xi yĵ zk̂
S 6
dS dA dA for z 0
S 2z
F o n̂ yî 2 ĵ k̂ o 13 xî yĵ zk̂ xy 23y z
xy 2 y z 3
F o n̂ dS 3 zo dA z xy 2 y z dA
S S S
The projection of S on the xy- plane is the region R bounded by the circle
x 2 y 2 9, z 0 . Then
xy 2 y z
F o n̂ dS z
dxdy
S R
Converting to spherical polar coordinates;
x 3 sin cos , y 3 sin sin , z 3 cos 0
2 ;0 2
So that
x, y
dS J d d 9 sin d d
,
and we have
9 sin sin cos 6 sin sin 3cos 9 sin d d
2 2
1 2
3
0 0
sin
cos
2
9sin cos 2
sin 2 9 2 2 0
9 1 4
1 d
2
2
3
0
Example 5.13
Evaluate F o n̂ where F zî xĵ 3 y 2 z k̂
dS
S Z
and S is the surface of the cylinder x y 16 2 2
z5
included in the first octant between
z 0 and z 5
S 2xî 2 yĵ xî yĵ
n̂
S 4 x2 y2 4 5
z0
S
4 0
dS dA dA 4 Y
S o ĵ y
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CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
74
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
Here projection is upon the xz- plane. We could also have projected on the yz-plane
but not on the xy since the surface x 2 y 2 16 has no z component.
Thus F n̂ zî xĵ 3x 2 zk̂
xî yĵ
xz xy
o o
4 4
4 5
xz 5
Hence F o n̂ dS xz xy 4 x dzdx 4 z 8dz 90
o dA
16 x 2
S
S
4 y
z 0
x0 z 0
Example 5.14 Z
Evaluate F o n̂ where S is the surface of the n̂
dS
dS
S
sphere x 2 y 2 z 2 a 2 above the xy- plane and
S
Y
F xiˆ yĵ 2zk̂ . x2 y2 a 2 , z 0
X
Projection of S on the xy- plane is the region R bounded by the circle
x2 y2 a 2, z 0 .
S 2xî 2 yĵ 2zk̂ xî yĵ zk̂
n̂
S
4 x2 y2 z2 a
S a
dS dA a dA dz
S o ĵ z
a
xiˆ yjˆ zkˆ x 2 y 2 2 z2
F o n̂ xî yĵ 2zkˆ o
a
o dA
x 2 y 2 2 z 2 a x 2 y 2 2z 2
F o n̂ dS
dA
S S a z S z
In spherical polar coordinates
x a sin cos , y a sin sin , z a cos and dA a 2 sin d d 0 2, 0
2
a2 sin cos 2 a 2 sin 2 sin 2 2a 2 cos2
F o n̂ dS o a 2 sin d d
S 0 0 a cos
2
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CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
a sin 2 cos2 tan d d
2 2
0 0
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CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
2
a3 sin tan 2 sin cos d d
2
0 0
2
a3 sin tan sin 2 d d
2
0 0
2
a cos sin 2 cos 2
In 1 d a 3 d 0
3 2
0
0
0
0
VOLUME INTEGRALS
If V is a closed region bounded by a surface S and F is a vector field at each point
of V and on its boundary surface S, then
FdV FdV
V
V
is the volume integral of F throughout the region. In most standard texts, triple
integrals are used as notation for volume integral.
Z
Example 5.15
4
Evaluate V FdV where V is the region bounded by the
planes x=0, x=2, y=0, y=3, z=0, z=4, and F xyiˆ zĵ x 2 k̂ dV
F xyiˆ zĵ x 2 kˆ; dV dxdydz
O Y
3
FdV xyiˆ zĵ x k̂ dxdydz
2
2
4 3 2
V 0 0 0
X
0 0
4 3
8
3 0
4
2 yiˆ 2 zĵ k̂ dydz 9iˆ 6 zĵ 8k̂ dz 4 9iˆ 12 ĵ 8k̂
Example 5.16
Evaluate V FdV where F 2î 2 zĵ ykˆ and V is the region bounded by the planes z=0,
z=4 and the surface x 2 y 2 9 .
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CHAPTER 5
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Since we have a cylinder, we convert our coordinate system
4
into the cylindrical one.
dV
Thus we have x cos , y sin , z z where
0 2, 0 3, 0 z 4 O Y
3
3
X
Hence
FdV 2iˆ 2 zĵ yk̂ dxdydz
V
V
2
0 0
3
z 0
4
2iˆ 2 zĵ sin k̂ dd dz 2 zî z 2 ĵ sin k̂ dd
2 3
0 0
4
8iˆ 16 ĵ 4
2 3 2 3
2
sin k̂ dd 4 2î 2 2 ĵ sin k̂ d
0 0 0
3
2
0
36 iˆ 2 ˆj sin kˆd 72 i ˆ 2 j ˆ
Example 5.17
Evaluate V 2x y dV where V is the closed region bounded by the cylinder and the
planes x=0, y=0, y=z and z=0
We have
2x y dxdydz x0 y0 4 x 2 2x y dxdy
2 2 4x 2 2 2
x0
y0 z 0
x0 8 16 x 2x 2 4x 3 dx 80 3
2
Example 5.18
Evaluate x 2 y 2 dxdydz, where V is the region bounded by z=x2+y2 and
V
z=8-(x2+y2).
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CHAPTER 5
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Z
For this case we use cylindrical coordinates.
Z 8
x cos , y sin , z z
x 2 y 2 z 2 cos 2 2 sin 2 z
2 z or z said region
2 4 z
x2 y2 dxdydz ddzd
2
0 z 0 z Z4
V
2 4
2
3
Hence 3
2
dzd
0 z 0
z
2 2
2 5
4
256 Z 8x y
4
z
15 0
2
0
d
15
Y
P 2 2
EXERCISE X
Q1. If F , where is single-valued and has continuous partial derivatives,
show that the work done in moving a particle from one point P1 x, y, z in
this field to another point P2 x2 , y 2 , z 2 is independent of the path joining the
two points.
Q2. Show y 2 z 3 cos x 4 x 3 z dx 2z 3 y sin xdy 3 y 2 z 2 sin x x 4 dz is an exact differential
of a function and find .
Ans. y 2 z 3 sin x x 4 z const.
Y
2
(1,1)
Q3. Evaluate C F o d r around the closed curve of figure y x
adjacent if F x y iˆ x y ĵ . y x
2
O X
Ans. 2 3
Q4. If F y 2x î 3x 2 y ĵ , compute the circulation of F about a circle C in the
xy- plane with center at origin and radius 2, if C is traversed in the positive
direction
Ans. 8
Q5. a) Prove that F y 2 cos x z 3 î 2 y sin x 4 ĵ 3xz 2 2 kˆ is a conservative
force field.
b) Find the scalar potential for F .
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CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
c) Find the work done in moving an object in this field from (0, 1, -1) to
2 ,1,2.
Ans. b) y 2 sin x xz 3 4 y 2z const. c) 15 4 .
Q6. Evaluate F o n̂ for each of the following cases;
dS
S
a) F yiˆ 2xĵ zk̂ and S is the surface of the plane 2x+y=6 in the first octant
cut off by the plane z=4.
b) F x y 2 iˆ 2xĵ 2 yzkˆ and S is the surface of the plane 2x+y+2z=6 in the
first octant.
Ans. a) 108 b) 81
Q7. Evaluate x 2 y 2 dxdy over the region in the xy- plane bounded by the plane
R
x 2 y 2 36 .
Ans. 144
Q8. If F 2x 2 3z iˆ 2xyĵ 4xk̂
Evaluate a) V oF dV
b) V F dV
where V is the closed region bounded by the planes x=0, y=0, z=0 and
2x+2y+z=4
Ans. a) 8 3
b) 8 3 ĵ k̂
DIVERGENCE THEOREM (GAUSS’ THEOREM) Z
For a closed surface S, enclosing a region V in a vector
S
field F V
o FdV F o n̂dS F o d S
V S S
In general, this means that the volume integral on the left- O Y
hand side can be expressed as a surface integral on the
X
right-hand surface.
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CHAPTER 5
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Example 5.19
Evaluate F o n̂ over the entire surface of the region bounded by the cylinder
dS
S
x2+z2=9, x=0, y=0, z=0 and y=8, if F 6 zî 2 x y ˆj xk̂ .
Apply divergence theorem
F o n̂dS o FdV
S V
8
3
9x 2
î ˆj k̂ o 6 zî 2 x y ˆj xk̂ dxdydz
x0 y 0 z 0 x y
z
9x2
8 dxdydz 9 x 2 dydx 9 x 2 dx
3 3 8
8
x0 y 0
z 0 x0 y 0 x0
On letting x 3 cos , dx 3 sind , 0
2
8 9 9 cos 2 o 3 sind
0
sin 2 2
72 0
sin 2 d 72 18
2
2 4 0
Example 5.20
Evaluate F o n̂ over the entire surface of the region above the xy- plane bounded
dS
S
by the cone z2=x2+y2 and the plane z=4, if F 4 xzî xyz 2 ˆj 3zk̂ .
Z
z4
By divergence theorem;
x2 y2 z2
F o n̂dS o FdV
Y
S V
X
4z xz
2 2
2 2 3dydxdz
4 z z x
2
z 0 xz y z x
2 4z xz 3 z 2 x 2 dxdz
4 z 2
z 0 xz
81
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
With x z sin ; dx z cos d ; 2 2
82
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
So that we have
2
4
4 z z 3 sin 3z 2 cos 2 ddz
2
z 0
2
0 4 z 3 3z 2 dz
4
320
Example 5.21
Verify the divergence theorem for F 4xiˆ 2 y 2 ĵ z 2 kˆ taken over the region
bounded by x2+y2=4, z=0 and z=3
Z
Volume Integral S : z3
2
o FdV
r
S3
O Y
2
4 4 y 2 z dzdydx
2 4x 3
2
S
1
: z0
x2 y 4x z 0 X
84
The surface S of the cylinder consists of a base S1(z=0), the top S2(z=3) and the
convex portion S3(x2+y2=4). Then
Surface Integral
F o n̂dS F o n̂dS F o n̂dS F o n̂dS
S S1
1
S2 S3
2 3
On S1 z 0; n̂ k̂; F 4 xiˆ 2 y 2 ĵ; F o n̂ 0, so that F o n̂dS 1 0
S1
On S 2 z 3; n̂ k̂; F 4xiˆ 2 y 2 ĵ 9k̂; and F o n̂ 9, so that F o n̂dS 2 9 dS 2
S2 S2
36 sin ce area of S 2 4
On S 3 x 2 y 2 4 ;
A perpendicular to x 2 y 2 4 has the direction x 2 y 2 2 xî 2 yĵ .
83
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
S xî yˆj
Then a unit normal is n .
S 2
xî yˆj
F n̂ 4 xî 2 y 2 ˆj z 2 k̂ 2 x 2 y 3
o o
2
F o n̂ dS 3 2 x y 3 dS 3
2
S3 S3
Now since the radius of the cylinder 2; in cylindrical polar coordinates; we have
x 2 cos , y 2 sin , z z so that dS 3 2ddz
2 3
F o n̂ dS 3 0
t 0
22 cos 2 2 sin 3 2dzd 20 48 cos 2 48 sin 3 d 48
S3
Then the surface integral 0 36 48 84 . Hence verified.
NB: Evaluation of the surface integral over S could also have been done by projection of
S3 on the xz or yz coordinate planes.
QUESTIONS:
Q1. Verify the Gauss divergence theorem for the vector field F xî 2 ĵ z 2 kˆ
taken over the region bounded by the planes z=0, z=4, x=0, y=0 and the
surface x2+y2=4 in the first octant.
Ans. 20
Q2. Evaluate F o n̂ where F 4 xzî y 2 ˆj yzk̂ and S is the surface of the cube
dS
S
bounded by x=0, x=1, y=0, y=1, z=0, z=1.
Ans. 3 2
Q3. Evaluate r o n̂ dS , where S is a closed surface.
S
Ans. 3V
Q4. Prove that 2 2 dV o d S .
V S
Q5. Let S be a closed surface and let r denote the position vector of any point (x,y,z)
measured from an origin O. prove that:
d S
n̂ o r 0 if 0 lies outside S .
S r 3 if 0 lies inside S .
4
84
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
Q6. Evaluate F o d over the hemisphere defined by x2+y2+z2=25 with z 0 ,
S
S
where F x y î 2 zˆj yk̂
GREEN’S THEOREM:
Let C be a simple closed curve in the xy- plane such that a line parallel to either axis
cuts C in at most two points. Let M, N and N x and M y be continuous functions
of (x,y) inside and on C. let R be the region inside C.
M N
Then Mdx Ndy dxdy
R y x
where C is traversed in the positive (counter clockwise) sense.
PROOF
Y
Let the equations of the curves AEB and AFB (see
F
f
adjoining figure) be y=Y1(x) and y=Y2(x) respectively. If
R is the region bounded by C, R B
A
E
we have
X
b Y2 x M
x, y
M Y2 x O
b b
R
y
dxdy
a
dy dx M
y Y1 x y a y Y1 x
dx
M x, y2 M x, y1 dx M x, y1 dx M x, y2 dx Mdx
b b a
a a b C
Then
M
Mdx dxdy (i)
M y
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CHAPTER 5
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Similarly let the equations of curves EAF and EBF be x=X1(y) and x=X2(y)
respectively. Then
N dxdy f X 2 ( y ) N
dy N X 2 , y N X 1 , y dy
f
x y e x X 1 ( y )
R x e
N X 1 , y dy N X 2 , y dy
f f
(ii)
e e C
Ndy
From (i) and (ii) we have
M N
C Mdx Ndy dxdy.
R y dx
Example 5.22
Evaluate C 2 x y dx 2 y x dy around the boundary C of the ellipse x 2 9 y 2 16 ,
M N
M 2 x y , 1 , N 2 y x , 1
y x
2x y dx 2 y x dy 1 1dxdy 2 dxdy
C
R R
But dxdy is the area of the ellipse x 2 9 y 2 16 , i.e.
R
x2 9 y2 4 16
1 a 4, b A
16 16 3 3
32
Hence C2 x y dx 2 y x dy 2 dxdy
R 3
Example 5.23
Using Green‟s Theorem, find the area enclosed by the ellipse
x a cos , y b sin ,0 2 .
If we take M=-y, N=x and apply Green‟s Theorem, we obtain
ab sin 2 cos 2 d a
2 2
Mdx Ndy ydx xdy 0 abd 2 ab
x y
2 2
where we have 1 as equation of an ellipse.
a b
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CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
Example 5.24
Verify Green‟s Theorem in the plane for xy y 2 dx x 2 dy Y
(1,1)
where C is the closed curve of the region bounded by y=x y x
and y=x2. y x
2
Along y=x2 , the line integral equals O X
1
1
0 x x 2
x 4
dx 03x x dx 20
3 4 19
Along y=x from (1,1) to (0,0), the line integral equals
x x x dx x dx 3x dx 1
0 0
2 2 2
1 1
19 1
The required line integral 1 .
20 20
Apply Green‟s Theorem,
M N
dxdy xy y 2 x 2 dxdy
x
R y R x
y
x 2 y dxdy x 0 y x x 2 y dxdy x 0xy y 2 x 2 dx
1 x 1 x
2
R
x 0 x 4 x 3 dx
1 1
.
20
So that the theorem is verified.
Green‟s theorem can in fact, be applied to a region that is not simply connected by
arranging a link between outer and inner boundaries, provided the path of
integration is such that the region is kept on the left-hand side.
The shaded region R, shown in the figure Y
H
adjacent, is multiply connected since not every C
B G
closed curve lying in R can be shrunk to a point A R
D
without leaving R, as is observed by considering a E
F
curve surrounding BCDB for example. X
O
The boundary AHGFEA and the interior boundary BCDB; is to be traversed in the
counter-clockwise sense, so that the region is kept on the left-hand side. The
positive directions are those indicated in the adjoining figure. We construct the
87
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
cross-cut AB connecting the exterior and interior boundaries. The region bounded by
ABCDBAEFGHA is simply-connected, and so Green‟s theorem is valid. Then
M
N
Mdx Ndy R
ABCDBAEFGHA
dxdy .
y x
But the integral on the left, leaving out the integrand is equal to
AB BCDB BA AEFGHA BCDB AEFGHA
Since AB BA . Thus, if C1 is the curve AEFGHA, C2 is the curve BCDB and C is
the boundary of R consisting of C1 and C2 traversed in the positive sense, then
C1 C so that
2
C
N M
Mdx Ndy dxdy
R x y
C
Example 5.25
Express Green‟s theorem in the plane in vector notation. We have
Mdx Ndy Mî Nˆj o dxî dyˆj F o d r where F Mî Nˆj and r xî yˆj so that
d r dxî dyˆj
Also if F Mî Nˆj then,
î ˆj k̂
N M ˆ N M
F î j k̂
x y z x y x y
M N O
So that F o k̂ N M
x y
The Green‟s theorem in the plane can be written
C F o d r F o
k̂dR
R
where dR=dxdy
A generalization of this to surface S in space having a curve C as boundary leads
quite naturally to Stokes‟ theorem which is treated later.
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CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
Example 5.26
Evaluate the line integral xydx 2 x y dy round the region bounded by the curve
y=x2 and x=y2 by use of Green‟s theorem.
Points of intersection are O(0,0) and A(1,1).
Y
(1,1)
2
y x
Mdx Ndy xy 2 x y dxdy
C
R y x
2
y x
x 2 dxdy 0 2 dxdy
1 x
x
R
y x2
O X
0 x 3 2 x 3 2 x 1 2 2 x 2 dx
1 31
60
In the special case when M=y and N=-x
M N
1 and 1
y x
Green‟s theorem then states
1 1dxdy Mdx Ndy
R
C
i.e. 2
dxdy
R
ydx xdy xdy ydx
C C
Therefore the area of the closed region
A dxdy C xdy ydx .
1
R 2
QUESTIONS
Q1. Evaluate C 3x 4 y dx 2 x 3 y dy where C, a circle of radius 2 with center at
the origin of the xy- plane, is traversed in the positive sense.
Ans. 8
Q2. Evaluate C x 2 2 xy dx x 2 y 3 dy around the boundary of the region defined
by y2=8x and x=2.
a) directly
b) by using Green‟s theorem
128
Ans. .
5
89
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
,2
Q3. Evaluate 0 ,0 6 xy y 2 dx 3 x 2 2 xy dy along the cycloid
x sin , y 1 cos
Ans. 6 2 4 .
Q4. Evaluate 3x 2 y dx x 3cos y around the parallelogram having
2
dy
vertices at (0,0), (2,0), (3,1) and (1,1).
Ans. –6.
Q5. Determine the area of the adjacent figure enclosed by y=3x2 and y=6x.
Ans. 4
Y
12 A(2,12)
Q6. Determine the area bounded by the curve y=2x3, y 6x
y=x3+1 and the axis x=o for x 0
Ans. 3 4
y
STOKES' THEOREM
States that if S is an open, two-sided surface bounded by a closed, non-intersecting
r
curve C, then if F has continuous derivatives
r r r r r
F o dr
c ( F ).n̂ds F
(
).ds
S S
where C is traversed in the positive direction. We omit the proof for it is long and
winding.
Example 5.26
r
Verify Stokes‟ theorem for F (2x y) lˆ y z 2 j y 2 zK̂ ,
where S is the upper half surface of the sphere x 2 y 2 z 2 1 and C is its boundary.
The boundary C of S is a circle in the xy plane of radius one and centre at the origin.
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CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
Let x=cos t, y = sin t, z 0 , 0 t 2 be parametric equations of C. Then
r r
2
F o dr (2x y)dx yz dy y zdz (2 cos t sin t)(sin t)dt
2 2
C C o
i j k
r
Also, F kˆ
x y z
2x y yz y 2 z
r
Then F ) o n̂ds k̂ o n̂ds dxdy
(
s
s R
since n̂ o k̂ds dxdy and R is the projection of S on the xy- plane. This last integral
equals
1 1x 2
1 1x 2 1
dydx 4 dydx 1 x2 dx
4
0
0 0
x1 y 1x 2
And the Stokes‟ theorem is verified.
Example 5.27
A surface S consists of that part of the cylinder x 2 y 2 9 between z 0 and z=4
for y≥0 and the two semicircles of radius 3 in the planes z 0 and z 4 . If
r
F zî xyĵ xzk̂ evaluate
r r
F o ds over the surface.
curl
S
The surface S consists of three sections
a. the curved surface of the cylinder
b. the top and bottom semicircles.
We therefore evaluate
r r
F o ds over each of these separately.
curl
S
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CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
By Stokes‟ theorem, we know that
r r r
curl F o ds F o d r , where C is the boundary of S.
s C
r r
F o dr ( ziˆ xyjˆ xzkˆ) o (iˆdx jdy ˆ
ˆ kdz)
c c
zdx xydy xzdz
Taking C1, C2, C3, C4 in turn, and summing the results, given:
(i) C1: y = 0, z= 0, dy = 0, dz = 0
r r
o dr (0 0 0) 0
C1
F
C1
(ii) C2; x=-3; y = 0; dx = 0; dy = 0
3 2
4
r r
2C F o dr 2 C (0 0 3zdz) 2 0 24
z
(iii) C3: y = 0, z= 4; dy = 0; dz = 0
r r 3
F o dr (4dx 0 0) 4dx 24
3C 3 C 3
(iv) C4: x =3; y = 0; dx = 0; dy = 0
3z 2
0
r r
Fo (0 0 3z)dz 24
dr C
4
C 4
2 4
Totalling up these four results, we have
r r
C F o dr 0 24 24 24
24 r r
This working is a good deal easier than calculating S
curl F o ds over the three
separate surfaces direct.
Example 5.28 r
Evaluate ( F ) o n̂ds ,
Z
r where kˆ n̂
F ( x 2 y 4)î 3xyĵ (2 xz z 2 )kˆ and S is the surface
dS
hemisphere x 2 y 2 z 2 16 above the xy- plane.
Stokes‟ theorem states that 4 Y
r r 4
92
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
r X C
( F ) o n̂ds F o dr
S C
93
CHAPTER 5
VECTOR INTEGRATION AND INTEGRAL THEOREMS
On the boundary which is on xy- plane, z= 0 and dz = 0,
In polar coordinates
x=4 cos , y =4 sin , dx =-4 sin d , dy =4 cos d limits = 0 to 2
Thus
F o dr (16 cos 2 4 sin 4)(4 sin d ) 192 sin cos 2 d
r r 2
C 0
2
(48 sin cos 2 16 sin 2 16 sin 192 sin cos 2 )d
0
2
(144 sin cos 2 16 sin 2 16 sin )d
0
48 cos 3 8 4 sin 2 16 cos 2
0 16
QUESTIONS
r
Q1. Verify Stokes‟ theorem for F ( y z 2)î ( yz 4) ĵ xzk̂ , where S is the
surface of the cube x = 0, y = 0, z= 0, x = 2, y = 2, z= 2 above the xy-
plane.
Ans. Common value = -4.
r r
Q2. Evaluate (F ) o n̂dS , F ( x 2 y 4)î 3xyĵ (2 xz z 2 )k̂ and S is
where
S
the surface of the paraboloid z 4 ( x 2 y 2 ) above the xy- plane.
Ans. -4.
r r
Q3. Evaluate (F ) o n̂dS , F 2 yiˆ xĵ xzk̂ and S is the surface of the
where
S
hemisphere x 3 y 2 z 2 4 above the xy- plane.
Ans. -12
94
CHAPTER 6
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES
Introduction:
In the theory developed so far, we have worked entirely with rectangular Cartesian
coordinates with some elements of plane polar, cylindrical polar and spherical polar
coordinates appearing. In practice, cylindrical and spherical polar coordinates are
especially important.
Objectives:
We develop the coordinate system that is capable of taking care of the curved
surface of objects I terms of determining their surface area, volume etc. rectangular
plane coordinate system fails where objects dealt with possess curved surfaces.
95
CHAPTER 6
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES
The surfaces U1 = C1, U2 = C2, U3 = C3, where Z
C1, C2, C3 are constants, are called coordinate U3 Curve
surfaces and each pair of these surfaces u2=c2 U1=c1
P
intersect in curves called coordinate curves or U2 Curve
U1 Curve U3=c3
lines. If the coordinate surfaces intersect at O Y
right angles the curvilinear coordinate system is X
called orthogonal. The U1, U2 and U3 coordinate
curves of curvilinear system are analogous to the x, y and z coordinate axes of a
rectangular system. We consider two cases of curved surfaces.
1. Cylindrical Polar Coordinates P, , z A ê3
Let P be a point with cylindrical coordinates (P, ,z). The ê2
position of P is a function of the three variables P, ,z. ê1
a) If and z remain constants and varies, then P will move
r r
r
out along AP by an amount and the unit vector ê1 in this
O Y
direction will be given by
r r
r r X
ê1
b) If, instead and z remain constant and varies, P will move round the
r
r
circle with AP as radius. is therefore a vector along the tangent to the
circle at P and the unit vector ê 2 at P will be given by
r r
r r
ê 2
r
r
c) Finally, if and remain constant and z increases, the vector will be
z
parallel to the Z-axis and the unit vector ê3 in this direction will be given by
r r
r r
ê3
z z
96
CHAPTER 6
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES
The vectors ê1 , ê2 and ê3 are mutually orthogonal and form a right-handed
system.
Note that unlike the unit vectors î , ĵ, k̂ in the Cartesian system, the unit vectors
ê1 , ê2 , ê3 or base vectors as they are called are not fixed in directions, but change
as the position of P changes.
r r
If F (r ) is a vector associated with P, then
r r
F (r ) F ê1 F ê2 Fz ê3
r
where F , F , Fz are the components of F in the directions of the unit base
vectors ê1 , ê2 and ê3 .
2. Spherical Polar Coordinates
Here P is a function of three variables r, , . Z
ê1
a) If and remain constant and r increases, P moves
r ê3
r p(r, , )
outwards in the direction OP. is thus a vector O
r
Y
r
ê2
normal to the surface of the sphere at P and the unit
X
vector ê , in that direction is therefore
r r
r r
ê1
r r
b) If r and remain constant and increases, P will move along the „meridian”
r
r
throughout P, i.e. is a tangent vector to this circle at P and the unit vector
r r
r r
ê 2
c) If r and remain constant and increases, P will more along the circle
through P perpendicular to the z-axis.
r
r
is therefore a tangent vector at P and the unit vector ˆ 3 in this direction is
r r
r r
given by ê3
97
CHAPTER 6
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES
r r
A vector F (r ) associated with P can therefore be expressed as
r r r
F (r ) Fr ê1 F ê 2 F ê3 where Fr , F , F are the components of F in the directions of
the base vectors ê1 , ê 2 , ê3 . Both cylindrical and spherical polar coordinates are
orthogonal.
Scale Factors:
1. For cylindrical polar coordinates, the unit base vectors are
r r r r
r r 1 r r
ê1 ; h
h
r r r r
r r 1 r r
ê 2 ; h
h
r r r r
r r 1 r r
ê3 ; hz
z z h z z
2. For spherical polar coordinates, the unit base vectors are
r r r
r r r
hr ; h ; h
r
In each case, h is called the scale factor.
If U1, U2, U3 represent the coordinates in any coordinate system, we may obtain the
scale factors as
r 2 r 2 r 2
dr dr dr
hUi ; i 1,2,3
1
dU dU 2 dU 3
1. Rectangular Coordinate System
In rectangular coordinate system; U 1 ,U 2 ,U 3 x, y, z
r
r xî yĵ zkˆ
Then hU1 h x 1, hU 2 h y 1, hU 3 hz 1
2. Cylindrical Coordinate System U 1 ,U 2 ,U 3 , , z
r
r x î yĵ zkˆ cos î sin ĵ zkˆ Z
where x cos , y sin , z z P( , , z )
r r
r r
cos î sin ĵ ; cos 2 sin 2 1 r
O Y
x
y
87
X
CHAPTER 6
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES
Thus ê ê1 cos î sin ĵ
Similarly ê ê 2 sin î cos ĵ ; ê z k̂
3. Spherical Coordinate System Z
U1 ,U 2 ,U 3 r, , P(r , , )
x r sin cos , y r sin sin , z r cos r
r Z
r r sin cos î r sin sin ĵ r cos kˆ
O Y
and x
r
hr 1, h r, h r sin
y
X
General Curvilinear Coordinate System (U1, U2, U3)
Any system of coordinates can be treated in like manner to obtain expressions for
the appropriate units vectors ê1 , ê 2 , ê3 .
r r r r r r
r r r r r r
ê1 ; ê 2 ; ê3 ;
U 1 U 1 U 2 U 2 U 3 U 3
These unit vectors are not always at right angles to each other. If they are mutually
perpendicular, the coordinate system is orthogonal.
The unit vectors are orthogonal if ê1 o ê 2 ê1 o ê3 ê 2. o ê3 0.
Example 6.1
For the vectors
î 2 ĵ 4k̂ ; 2î 3 ĵ k̂, 2î ĵ k̂,
1 1 1
ê1 (î 2 ĵ 4k̂); ê2 (2î 3 ĵ k̂); ê3 (2î ĵ k̂)
21 14 6
Then
1
ê1 o ê 2 (2 6 4) 0
7 6
1
ê1 . o ê3 (2 2 4) 0
3 14
1
ê 2 o ê3 (4 3 1) 0
2 21
Hence the three vectors are orthogonal.
88
CHAPTER 6
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES
Example 6.2
Prove that a spherical coordinate system is orthogonal.
The position vector of any point in spherical coordinates is
r
r xiˆ yĵ zk̂ r sin cos î r sin sin ĵ r cos k̂
êr sin cos iˆ sin sin ĵ cos k̂
ê cos cos î cos sin ĵ sin k̂
ê sin î cos ĵ
êr o ê sin cos cos 2 sin cos sin 2 cos sin 0
êr o ê sin cos sin sin cos sin 0
êr o ê cos cos sin cos cos sin 0
Hence orthogonal.
Example 6.3
r
Represent F z î 2xĵ ykˆ in cylindrical coordinates. Thus determine F , F , Fz
r
r xî yĵ zk̂ cos î sin ĵ zk̂
r r
r r
ê cos î sin ĵ
r r
r r
ê sin î cos ĵ
r r
r r
ê z kˆ
z z
We then solve simultaneously for î , ĵ, k̂ to obtain
î cos ê sin ê , ĵ sin ê cos ê , k̂ ê z
Now
r
F zî 2xĵ 2 ykˆ
z(cos ê sin ê ) 2 cos (sin ê cos ê ) 2 sin ê z
( z cos 2 cos sin ) ê ( z sin 2 cos 2
) ê sin ê z
and
F z cos 2 cos sin , F z sin 2 cos 2 , Fz sin
89
CHAPTER 6
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES
Transformation of Coordinates
In general coordinates, the transformation equations of the form
x f (U 1 ,U 2 ,U 3 ); y g (U 1 ,U 2 ,U 3 ); z h(U 1 ,U 2 ,U 3 )
where the functions f, g, h are continuous and single valued and whose partial
derivatives are continuous.
Then
r r
r xî yĵ zkˆ f (U 1 ,U 2 ,U 3 )î g (U 1 ,U 2 ,U 3 ) ĵ h(U 1 ,U 2 ,U 3 )kˆ r (U 1 ,U 2 ,U 3 )
and coordinate curves can be formed by keeping two of the three variable constant.
Now
r r r
r r r r r r
r r (U 1 ,U 2 ,U 3 ) dr dU 1 dU 2 dU 3 ...*
U 1 U 2 U 3
r
r
is a tangent vector to the U1 – coordinate curve at P
U1
r
r
is a tangent vector to the U2 – coordinate curve at P
U 2
r
r
is a tangent vector to the U3 – coordinate curve at P
U 3
r r r
r r r
ê1 hU1 ê1
U 1 U 1 U 1
r r r
r r r
ê 2 hU 2 ê2
U 2 U 2 U 2
r r r
r r r
ê3 hU 3 ê3
U 3 U 3 U 3
Then Eqn. (*) above becomes
r
dr hU1 dU1 ê1 hU 2 dU 2 ê2 hU 3 dU 3 ê3
Where hU 1 , hU 2 , hU 3 are the scale factors.
90
CHAPTER 6
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES
Arc Lengths ds and Volume Element dv
Q
u3 h3du3 ê3
dr u2
h1du1ê1 O h du ê
2 2 2
u1
Fig ( A)
a) Element of arc dS
Element of arc dS from o to Q given by
r r
dr o dr dS 2 (hU 1 dU 1ê1 hU 2 dU 2 ê 2 hU 3 dU 3 ê3 ) o (hU 1 dU 1ê1 hU 2 dU 2 ê 2 hU 3 dU 3 ê3 )
hU1 2 dU 12 hU 2 2 dU 2 2 hU 3 2 dU 3 2
dS hU1 dU 12 hU 2 dU 2 hU 3 dU 3
2 2 2 2 2
and
Example 6.4
Find the square of the element of arc length in cylindrical coordinates and
determine the corresponding scale factors.
r xiˆ yĵ zk̂
We have
cos î sin ĵ zk̂
r
dr (cos d sin d ) î (sin d cos d ) ĵ dzk̂
r r
dS 2 dr o dr cos 2 d 2 2 cos sin dd 2 cos 2 d 2
sin 2 d 2 2 sin cos dd 2 cos 2 d 2 dz 2
d 2 2 d 2 dz 2 h d 2 h U 2 2 d 2 h U 3 2 dz 2
2
U1
and hU1 1, hU 2 , h U 3 1 are the scale factors.
91
CHAPTER 6
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES
b) Element of volume dV
dV (hU 1 dU 1ê1 ) o (hU 2 dU 2 ê 2 hU 3 dU 3 ê3 )
hU 1 hU 2 hU 3 dU 1 dU 2 dU 3
r r r
r r r
o( ) dU 1 dU 2 dU 3
U1 U 2 U 3
( x y z)
dU 1 dU 2 dU 3 JdU 1dU 2 dU 3
(U 1 U 2 U 3 )
where J is called the Jacobian of the transformation and is given by
xU1 yU1 zU1
( x y z)
J xU 2 yU 2 zU2
(U 1 U 2 U 3 )
xU 3 yU3 zU3
x
where xU 1 etc.
U1
c) Element of Area dA
The area element is given by
dA1 hU 2 dU 2 ê 2 hU 3 dU 3 ê3 from fig. A
hU 2 hU 3 ê 2 ê3 dU 2 dU 3 hU 2 hU 3 dU 2 dU 3
since ê 2 ê3 ê1 1
similarly dA2 hU 1 hU3 dU 1 dU 3 and dA3 hU 1 hU 2 dU 1 dU 2
Example 6.5
Evaluate ( x y2 z2 where V is a sphere having centre at the origin and
2
)dxdydz
V
radius equal to a.
We may consider the portion in the first octant and in spherical coordinates we have
dxdydz r 2 sin drdd
92
CHAPTER 6
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES
Thus we have
Z
( x y z )dxdydz
a
2 2 2 2
r 2 .r 2 sin drdd
0 0 r
8 2 x y z a
2 2 2 2
0
v
8
a sin dd
5 2 2
dV dxdydz
5 0 0
8 Y
a5 2 d
2 2 2
5 x y a ;z 0
X
0
4 5
a .
5
Grad, div and Curl in Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates
(a) Grad V (V )
Let a scalar field exist in space and let d be the u3
Q
change in from a point p to Q say. If the position vector r
u3 du 3
r r r
of p is r then that of Q is r dr
r
kˆ
P r
u1 du 1
Then d dU 1 dU 2 dU 3 ĵ u2 u2 du2
U 1 U 2 U 3
u1
Let grad O iˆ
( )U 1 ê1 ( )U 2 ê 2 ( )U 3 ê3
Where ( ) U1 , U 2 , U 3 are the components of grad in the U1, U2, U3 directions.
Also
r r r
r r r r
dr dU 1 dU 2 dU 3
U 1 U 2 U 3
hU1 dU 1 ê1 hU 2 dU 2 ê2 hU 3 dU 3 ê3
Now since
d dU dU 2 dU 3
U 1 U 2 U 3
r
o dr
( ) U1ê 1 ( ) U 2 ê2 ( ) U 3 ê3 o hU1 dU1ê1 hU 2 dU 2 ê2 hU 3 dU3 ê3
U 1hU 1dU 1 U 2
hU 2 dU 2 U 3 hU3 dU 3
Comparing the coefficients, we obtain
1 1 1
( ) U 1 ; ( ) U 2 ; ( ) U 3
hU 1 U 1 hU 2 U 2 hU 3 U 3
93
CHAPTER 6
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES
So that
1 1 1
grad ê1 ê2 ê3
hU 1 U 1 hU 2 U 2 hU 3 U 3
and
ê1 ê 2 ê
3
hU 1 U 1 hU 2 U 2 hU 3 U 3
r r
(b) DivF (o F )
r ê1 ê 2 r
ê
r r r
div F o F 3 o FU1 ê1 FU 2 ê2 FU 3 ê3
hU U 1 hU U 2 hU U 3
1 2 3
1 FU1 1 FU 2 1 FU 3
hU 1 U1 hU 2 U2 hU 3 U3
1
hU 2 hU 3 FU 1
hU1 hU3 FU2
hU hU FU
hU1 hU2 hU3 U 1 U 2 U 3 1 1 3
(c)
r
Curl F F U1 ê1 FU 2 ê2 FU 3 ê3
F ê F ê F ê
U1 1 U2 2 U3 3
ê 2
F h
ê
F h 3
h h U h h U
U1 U1 U1 U1
U 3 U1 3 U1 U 2 3
ê3
FU 2 hU2 ê1 FU 2 hU2
hU1 hU 2 U1 hU 2 hU 3 U3
ê1
hU 2 hU 3 U 2
FU 3 hU 3 2
ê
F h
hU 3 hU 1 U1 U 3 U 3
ê1 ê 2
.
FU 3 hU 3
U3
FU 3 hU 3
FU1 hU1
FU3 hU 3
hU 2 hU3 U2 hU 3hU 1 U 3 U1
ê3
hU1 hU 2
U1
FU 2 hU2
U 2
FU1 hU 2
which is written in compact form as
hU1 ê1 hU 2 ê2 hU 3 ê3
1
F
hU 1 hU 2 hU 3 U 1 U 2 U 3
FU1 hU1 FU 2 hU 2 FU 3 hU 3
94
CHAPTER 6
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES
Example 6.6
Express 2 in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates.
ê1 ê ê
2 3
hU 1 U 1 hU 2 U 2 hU 3 U 3
ê
ê
ê ê ê1 ê
2 o 1 2 3 2 3
o
hU1 U1 hU 2 U1 hU 3 U1 hU1 U1 hU 2 U 1 hU 3 U1
h U hU h U1hU3 h U1hU2
1
2 3
U U U
1 2 3
hU hU hU U 1 h U 1
U 2 h U 2
U 3 h U 3
1 2 3
Example 6.7
If (U 1 , U 2, U 3 ) U 1 U 2 2 U 3 3 with scale factors hU1 2, hU2 1, and hU 3 1 , find
2 at the point (5, 4, 3).
1, 2U 2 , 3U 32
U 1 U 2 U 3
hU1 2, hU2 1, hU 3 1
1
2 1 2 (2) (4U 2 ) 6U32
U 1 U 2 U 3
2 0 4 12U 3 26 at U 3 4
1
Example 6.8
Express the heat equation u t k2 u in spherical coordinates.
We have
k h h u hr h u hr h u
u
t hr h h r hr r h h
k u u 1 2
u
2 2
2 sin r sin
r sin r r sin
1 2 u 1 2u
sin 2
u 1
k 2 r 2
r r r r sin r sin 2 2
95
CHAPTER 6
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES
If u is independent of ; we have
u 1 2 u 1 u
k 2 r 2 sin etc
t r r r r sin
QUESTIONS
Q1. Determine the unit vectors in the directions of the following three vectors and
test whether they form an orthogonal set
3î 2 ĵ k̂, î 2 ĵ k̂, 2î ĵ 4k̂.
Ans. Yes, an orthogonal set
r
Q2. If r u sin 2 î u cos 2 ĵ V 2 k̂, determine the scale factors hu, hv, h.
Ans. hu = 1, hv = 2V, h = 2u.
r
Q3. A vector field F is given in cylindrical coordinates by
r
F cos î sin 2 ĵ zk̂
r r
Determine (a) o F (b) F
Ans. (a) (2 cos 2 cos 2 1) (b) (2 sin 2 sin )k̂
r
Q4. Represent the vector F 2 yî zĵ 3xk̂ in spherical coordinates and determine
Fr , F and F .
Hint: You determine êr , ê , ê in terms of î , ĵ and k̂. Use Cramer‟s rule to
r
solve the system of equations for î , ĵ and kˆ and use them in F 2 yî zĵ 3xk̂
Ans.
r r
F Fr êr F ê F ê where
Fr 2r sin 2 sin cos r sin cos sin 3r sin cos cos
F 2r sin cos sin r cos 2
sin 3r sin 2 cos
F 2r sin sin 2 r cos cos
Q5. Find the element of arc length on a sphere of radius a.
Ans.
dS 2 a 2 d 2 sin 2 d 2
96
CHAPTER 6
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES
Q6. Given the coordinate transformation U 1 xy, 2U 2 x 2 y 2 , U 3 z
(a) Show that the coordinate system is not orthogonal
x, y, z
(b) Find J
U 1 ,U 2 ,U 3
(c) Find dS2
1
Ans. (b) (c)
y x 2
2
( x 2 y 2 )(dU 12 dU 22 ) 4xydU1 dU2
ds
2
dU 32
( x y )
2 2 2
U2 (dU12 dU 22 ) 2U1 dU1 dU2
dU 32
2(U 22 U12 )
97
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