Physics Notes

Physics: Branch of science dealing with the interaction of matter and energy. It can be
classified as classical (mechanics, thermodynamics, etc.) and modern (“quantum” and
“relativity theory”) physics.

Basic and Derived Quantities

> Basic Quantities: length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, amount of substance,
luminosity
> Derived Quantities: Quantities defined in terms of two or more of the basic quantities.
Examples of which are velocity, acceleration, force and work.

Scalar and Vector Quantities

> Scalar: Has magnitude and unit only (e.g., distance, speed, time, energy)
> Vector: Has magnitude, unit, and direction (e.g., displacement, velocity, force and
acceleration)

Different Forms of Energy

Energy: Ability to do work
• Kinetic Energy: Possessed by a moving body
• Potential Energy: Energy of a body due to its position or shape
a. Gravitational Potential Energy: Energy of an object due to its vertical separation from the
earth’s surface
b. Elastic Potential Energy: Energy in a stretched or compressed spring
c. Electric Potential Energy: Energy of electrons inside an atom
• Internal Energy:
a.) random kinetic energy of atoms and molecules;
b.) chemical energy due to bonds and interactions between atoms and molecules.

Kinematics
Motion: Change in position of a body
Distance: Length covered by a body due to its motion
Displacement: Distance with direction
𝑚
Speed: Speed (s) is the distance travelled (d) over time (t). The unit used is 𝑠 .
𝒅
𝒔=
𝒕
Velocity: Vector quantity which is the ratio of displacement (x) over time (t).
𝒙
𝒗=
𝒕
Average Velocity
𝑽 𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐
𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒆 =
𝟐

Acceleration: the rate of change in velocity with respect to time.

∆𝒗
𝒂=
∆𝒕
where: ∆𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
∆𝑡 = 𝑡𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
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 Projectile Motion
> Motion of a body thrown horizontally and affected by Earth’s gravitational pull
> Trajectory is the path taken by an object in projectile motion

The key to analyzing Projectile Motion is to treat the x- and y-coordinates separately.
• The velocity in the x-coordinate is constant, thus zero acceleration in the x-axis
𝑚
• The acceleration in the y-coordinate is constant, acceleration due to gravity = 10𝑠2

1. Body Thrown Upward (Free-Fall)

An object is given an initial upward velocity v1. While in flight, the ball is pulled downward by
gravity. Therefore, there is deceleration until it reaches its maximum height. Upon reaching
the maximum height, the object will momentarily stop, V = 0m, before it starts to accelerate
down (free-fall).

Force and velocity are opposite in directions, the speed of the object decreases up to the
highest point of its flight. Then it falls downward with increasing velocity until it reaches the
ground.
𝑚
The net force due to gravity is Fg = mag where ag =10 𝑠2 .

2. Body Thrown Horizontally

As an object is thrown horizontally, an initial horizontal force, Fh is applied. Once the object is
released no more horizontal force acts on it. But it maintains its horizontal velocity, vh. This
object is being pulled downward by gravity so it moves vertically downward with acceleration
𝑚
due to gravity, ag =10 𝑠2 . The vertical force is
𝑭𝒗 = 𝑭𝒈 = 𝒎𝒂𝒈
Thus the object moves in two directions at the same time, both horizontally (y-axis) and
vertically (x-axis).
The resultant velocity is
𝒗𝑹 = 𝒗𝒚 + 𝒗𝒙

Uniform Circular Motion

Consider an object of mass, m, while moving in a circular path at constant speed (Fc = mac).
Relating the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration, ac, with the speed of the body and
radius of the circular path R.
𝒗𝟐
ac = 𝑹
𝒗𝟐
Fc = mac = m 𝑹

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 Forces and Interactions
Force: push or pull. It is measured in unit of Newton. It is an interaction between two bodies
or between a body and its environment.

Major Types of Forces

Contact Forces
• Normal Force: It is a force exerted on an object by any surface with which it is in
contact. This force is always perpendicular to the said surface.

• Friction Force: A force exerted on an object parallel to the surface, in the direction that
opposes sliding.

Different Types of Friction Forces

Static Force 𝑭𝑺 = 𝑭𝑵 𝝁 𝑺

Sliding/Kineti 𝑭𝒌 = 𝑭𝑵 𝝁 𝒌
c Force

Rolling Force 𝑭𝒓 = 𝑭𝑵 𝝁 𝒓

• Tension: The pulling force exerted by a stretched rope or cord on an object to which it’s
attached

Long-range Forces
• Electromagnetic Force: Attraction or repulsion between electric charges or magnetic
poles.
Coulomb’s Law of Magnetism
𝒒 𝒒
𝑭𝒆 = 𝒌 𝟏𝒓𝟐 𝟐
where k (Coulomb's constant) = 8.99×109 N m2 C−2
q1 and q2 = magnitudes of the charges
r = distance between the charges

• Gravitational Force: Attracts bodies toward each other.

Law of Universal Gravitation
𝒎 𝒎
𝑭𝒈 = 𝑮 𝟏𝒓𝟐 𝟐
𝑁𝑚2
where G (gravitational constant) = 6.67 x 10-11 𝑘𝑔2

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m1 and m2 = mass of bodies
r = distance between the bodies

Weight: The gravitational force that the earth exerts on the body.
W= Mass (G)
Where G = acceleration due to gravity

Newton’s Laws of Motion

• Law of Inertia: “Bodies at rest will remain at rest and bodies in motion will continue
moving at constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by a net force”. This law
implies that objects will remain at rest or moving at a constant rate if the sum of all forces
acting on them is zero.
• Law of Motion and Mass (or Law of Acceleration): “An unbalanced force acting on an
object will cause the object to accelerate in the direction of the force”. Acceleration is
directly proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to its mass.
• Law of Interaction: “For every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.”

Stress and Strain

Elasticity: Property of matter that enables it to return to its original size and shape when the
applied external force is removed
Stress: A component of a force perpendicular to the area it acts on. It is mathematically
written as:
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
Stress = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
Strain: A measure of deformation, usually it is the object’s change in length, ∆l

Hooke’s Law: Strain is directly proportional to the cause of deformation (stress). Hence,
𝑭
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
Y = = 𝑨
∆𝒍
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝒍𝒐
where:
Y = Young’s Modulus of Elasticity
l0 = the original length of the material
∆l = the change in length
Young’s Modulus is a measure of the stretchability or compressibility of a material within its
elastic limit. The higher Y is, the more elastic the material.

Pressure: Perpendicular force acting on a unit surface.

𝑭
P= 𝑨
The unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa)
1𝑁
1 Pa = 𝑚2
Increase in height causes decrease in air density.
Increase in molecular collisions causes increase in pressure.

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Pascal’s Principle
An external pressure exerted on a static, enclosed fluid is transmitted uniformly throughout
the fluid.

Archimedes’
Magnitude of buoyant force, FB, is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the object.
𝑭𝑩 = 𝑽𝒘 𝑫𝒘 𝒈
Vw= volume of displaced water V = volume of the object
Dw= density of water D = density of the object
A body will float in a fluid if it is less dense than the fluid.

Impulse and Momentum

Momentum: Tendency of a moving object to continue moving and the difficulty encountered
in reducing that motion
𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗
𝑚
where m is mass and v is velocity. The unit is 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑠 .
Impulse of a force on an object for a time t is:
𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 = 𝑭𝒕
The unit is N∙s
> The relationship between impulse of a force and the change in momentum is given by
𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝒎 𝒗𝒇 − 𝒎𝒗𝒊
where 𝒗𝒇 is the final velocity and vi is the initial velocity.
This states that the sum of the impulses of all forces acting on an object for a certain time is
equal to the change in momentum of the object during that time.

Conservation of Momentum
If no external force (like friction) acts on a body, the momentum of the body will not change.
Let p = mv1 + mv2
(the momentum of the system before collision)
where: m1 = mass of object 1; v1 = velocity of object 1 m2 = mass of object 2; v2
= velocity of object 2
Let p’ = m1 v1’ + m2v2’
(the momentum of system after collision)
The law of conservation of momentum states that:
∆𝒑 = 𝒑𝟏 − 𝒑 = 𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝒑′ = 𝒑

Work, Power and Mechanical Energy

Work: Done when a force causes displacement. The unit of work is joules.
𝑾 = 𝑭𝒙
Power: The rate at which work is done.
∆𝑾
𝑷=
∆𝒕
Kinetic Energy:
𝟏
𝑲𝑬 = 𝟐 𝒎𝒗2
where m = mass and v = velocity

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Potential Energy
𝑷𝑬 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉
𝑚
where m = mass of the object, g = 10 𝑠2 , and h = height of the object

Conservation of Mechanical Energy

𝑲𝑬𝟏 + 𝑷𝑬𝟏 = 𝑲𝑬𝟐 + 𝑷𝑬𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝒗𝟏 2 + 𝒎𝒈𝒉𝟏 = 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐 2 + 𝒎𝒈𝒉𝟐
𝟐

Magnetic Field

Magnetic field is a region in space where the magnet affects another magnet. Magnetic fields
can affect current-carrying conductors and moving charges in vacuum.

On Current- Carrying Conductors

If a current carrying conductor is in a magnetic field, it moves to a direction at right angle to
both the direction of I and B

Magnetic Force: Magnetic force (F) is maximized when current I and magnetic field
directions are perpendicular to each other. The magnitude of the force F depends on the
following:
a) Current (I);
b) Strength of magnetic field (B);
c) Length of the conductor that lies in magnetic field (L).
In equation, magnetic force is:
𝑭 = 𝑩 ∙ 𝑰 ∙ 𝑳

On moving Charges in Vacuum

𝑭 = 𝒒∙𝒗∙𝑩
𝐿
where: q = no. of charges; v = velocity = 𝑡
Electromagnetic Induction
Current is induced when a conductor moves across a magnetic field or when a magnetic field
moves with respect to a stationary conductor.

Factors of Induced Current

• Relative velocity of the conductor and magnetic fields
• The strength of the magnetic field.
• Length of the conductor in the field
• Current is produced when a potential difference between two points in a circuit exist.
• Can magnetism induce current? This is shown by the following equation.
𝑽=𝒗 ∙𝑩 ∙𝑳
Note that the current (l) is proportional to voltage (V). Thus as current increases, v, B, and L
increases.
∆𝒑
𝑽=
𝒕
The induced voltage is numerically equal to the rate of change of the magnetic flux. As the
flux changes, current is induced.

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 Wave and Energy
Energy Transfer
• Waves are classified as mechanical and electromagnetic waves. They either move in
circular or straight motion.
• There are two types of waves:
o Transverse - Movement of the particles of the medium are perpendicular to the
direction of the wave motion.
o Longitudinal - Movement is parallel to the direction of the wave.
• Waves have different characteristics
o Wavelength: Distance between two corresponding points on a wave train.
o Wave Frequency: Expressed in hertz which corresponds to the number of times the
wave source completes a vibration in one second.
o Period: Time it takes the wave source to make one complete vibration. It is the
reciprocal of frequency.
o Amplitude: Highest or lowest displacement from a wave’s equilibrium position.
Increase in amplitude causes a transfer of more energy.
o Speed: Directly proportional to frequency
𝑠 = 𝑓𝜆
Doppler Effect
Occurs when the speed of the wave is greater than the speed of the source.

Overview: Sound vs. Light

Sound Waves Light Waves
Longitudinal Transverse
Mechanical Electromagnetic
Propagated with medium: Can be propagated without a medium:
can be propagated in vacuum
Gas(slowest) Gas (fastest)
Liquid Liquid
Solid (fastest) Solid(slowest)

Sound
Characteristics of Sound Waves
o Loudness or Intensity: Loud sounds have greater amplitude
o Pitch: Highness or lowness of sound
o Quality: Distinguishes sounds from one another

Light
Reflection in Plane Mirrors
The image is reversed in a plane mirror. The virtual image is of the same size as the object in
front of the mirror.
Reflection in Curved Mirrors
A curved mirror has a vertex V, a center of curvature c, and a principal focus F. The focal
length, f, is the distance from V to F.

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 Summary of Lens and Mirrors
Type of Image
Diverging Mirror Convex Mirror Virtual,Upright,Reduced
Diverging Lens Concave Lens
Converging Mirror Concave Mirror Virtual,Upright,Enlarged
Converging Lens Convex Lens Real,Inverted,Enlarged
Real,Inverted,Same size
Real,Inverted,Reduced

Additional notes
• When object is placed at an infinite distance, image is a point at F.
• When object is placed at F, the image is at infinity.

Application of Convex Mirrors

Convex Mirror Uses: Inside Buildings
• Large hospitals, stores and office buildings often use convex mirrors to allow people to
see what is around a corner to help keep people from running into one another.
Convex Mirror Uses: Sunglasses
• Convex mirrors are used to make sunglass lenses. These mirrors help reflect some of the
sunlight away from the wearer's eyes.
Convex Mirror Uses: Vehicles
• Convex mirrors are often found on the passenger sides of motor vehicles. These mirrors
make objects appear smaller than they really are. Due to this compression, these mirrors
to reflect a wider image area, or field of vision.
Convex Mirror Uses: Security
• Convex mirrors are often placed near ATMs to allow bank customers to see if someone is
behind them. This is a security measure that helps keep ATM users safe from robbery of
any cash withdrawals and helps keep ATM users' identity more secure.
Convex Mirror Uses: Magnifying Glass
• Two convex mirrors placed back to back are used to make a magnifying glass.

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 Application of Concave Mirrors
Concave Mirror Uses: Vehicle
• Concave mirrors are used in vehicle headlights to focus the light from the headlight. The
light is not as diffused and the driver can see better at night.

Concave Mirror Uses: Light Concentration

• Concave mirrors are used to focus light for heating purposes.(e.g. solar cooker)

Application of Lens
Convex Lens Uses: Eye defects
• Convex lens are used in eyeglass prescribed for individuals with hyperopia (far-
sightedness).

Concave Lens Uses: Eye defects

• Convex lens are used in eyeglass prescribed for individuals with myopia (near-
sightedness).

Refraction
Bending of light at the boundary between different media. The index of refraction is:
𝒄
n=𝒗
where n = index of refraction, c = speed of light
𝑚
(3 × 108 𝑠 ), and v = speed of light in the medium

Law of Reflection
- “It states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.”
- In symbols, Ɵi = Ɵr
where: Ɵi – angle of incidence
Ɵr – angle of relection
The normal line is always drawn perpendicular with the reflecting surface. Angle of incidence
and reflection is measured from the normal line.

Multiple Reflection of Light

When light hits reflecting surfaces several times, multiple images will be formed. If the angle
between two reflecting surfaces such as mirror decreases, the number of images formed
increases. To determine the number of images that can be formed between two mirrors
hinged together at an angle is
360
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 = −1
𝜃
Where Ɵ = angle between two mirrors

Refraction of Light
Light bends when it travels obliquely from one transparent medium to another. Light is bent
toward or away from the normal as it changes its speed when traveling through different
optical media. A measure of how fast or slow light travels from one medium to another is
called the index of refraction (optical density).
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑐
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑛) = =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑣

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Index of refraction is a dimensionless quantity and its value is always greater or equal to 1
since light travels fastest in a vacuum than any other media. When the first medium has
greater index of refraction than the second medium, light bends away from the normal. If
medium 2 is denser than medium 1, light bends towards the normal.

Snell’s law is the basic law of refraction that shows the relationship between the angles of
incidence and refraction
𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2
Where, n1 – index of refraction of the first medium
n2 – index of refraction of the second medium
Ɵ1 – angle of incidence
Ɵ2 – angle of refraction

Dispersion of White Light

A separation of white light into several rainbow colors after passing a prism is called
dispersion. Dispersion occurs because the indices of refraction are wavelength dependent
(Nowikow et al., 2002)

The speed of light in vacuum is the same for all wavelengths but the speed in a material
substance is different for different wavelengths. Dispersion is the dependence of wave speed
and index of refraction on wavelength. In most materials, light of longer wavelength has
greater speed than light of shorter wavelength since the value of the index of refraction
decreases with decreasing frequency and increasing wavelength.

A ray of white light incident on a prism separates it to rainbow colors – R, O, Y, G, B, V. Red

light is deviated least while violet light is deviated most since deviation (change in direction)
produced by a prism increases with increasing frequency and index of refraction and
decreasing wavelength.

Total Internal Reflection

Total Internal Reflection happens when the incident angle is greater than the critical angle,
this is possible only when light travels from denser to less dense medium such as diamond to
air. As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction also increases since light bends
away from the normal from denser to less dense medium. When the critical angle is reached,
the angle of refraction is along the interface of the two media which is equal to 90 degrees
from the normal line. Using Snell’s Law.

𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2
𝑛1 sin 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2
𝑛2 sin 𝜃2
sin 𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛1
𝑛1
𝜃 = sin−1 ( )
𝑛2
Incident angle (Ɵi) is equal to the critical angle (Ɵc) when the refracted ray moves parallel to
the boundary when Ɵ2 = 90O. One of the applications of total internal reflection is the used of
the flexible pipe in fiber optics industry. Images can be transferred from one point to another
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resulting to multiple internal reflection using the bundle of parallel fibers in constructing
transmission line. Another application is seen in the medical field, physician utilize optical fiber
devices to examine internal organs of the body or to perform surgery without making large
incisions. Electrical wirings such as copper wiring and coaxial cables are being replaced by
optical fibers since these can carry greater volume of telephone calls or other forms of
communication (Serway, 2004)

Diffraction of Light
It is the bending of light waves around the objects it passes and spreads out after passing
through the narrow slits which give rise to a diffraction pattern due to interference between
light rays that travel different distances (Giancolli, 200_).

When light passes through an opening that is large compared with the wavelength of light, a
shadow will be caste on the screen with sharp boundary between the dark and light areas of
shadow. But when light waves pass through thin silt, it diffracts which produces bright and
dark areas. Longer waves diffract more since the amount of shadow depends on the
wavelength of the wave compared with the size of the obstruction that casts the shadow
(Hewitt, 2006).

Interference of Light
Interference of wave is the meeting or superimposing of one wave on another wave.
Types of interference:
• Constructive Interference – At points where the waves arrive in phase. As seen from the
figure at the right, when a crest meets another crest or a trough meets another trough
(waves are in phase), the resulting wave is being reinforced forming a supercrest or
supertrough.
• Destructive Interference – At points where the waves arrive in opposite phase. Figure at the
right shows the meeting of waves with the same amplitude which are out of phase (crest
meets trough) resulted to a cancellation of wave.

Light is a transverse electromagnetic wave which exhibits interference. Striped Interference

pattern was produced when a monochromatic light passes through closely spaced – slits.
Series of bright and dark lines results from the different path lengths from the slits to the
screen. The central bright fringes are the results of the in phase waves that reinforced each
other (Constructive Interference) while the dark fringes are produced from the meeting of the
waves that are out of phase (Destructive Interference).

Polarization of Light
Polarization of light waves shows that light is really a transverse wave. All EM waves exhibits
polarization. There are many applications of polarized light such as:
a. Polarized light is useful in determining the size and shape of virus.
b. Polaroid is a trademark for glare – reducing plastic which is used in sun glasses.
Polaroids cut down the horizontally polarized light to reduce the glare and intensity.
c. Polaroids with perpendicular axes are used in special types of glasses for three
dimensional viewing (3-D view)
d. Photo elastic stress analysis uses polarized light.

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Polarization by Transmission
It is the most common method of polarization which utilizes Polaroid filter that blocks one of
the two planes of vibration of an electromagnetic wave upon transmission of the light through
it. Unpolarized light vibrates in all directions. Vertical and horizontal components of light have
equal intensities but after passing through a polarized, one of the components is eliminated
and light intensity is reduced to half. Unpolarized light can be entirely stopped when the two
polaroids are crossed having perpendicular polarizing axes (Polarizer and Analyzer).

The second Polaroid, the analyzer, then eliminates this component since its transmission axis
is perpendicular to the first. You can try this with Polaroid sunglasses. Note that Polaroid
sunglasses climinate 50% of unpolarized light because of their polarizing property: they absorb
even more because they are colored.

Polarization by Reflection
When light strikes a nonmetallic surface at any angle other than perpendicular, the reflected
beam is a polarized preferentially in the plane parallel to the surface. Furthermore, the
component with polarization in the plane perpendicular to the surface is preferentially
transmitted or absorbed. People who go fishing wear polaroid sunglasses to see beneath the
water more clearly since it eliminates the reflected glare from the surface (Giancolli).

Reflection of light off of non-metallic surfaces results in some degree of polarization parallel to
the surface.

Polarization by Refraction
Refraction is the bending of light as it passes obliquely from one transparent medium to
another. Light ray bends which acquires some degree of polarization. As light enters a
transparent medium such as Iceland spar, it refracts the incident light into two different paths
which are polarized. The double refraction of light can produce two images.

The two refracted rays passing through the Iceland Spar crystal are polarized with
perpendicular orientations.

Polarization by Scattering
As light strikes the atoms of a material, the electrons of the atoms set into vibration which
later produce their own electromagnetic wave radiated outward in all directions. The newly
generated wave strikes other neighboring atoms that forces their electrons to vibrate at same
original frequency, and then produces new electromagnetic waves radiated outward in all
directions. The absorption and reemission of light waves causes the light to be scattered and
partially polarized about the medium. Polarization by scattering is observed as light passes
through our atmosphere which often produces a glare in the skies.

Geometric Optics
Images can be formed either by reflection of light as it hits an opaque or transparent medium
respectively. The image formation can be illustrated by ray diagrams in geometric optics and
can also be proven mathematically using the mirror or thin lens equation and magnification.
Some important quantities/terms needed in the image formation by lens or mirror.
• Object distance (do) – distance of the object from the mirror/lens.
• Image distance (di) – distance of the image from the mirror/lens.
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• Focal length (f) – half of the radius of curvature (R) of the reflecting or refracting
surfaces; the distance between the center of the mirror/lens to the focal point (F)
• Focal point (F) – the point where incident parallel rays to come to a focus after
reflection/refraction
• Principal Axis – straight line perpendicular to the flat or curved reflecting or refracting
surfaces
• Magnification (M) – dimensionless quantity which tells whether the image formed is
maximize, diminish or same size as the object.
• Image size (h’) – size of the image
• Object’s size (h) – size of the object
To determine the location of the object or image, a mirror/thin lens equation is used.
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑑𝑜 𝑑𝑖
Images formed by a mirror/lens can be real or virtual, erect or inverted. Real images are
usually inverted while virtual images are erect/
• Real images is formed when light rays pass through and diverge from the image point and
can be displayed on the screen.
• Virtual image do not pass through the image point but only appear to diverge from that
point and cannot be displayed on the screen.
• Erect image is an image formed in upright position.
• Inverted image is an image formed which turns upside-down.
Images can also be diminished, maximized or same size as the object.
• Diminished image is the image formed that is smaller than the object.
• Maximized image is the image formed that is larger than the image.
• Same size image is the image formed that is similar to the size of the object.
According to the magnification formula (M):
−𝑑𝑖 ℎ′
𝑀= =
𝑑𝑜 ℎ
When the absolute value of
• M = 1, object is same size as the image
• M < 1, diminished image
• M > 1, maximize image

In solving for the different unknowns, some sign conventions are important to remember to
determine the kind of image that will be formed after reflection of light from mirror and
refraction of light from lens.

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Sign Conventions for Mirrors and Lenses
Description of Image
Virtual or Real
Focal Length Erect or Inverted Same/Max/Dim
Image
Real (positive di) Inverted (negative Same (M = 1)
Converging (+) Virtual (negative h’) Max (M > 1)
di) Erect (positive h) Dim (M < 1)
Virtual (negative
Diverging (-) Erect (positive h) Dim (M < 1)
di)

Eye is the most remarkable optical device necessary to see the things around us in the
presence of the visible light spectrum. It is also similar to a camera that focuses light and
produces a sharp image.

Camera-Eye Analogy
• Lens – Cornea/Lens
• Aperture – Pupil
• Film – Retina
• Shutter - Eyelid

Eye Defects
Farsightedness (Hyperopia): is the inability to see nearby objects clearly. Since the images
is formed behind the retina, a converging lens is needed to correct this eye defect. In order to
focus the image on the retina, the converging lens refracts more the incoming rays toward the
principal axis before entering the eye.

Nearsightedness (Myopia): is the inability to see far objects clearly. Since the image is
formed in front of the retina, a diverging lens is needed to correct this eye defect. In order to
focus the image on the retina, the diverging lens refracts more the incoming rays toward the
principal axis before entering the eye.

Old-age vision (Presbyopia): it is due to a reduction in accommodation ability as the ciliary

muscle weakens and the lens hardens. The cornea and lens do not have sufficient focusing
power to bring nearby objects into focus on the retina. Converging lens can be used to correct
this eye defect.

Astigmatism: when the cornea or the lens or both are not perfectly symmetric, this resulted
to an eye defect that prevents the light rays from meeting at a single point, producing an
imperfect image. In order to correct this eye defect, lenses with different curvatures in two
perpendicular directions can be used.

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 Light and Colors
White light is not a color rather it is the presence of all frequencies of visible light while Black
is the absence of the visible light spectrum. White is capable of reflecting all visible light
spectrum white and black is capable of absorbing all visible light spectrum and converted it to
heat energy. When the colors of light with varying degrees of intensity are mixed/added,
another color will be produced.

Primary Colors of Light Secondary Colors of Light

1. Red (R) 1. Yellow (Y) = R + G
2. Blue (B) 2. Cyan (C) = B + G
3. Green (G) 3. Magenta (M) = B + R

White light can also be formed when the three primary colors with same intensity are added.
W=R+B+G

Complementary Colors of Light

1. Red + Cyan = White
2. Green + Magenta = White
3. Blue + Yellow = White

The color of objects is not in the object but rather in the light which reflects off or transmits
through the object. In color subtraction, the ultimate color appearance of an object is
determined by beginning with a single color or mixture of colors and identifying which color or
colors of light are subtracted from the original set.
W – B = (R + G + B) – B
= R+G=Y
The object is capable of absorbing Blue under the White light. The object appears Yellow to
the observer since blue light was cancelled and transformed to heat energy.
R–B=R
The object is capable of absorbing Blue under the Red light. The object appears Red to the
observer since blue light cannot be cancelled and transformed to heat energy from Red light.
M – B = (R + B) – B
= R
The object is capable of absorbing Blue under the Magenta light. The object appears Red to
the observer since blue light was cancelled and transformed to heat energy.

Electromagnetic Wave
Electromagnetic waves consist of a changing electric field and a changing magnetic field.
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) theorized that electromagnetic induction happens in space
even without the presence of a conductor.

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Electromagnetic Spectrum

Nature of Matter and Energy

The photon’s having energy and momentum is expressed by
𝑬 = 𝒉𝒇
where h=Planck’s constant(6.63x10-34J-s) and f= frequency
𝒉𝒇
𝒑 = 𝒄 = 𝒉𝝀
where p = the momentum

Radioactivity
The spontaneous emission of radiation from the nuclei of atoms of certain substances termed
as radioactive. Radiation is of three main types: alpha (fast-moving helium nuclei); beta (fast-
moving electrons); gamma (high-energy, highly penetrating protons). Beta and gamma
radiation are both damaging to body tissues, but are especially dangerous if a radioactive
substance is ingested or inhaled. When radiation takes place, there is loss of energy.

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 Electricity

Electromagnetic Energy Circuit: Any arrangement of materials that permits electrons to

flow. It is composed of a source of electrical energy, load, and connecting wires.

Electric Current: The net flow changes along a material. The unit used is ampere. The
electron charge’s unit is coulomb. In equation form, electric current is:
𝒒
I=𝒕
where I = electric current, q = number of charges passing through a perpendicular cross
section of a conductor, and
t = time
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
1 ampere = 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
6.3 x 1018 electrons pass a cross-section of a conductor in 1 second.
Voltage: Potential difference between points when work is done to move charge between
𝐽
points. The unit is .
𝐶
In equation form,
𝑾
𝑽=
𝒒

Resistance: Tendency of the unit to resist the passage of electric current. The unit is ohm
(Ω).

Ohm’s Law
Current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance.
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
where V = voltage, I = current, and R = resistance
Note: Ohm’s law applies only to metallic conductors and not to transistors or electrolytes.

Factors of Wire Resistance

o Length of Material: Longer path for electric current results to greater resistance
o Wire Diameter: Greater cross-sectional area of conductor results to lesser resistance.
o Kind of Material
o Temperature: Higher temperature results to greater resistance.
o Resistivity: Ability of the substance to conduct electric current. The resistance is equal
to the product of resistivity and length of wire divided by its cross-sectional area.
𝝆𝑳
𝑹=
𝑨
where L = length of conductor and A = cross-sectional area of the conductor, and ρ (rho) =
resistivity of the material.

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 Electrical Power and Energy

Power Input: Rate at which an appliance uses up electrical energy. It is measured in watts.
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰

Circuits

Series Circuits: Current passes to only one route from the source through the several loads
and back to the source. The current is the same in every part of the circuit.

Parallel Circuits: General loads are connected to the same voltage source and current is
divided among these loads.

Series Parallel
Voltage (VT) V1 + V2 + … + Vn V1 = V2 = … = V n
Current I1 = I2 = … =In I1 + I2 + … +In
(IT)
Resistance (RT) R1 + R2 +...+ Rn 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ + ⋯
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝒏
Diagram

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