Electrical Power Transmission and Distribution-EE550

Dr. SIDRAM. M.H

B.E, M.Tech, Ph.D

Associate Professor
Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Sri Jayachamarajendra College of Engineering
JSS Science and Technology University
1. TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
SCHEMES
 INTRODUCTION
• Electrical energy is generated in large
hydro-electric, thermal and nuclear
power stations which are located far
away from the load centers.

• This necessitates an extensive power

supply vast network between
generating stations and the
consumer’s loads.

• This vast network is divided into two

parts:

Transmission system

Distribution system
Schematic representation of a typical transmission distribution scheme
Single line diagram of a typical transmission distribution
system
There are 5 main parts in a typical transmission distribution scheme:

1.Generating Station
2.Primary transmission
3.Secondary transmission
4.Primary Distribution
5.Secondary Distribution

Following are the details of the above sections:

Generating Station:
The place where electric power produced by the parallel connected three phase
alternators/generators is called Generating Station (i.e. power plant).
The Ordinary power plant capacity and generating voltage may be 11kV, 11.5 kV 12kV or 13kV. But
economically, it is good to step up the produced voltage from (11kV, 11.5kV Or 12 kV) to 132kV, 220kV or
500kV or greater (in some countries, up to 1500kV) by Step up transformer.

Primary Transmission:
The electric supply (in 132kV, 220 kV, 500kV or greater) is transmuted to load center by three phase
three wire (3 Phase – 3 Wires) overhead transmission system.
Secondary Transmission:
Area far from city (outskirts) which have connected with receiving station by line is called Secondary
transmission. At receiving station, the level of voltage reduced by step-down transformers up to 132kV, 66 or 33
kV, and Electric power is transmit by three phase three wire (3 Phase – 3 Wires) overhead system to different sub
stations. So this is a Secondary Transmission.
Primary Distribution:
At a sub station, the level of secondary transmission voltage (132kV, 66 or 33 kV) reduced to 11kV by step
down transforms.
Generally, electric supply is given to those heavy consumer which demands is 11 kV, from these lines which caries
11 kV ( in three phase three wire overhead system) and they make a separate sub station to control and utilize
this power.
Secondary Distribution:
Electric power is given by (from Primary distribution line i.e.11kV) to distribution sub station. This sub station
is located near by consumers areas where the level of voltage reduced by step down transformers 440V by Step
down transformers.
These transformers called Distribution transformers, three phase four wire system. So there is 400 Volts (Three
Phase Supply System) between any two phases and 230 Volts (Single Phase Supply) between a neutral and phase
(live) wires.
Residential load (i.e. Fans, Lights, and TV etc) may be connected between any one phase and neutral wires, while
three phase load may be connected directly to the three phase lines.
 COMPONENTS OF DISTRIBUTION

• The distribution scheme consists of the following important components.

1.SUBSTATION

2.LOCAL DISTRIBUTION STATION

3.FEEDERS

4.DISTRIBUTORS
 DISTRIBUTION

FEEDERS DISTRIBUTORS SERVICE MAINS

INTERCONNECTION OF FEEDERS,DISTRIBUTORS
AND SERVICE MAINS
 FEEDERS
These are the conductors which are of large current carrying capacity.
●

They connect the substation to the area where power is to be finally distributed to the consumers.
●

No tapping is taken from these feeders.

●

The feeder current always remains constant.

●

The voltage drop along the feeder is compensated by compounding the generators.
●

DISTRIBUTORS
●These are the conductors used to transfer power from distribution centre to the
consumers.
● Tappings are taken for the supply to the consumers.
●The voltage drop along the distributors is the main criterion to design the
distributors.
 SERVICE MAINS
These are small cables between the distributors and the actual consumer
premises.
 TYPES OF TRANSMISSION AND
DISRTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
In general the transmission and distribution systems can be classified as,

A.C. D.C.
Three phase
Two wire
three wire

Two wire
Three phase
midpoint
four wire
earthed

Three wire
 A.C SYSTEM
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• It is possible to build up high A.C voltage levels, • The construction of A.C transmission line is more
using high speed A.C generators of large capacities. complicated than a D.C line.
The cost of such A.C generators are very low.
• The resistance of A.C line is higher due to skin
• The maintenance of A.C substations is very easy. effect causing more voltage drop.

• The high voltage levels can be lowered to safe • The drop is also due to the inductance of A.C line ,
potentials using step-down transformers for the causing loss of power.
distribution purpose.
• The copper requirement for A.C line is more than
• The motors running on A.C are simple in a D.C line.
construction , cheaper and require less attention
from maintenance point of view.
• The A.C lines are more sensitive to corona than a
D.C line.
• The A.C supply can be converted to obtain D.C
whenever required.
• The speed of alternators in A.C system is not
economical and required to be controlled within
• The transforming A.C substations are much very low limits.
efficient than D.C system using rectifiers.
 D.C. SYSTEM
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• The power losses and voltage drops are much less • The power generation is not possible at high D.C
compared to A.C system.
voltage levels due to commutation problems.

• Due to the reduced voltage drops , the voltage

regulation is better. • Obtaining A.C from D.C is not easy in practice.

• Absence of skin effect makes use of entire cross

section of conductor. • The D.C generators and motors need a lot of
maintenance and their construction cost is also
more than A.C machines of same capacity.
• For the same voltage level , the voltage stress on
the insulation is less in this system . Hence the
insulation required in case of D.C is less compared
to A.C system. • The limitations of D.C switches as well as circuit
breakers cause the problems in D.C system.
• As the stress on cable insulation is less, the
economical use of underground is possible.

• The stability problems as well as synchronizing

difficulties are absent in D.C system.
HIGH VOLTAGE
TRANSMISSION • High-voltage transmission lines are used to
transmit electric power over relatively long
distances, usually from a central generating station
to main substations. They are also used for electric
power transmission from one central station to
another for load sharing. High voltage (HV)
transmission lines are made of high voltage
(between 138 and 765 kilovolts) overhead and
underground conducting lines of either copper or
aluminum.
• One of the key concerns in transmission of
electricity is power loss in transmission lines
(called line loss or transmission loss), dissipated as
heat due to the resistance of the conductors. The
smaller the surface area of the conductors, the
smaller the loss to heat dissipation. High voltages
require less surface area, resulting in reduced line
loss. With high-voltage lines, the voltage can be
stepped up at the generating station, transmitted
through the transmission grid to a load center, and
there stepped down to the lower voltages required
by distribution lines.
 EFFECT OF HIGH VOLTAGE ON LINE
PARAMETERS
• The high voltage has many effects of line parameters. Some of them are,
1.Effect on volume of copper
2.Effect on line efficiency
3. Effect on line drop

To prove the following conditions, consider the following line parameters

• P = power transmitted in kW
• V = line voltage in volts
• CosΘ=power factor of load
• l = length of line in meters
• A = area of cross section of conductor in square meters
• ҏ = resistivity of conductor material
• R = resistance per conductor in ohm.
• J = current density of the conductor in A/m2
• I = current in amps
1. Effect of high voltage on volume of copper
The volume of the copper required is inversely proportional to the square
of the transmission voltage and the power factor, for a given P, W, l and ҏ. It
can be proved as follows:
 2.Effect of high voltage on line efficiency
For a given constant values of l , J , ҏ, line efficiency is higher for higher transmission
voltages. It can be proved as follows:
 3.Effect of high voltage on line drop
For a higher value of line voltage, the percentage line drops will be less. This can be
proved as follows:
 ADVANTAGES
• The line losses are inversely proportional to the square of voltage and power
factor. So line losses are less.

• For constant losses ,the volume of copper required is inversely proportional

to square of the voltage and power factor. Hence copper required is much less
for high voltage transmission.

• For constant current density, line efficiency is very high for high voltage
transmission

It may be noted that along with voltage level, the power factor also plays an
important role. Hence consumers are always recommended to maintain high
power factor values
 DISADVANTAGES
Though high voltage transmission offers numerous advantages, very high voltage
transmission is not practically possible . There is a limit to increase the level of
transmission voltage . The high voltage transmission has following limitations

• Higher the transmission voltage, higher is the insulation required which can cause
problems in connection with conductor supports and clearance between the
conductors.

• Higher insulation means high cost.

• The cost of transformers, switchgear & other equipments is also high for high
voltages.

• Higher the voltage severe is the corona effect.

PRACTIACAL TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION
VOLTAGE LEVELS
Considering the advantages and limitations of high voltage and economical
aspects, the following voltage levels are commonly used for transmission
and distribution

For Generation 6.6kV , 11kV , 22kV or 33kV

For Primary Transmission 66kV , 132kV , 220kV up to 400kV

For Secondary Transmission 11kV , 22kV or 33kV

For Primary Distribution 6.6kV or 11kV

For Secondary Distribution 230V or 400V

 POWER LOSS IN VARIOUS
COUNTRIES
45
40
%
L 35
O 30
S 25
S
20
15
10
5
0

Source:
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.LOS
S.ZS?end=2013&start=1961
COMPARISON OF VOLUME OF CONDUCTOR REQUIRED
It can be proved that the volume of copper conductor required for a 3 phase four
wire ac system is ( 0.5/cos2Θ ) times the copper required by the 2 wire dc system
 TYPES OF TRANSMISSION
OVERHEAD SYSTEM UNDERGROUND SYSTEM

• Transmission is by using transmission • Transmission is by using cables.

lines
• No external insulation is needed since • Insulation cost is high since all cables
there is appropriate spacing between must be insulated from each other.
conductors • Laying of cables for long distance is
• Transmission over long distance is complicated and costly.
possible.
• Voltage drop is more. • Voltage drop is less.
• Faults occur due to various atmospheric • Faults due to atmosphere is
conditions eliminated.
• Voltage level upto 440kV • Voltage level is below 66kV.
• Maximum stress is between conductor • Maximum stress is on insulation
and earth
between conductors
• The beauty of area gets affected.
Sometimes trees need to be cut • The beauty of area is well maintained
IMAGES OF OVERHEAD AND UNDERGROUND
SYSTEMS
 CHALLENGES WITH AC POWER LINES

• AC lines become loaded closer to their thermal capacity

with increasing losses.

• Reduced power quality causes the risk of declining network

stability.

• Overhead lines change the landscape, causes public

resentment.

• Limit the distance of traditional AC underground cables to

around 80km.
 SOLUTION: HVDC TECHNOLOGY
• HVDC technology has the potential to play an
important role in achieving this solution.
• It provides improved power quality and power
flow control as well.
• Introducing extruded DC-cables which have no
technical limit to distance which can be installed.
• It can provide an alternative to overhead lines
particularly when the total capital and
environmental costs are considered.
• HVDC (high-voltage direct current) is a highly
efficient alternative for transmitting large amounts
of electricity over long distances and for special
purpose applications.
• Compared to alternating current, the direct current
system is less expensive and loses less energy.
• HVDC can be transmitted through cables both
underground and underwater.
 ADVANTAGES
Technical Economic
Advantages Advantages
• Reactive power requirement • DC lines and cables are cheaper than AC lines
• System stability or cables.
• Short Circuit Current
• The towers of the DC lines are narrower,
• Independent Control of ac system simpler and cheaper compared to the towers
• Fast change of energy flow of the AC lines.
• Lesser Corona Loss and Radio interference
• Line losses in a DC line are lower than the
• Greater Reliability. losses in an AC lines.
• Direction of power flow can be changed very
quickly
• Large HVDC schemes (5000 MW - 6400 MW) are
used to access remote hydro power resources,
hence renewable energy with no CO2 emissions.
• HVDC is more economical than HVAC for
schemes with transmission distances more than 700
km.
 • Lower Losses • Lower Investment Cost

It is true that HVDC terminal stations are more expensive due

to the fact that they must perform the conversion from AC to
The diagram shows a comparison of the losses DC, and DC to AC. But the HVDC alternative will always provide
in 1,200 MW overhead line transmissions using the lowest cost
AC and HVDC.
 How does it work ?
• HVDC transmission utilizes a converter
station at either end of the system.

• A mercury arc valve or solid state valve

(thyristor) is used for the conversion of AC
and DC current.

• The valve at the beginning of the system

converts alternating current to HVDC, the
HVDC travels to the next location through
a cable.

• The valve at the end of the system converts

the HVDC back to alternating current.

• HVDC offers powerful alternative to

increase stability of a power system as well
as to improve system operating flexibility
and loss reduction.
Components of an HVDC transmission system
Transmission Medium • For bulk power transmission over land, the most
frequent transmission medium used is the overhead
line.
• This overhead line is normally bipolar, i.e. two
conductors with different polarity.
• HVDC cables are normally used for submarine
transmission.
• The most common types of cables are the solid and
the oil-filled ones.
• HVDC underground or submarine power
transmissions:
 This new HVDC cable is made of extruded
polyethylene, and is used in VSC based HVDC
systems.
 TYPES OF HVDC
CONFIGURATIONS
 DISADVANTAGES
• The disadvantages of HVDC are in conversion, switching, control, availability and
maintenance.

• HVDC is less reliable and has lower availability than alternating current (AC)
systems, mainly due to the extra conversion equipment.

• The required converter stations are expensive and have limited overload capacity.

• At smaller transmission distances, the losses in the converter stations may be

bigger than in an AC transmission line for the same distance.

• Operating a HVDC scheme requires many spare parts to be kept, often exclusively
for one system, as HVDC systems are less standardized than AC systems and
technology changes faster.
 COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS

• Birds land on power lines, so they must be safe to touch

- NO
• Main objective of electricity is to reach the ground
using the most direct route
• Birds do not get electrocuted when they land on
wires because they do not represent a path to the
ground
• Power lines are insulated, so they are safe to touch -
NO
• They are not always insulated
• Insulation deals with placing nonconductive
The power lines are safe for
material around the wire perching, but not when struck
• Insulation is a material that offers high
electric resistance making it suitable for
covering wires to prevent the possible future
contact of adjacent conductors resulting in a
short circuit
• Just because a wire is weather protected does not
mean that it is insulated
• Weather protection prevents water and snow
from reaching the wire (and insulation, if
used)
INTRODUCTION
• The electrical energy produced at the generating station is conveyed
to the consumer through a network of transmission and distribution
system. In general distribution system is that part of power system
which distributes power to the consumer for utilisation.
Meaning of distribution system
• The part of power system which distributes electric power for local
use is known as distribution system.
• In general , the distribution system is the electrical system between
the substation fed by the transmission system and consumer meters.
• It generally consists of feeders ,distributors and service mains.
I. Feeders:- A feeder is a conductor which connects the substation to the area where power
is to be distributed. No tappings are taken from it.
II. Distributors:- A distributor is a conductor from which tappings are taken for supply to the
consumers. Hence the current through it will not be constant.
III. Service mains:- A service mains is generally a small cable which connects the distributor
to the consumer terminals.
Classification Of Distribution System
A distribution system maybe classified based on different criteria as
• Nature of current:-
(a) ac distribution
(b) dc distribution system.
• Type of construction:-
(a) overhead system
(b) underground system.
• Scheme of connection
(a) radial system (b) ring main system
(c) ring main system (d) inter-connected system.
 AC distribution system
It is the electrical system between the step down substation fed by the transmission
system and the consumers meters. It is classified into
(a) primary distribution (b) secondary distribution.

i. Primary distribution system:-

• Operates at higher voltages than general usage.
• Voltage used by the primary distribution depends upon the amount of power
conveyed and the distance of the substation required to be fed
• Voltage levels used are 11kv,6.6kv and 3.3kv
• At the substation, voltage is steped down to 11kv.
• Power is supplied to various substation for distribution or to big consumer at this
voltage level through feeders.

TYPICAL PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

ii. Secondary distribution system:-
• At distribution substation, the voltage is stepped down to 400 V and the power is delivered by 3
phase, 4 wire system.
• The single phase domestic loads are connected between any one phase and neutral.
 Dc distribution system
• Electric power is almost exclusively generated, transmitted and distributed as ac.
• For certain applications, dc supply is absolutely necessary. dc supply is required for the
operation of dc motors and electro chemical work etc.

The dc supply from the substation may be obtained in the form of

(a) 2 wire & (b) 3 wire for distribution.
 2 wire dc system:-
• One is out going or positive wire and the other is return or negative
wire.
• The loads such as lamps, motors etc are connected in parallel between
the two wires.
3 wire dc system:-
• It consists of two outers and a neutral wire which is earthed at the substation.
• The voltage between the outers is twice the voltage between either outer and
neutral wire. Loads requiring high voltage are connected across the outers.
Types of D.C. Distributors
On the basis of the way the feeders are fed:

(i) Distributor fed at one end

(ii) Distributor fed at both ends
(iii) Distributor fed at the centre
(iv) Ring distributor
Distributor fed at one end
• In this type of feeding, the distributor is connected to the supply at
one end and loads are taken at different points along the length of
the distributor.
Important points in a singly fed distributor:

(a) The current in the various sections of the distributor away from feeding
point goes on decreasing.
(b) The voltage across the loads away from the feeding point goes on
decreasing.
(c) In case of any fault continuity of supply has to be interrupted.
Distributor fed at both ends

• voltage at the feeding points may or may not be equal.

• load voltage goes on decreasing as we move away from one feeding
point say A, reaches minimum value and then again starts rising and
reaches maximum value when we reach the other feeding point B.
• It is shifted with the variation of load on different sections of the
distributor.
 Advantages of feeding at both ends

(a) If any fault occurs on any feeding point of the distributor, the
continuity of supply is maintained from the other feeding point.
(b) In case of fault on any section of the distributor, the continuity of
supply is maintained from the other feeding point.
(c) The area of cross-section required for a doubly fed distributor is
much less than that of a singly fed distributor.
Distributor fed at the centre:

• The centre of the distributor is connected to the supply mains.

• It is equivalent to two singly fed distributors, each distributor having a common feeding
point and length equal to half of the total length.
 Ring mains system:

• The distributor is in the form of a closed ring.

• It is equivalent to a straight distributor fed at both ends with equal voltages,
the two ends being brought together to form a closed ring.
• The distributor ring may be fed at one or more than one point.
 D.C. Distribution Calculations
Loading on distributor is classified as
(i) concentrated loading
(ii) uniform loading
(iii) both concentrated and uniform loading.

• The concentrated loads are those which act on particular points of the
distributor. A common example of such loads is that tapped off for domestic
use.
• Distributed loads are those which act uniformly on all points of the distributor.
Ideally, there are no distributed loads.
D.C. Distributor Fed at one End—Concentrated Loading

2-wire d.c. distributor AB fed at one end A and having concentrated

loads I1, I2, I3 and I4 tapped off at points C, D, E and F respectively.

Let r1, r2, r3 and r4 be the resistances of both wires (go and return)
of the sections AC, CD, DE and EF of the distributor respectively.
Current fed from point A = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4
Current in section AC = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4
Current in section CD = I2 + I3 + I4
Current in section DE = I3 + I4
Current in section EF = I4
Voltage drop in section AC = r1 (I1 + I2 + I3 + I4)
Voltage drop in section CD = r2 (I2 + I3 + I4)
Voltage drop in section DE = r3 (I3 + I4)
Voltage drop in section EF = r4 I4
∴ Total voltage drop in the distributor
= r1 (I1 + I2 + I3 + I4) + r2 (I2 + I3 + I4) + r3 (I3 + I4) + r4 I4
It is easy to see that the minimum potential will occur at point F which is farthest from the feeding point A.
Uniformly Loaded Distributor Fed at One End

A 2-wire d.c. distributor AB fed at one end A and loaded uniformly with i
amperes per metre length. Let l metres be the length of the distributor and r
ohm be the resistance per metre run.

Consider a point C on the distributor at a distance x metres from the feeding point
A. Then current at point C is
= i l − i x amperes
= i (l − x) amperes
 Now, consider a small length dx near point C. Its resistance is r dx and the voltage drop over length dx is
dv = i (l − x) r dx = i r (l − x) dx
Total voltage drop in the distributor up to point C is

The voltage drop up to point B (i.e. over the whole distributor) can be obtained by putting x = l in the above
expression.
∴ Voltage drop over the distributor AB

where i l = I, the total current entering at point A

r l = R, the total resistance of the distributor
Thus, in a uniformly loaded distributor fed at one end, the total voltage drop is equal to that produced by the whole
of the load assumed to be concentrated at the middle point.
Distributor Fed at Both Ends — Concentrated Loading

• It is desirable that a long distributor should be fed at both ends,

since total voltage drop can be considerably reduced without
increasing the cross-section of the conductor.

• The two ends of the distributor may be supplied with (i) equal or (ii)
unequal voltages.
Two ends fed with equal voltages

Consider a distributor AB fed at both ends with equal voltages V

volts and having concentrated loads I1, I2, I3, I4 and I5 at points C, D,
E, F and G respectively.
• As we move away from one of the feeding points, say A, potential
difference goes on decreasing till it reaches the minimum value at some
load point called minimum potential point, say E, and then again starts
rising and becomes V volts as we reach the other feeding point B.
• All the currents tapped off between points A and E (minimum p.d.
point) will be supplied from the feeding point A while those tapped off
between B and E will be supplied from the feeding point B.
• The current tapped off at point E itself will be partly supplied from A
and partly from B. If these currents are x and y respectively, then,
I3 = x + y
Therefore, at the point of minimum potential, current comes from
both ends of the distributor.
Thanks !?