21EES101T-ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
UNIT 5
Unit-5–Power Engineering
Electrical supply system- simple layout of Generation,
transmission and Distribution of power, Typical AC and DC power
supply schemes, overview on substation equipment with key
diagram of 11kV/400 V indoor substation- Introduction to smart
grid.
Safety Measures in Electrical systems- Basic Principle and
importance of Earthing, precautions for Electric shock- safety
devices
Introduction to renewable energy resources: Solar Photovoltaic-
Introduction to energy storage systems-overview of battery, Fuel
cell technologies-HEVs, PHEVs and EVs – EV, Charging station.
Practice session on different types of wiring circuits and safety
measures
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Electrical supply system
Electrical power is generated in power stations which are mostly
located in remote places. This is because the generating stations are
installed in the areas, where the resources for power generation are
available. The bulk power generated is to be transmitted to different load
centers. The transmission of electrical power is done at high voltages. The
power received at the load centers is to be distributed to the consumers at
normal voltage. There is a complex network of conductors between the
power station and the consumers. This network is divided into major
parts called transmission and distribution systems. Generation,
transmission and distribution systems combinedly known as electric
supply system or electric power system

1. POWER GENERATION
Electrical power is generated normally at 11 kV or at 6.6 kV by
number of generators in parallel. Generation at still higher voltage will
impose some technical problems. Power generated at 11 kV is stepped
upto 110 kV or 230 kV or 400 kV or 765 kV or still higher voltage with the
help of power transformers.

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2. TRANSMISSION SYSTEM-AC
The powers generated at the generating stations is transmitted at higher
voltage to the main load centers. This transmission system is known as
primary transmission system. The voltage level here may be 765 kV,
400 kV or 220 kV. In India, highest transmission voltage is 765 kV.
There are advantages when power is transmitted at high voltages:
(i) The volume of conductor material required is low.
(ii) For a given amount of power transmitted, the current through the line
is reduced, when the transmission system voltage is high. This reduces
the line losses and hence efficiency of transmission is increased.
(iii) As the current is reduced the voltage in the line is reduced and hence
the line regulation is improved.

The power from the main load centers is transmitted to different

sub-load centers at voltages 33 kV, 66 kV or even at 110 kV. This part of
transmission is known as secondary transmission system.
The primary transmission system employs overhead lines in
general. The secondary transmission of power is either by means of OH
lines or underground cable. In rural areas, OH lines are used and in city
areas, underground cable system is used.

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3. Distribution System
The power is received at the sub-load centre at voltages of
33 kV, 66 kV or 110 kV. The voltage level is stepped down to 11
kV at the sub-load centers. The power is distributed through the
11 kV lines, which runs along the main roads. This distribution
system is referred to as primary distribution system.
Number of 11 kV/415 volts transformers are connected
enroute 11 kV lines. Now the power is distributed through
distribution lines, which run along all the streets of
town/city/villages. This distribution line is called a distributor.
The power is distributed with the help of 3-phase, 4-wire
lines/cables. Voltage levels available are 1-phase or 230 V and 3-
phase 415 volts. The lines feeding the power from the distribution
transformer to the distributors are called feeders.
From the distributors, power is supplied to the consumers
by means of lines called service lines. The feeder distribution and
service lines combinedly, form the secondary distribution system
which is shown in following fig. The distributors may be radial or
ring. The secondary distribution of power is by means of ac only.
This is because all the loads are designed to work on ac only,
which are most efficient and less in cost. 4
Main Components of Transmission and Distribution Systems
(i) Conductors, which are used to carry the electrical power from one
place to another place.
(ii) Supports, which may be RCC poles, MS, tubular poles or towers.
These are used to keep the conductors at a proper height from the
ground.
(iii) Cross arms, which are attached to the poles or towers and are used
to support the conductors.
(iv) Insulators, which are used to isolate the conductors at higher
potential from the ground.
(v) Miscellaneous items like lighting arresters, ground wires, stay wires,
etc.
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COMPARISON OF OVERHEAD (OH) AND UNDERGROUND (UG)
SYSTEMS
In city area, secondary distribution of power is done by UG cable system.
Sometimes the primary distribution is by means of UG cable system. The
OH line and UG cable systems are compared based on the following
factors.
(i) Public Safety: UG cable is preferred, as there is less chance of any
hazard to the public.
(ii) Initial cost: the initial investment on UG cable system is about 10
times the rate on OH line system. So, OH line system is preferred.
(iii) Flexibility: OH line system is more flexible than the UG cable system.
OH line system can be modified easily.
(iv) Faults: The chances of occurrence of fault in an UG cable system is
less when compared to the OH line system, as it is exposed to the
atmosphere.

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(v) Appearance: The general appearance of UG cable system is better.
(vi) Fault location and Repair: Fault location and rectification of fault is
easier in OH line system.
(vii) Useful life: The useful life period of an OH line system is only 50%
that of UG cable system.
(viii) Maintenance cost: The maintenance cost of UG cable system is
low, as the chance of fault is less in an UG cable system.
(ix) Interference with communication circuits. It is less with an UG cable
system and more with an OH line system.
From the above comparison, it is clear that systems have
advantages and limitations. However in city areas we bother only about
safety and not about the economics involved. So in this condition, UG
cable system is preferred.

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Simple layout of Generation,
Transmission and
Distribution of power
OR
Simple layout of Electrical
Power System

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Transmission System-DC
When power is transmitted by DC, there are a lot of advantages
when compared to AC transmission systems.
(i) The amount of insulation required is less in dc transmission as
compared to that for ac transmission.
The size of towers, cross arms required are small for dc transmission
system.
(iii) It improves the stability of the system.
(iv) Power factor of dc transmission system is unity.
(v) There is no changing current.
(vi) There is skin effect. Skin effect increases the effective resistance of
the line conductors.
The main disadvantages of HVDC transmission are—
(i) There is no equipment like a transformer, available for step-up or
step-down the voltage. So this has to be done on the ac side only.
(ii) Power cannot be generated at higher voltages because of
commutation problem (iii) There are limitations with HVDC switching
devices and circuit measures.
The HVDC transmission system is more economical when the distance of
transmission is more than 600 km for OH line.

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The components used in a substation for dc transmission purpose are
more and are shown in following fig. The capital cost of dc
transmission system is higher when compared to that of ac
transmission system, when the length of the transmission line system
is less than 600 km, and less when the length of the transmission line
system is greater than 600 km.

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Types of DC link:
For connecting two networks or system, various types of HVDC
links are used. HVDC links are classified into three types. These links
are explained below:
1) Monopolar link: It has a single conductor of negative polarity and
uses earth or sea for the return path of current. Sometimes the metallic
return is also used. In the Monopolar link, two converters are placed at
the end of each pole. Earthling of poles is done by earth electrodes
placed about 15 to 55 km away from the respective terminal stations.
But this link has several disadvantages because it uses earth as a
return path. The monopolar link is not much in use nowadays.

Monopolar DC link

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2.Bipolar link: The Bipolar link has two conductors one is positive,
and the other one is negative to the earth. The link has converter
station at each end. The midpoints of the converter stations are
earthed through electrodes. The voltage of the earthed electrodes is
just half the voltage of the conductor used for transmission the
HVDC. The most significant advantage of the bipolar link is that if
any of their links stop operating, the link is converted into Monopolar
mode because of the ground return system. The half of the system
continues supplies the power. Such types of links are commonly used
in the HVDC systems.

Bipolar DC link
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3) Homopolar link : It has two conductors of the same polarity
usually negative polarity, and always operates with earth or metallic
return. In the homopolar link, poles are operated in parallel, which
reduces the insulation cost. The homopolar system is not used
presently.

Homopolar DC link

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Equipment in a Transformer Sub-Station
The equipment required for a transformer sub-station depends
upon the type of sub-station, service requirement and the degree of
protection desired. However, in general, a transformer sub-station has
the following main equipment :
1.Bus-bars
When a number of lines operating at the same voltage have to be
directly connected electrically, bus-bars are used as the common
electrical component. Bus-bars are copper or aluminium bars (generally
of rectangular x-section) and operate at constant voltage. The incoming
and outgoing lines in a sub-station are connected to the bus-bars. The
most commonly used bus-bar arrangements in sub-stations are :
(i) Single bus-bar arrangement
(ii) Single bus-bar system with sectionalization
(iii) Double bus-bar arrangement
2. Insulators
The insulators serve two purposes. They support the conductors
(or bus-bars) and confine the current to the conductors. The most
commonly used material for the manufacture of insulators is porcelain.
There are several types of insulators (e.g. pin type, suspension type, post
insulator etc.) and their use in the sub-station will depend upon the
service requirement. For example, post insulator is used for bus-bars.
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A post insulator consists of a porcelain body, cast iron cap and flanged
cast iron base. The hole in the cap is threaded so that bus-bars can be
directly bolted to the cap.
3. Isolating switches
In sub-stations, it is often desired to disconnect a part of the
system for general maintenance and repairs. This is accomplished by an
isolating switch or isolator. An isolator is essentially a knife switch and
is designed to open a circuit under no load. In other words, isolator
switches are operated only when the lines in which they are connected
carry no current.
4. Circuit breaker
A circuit breaker is an equipment which can open or close a
circuit under normal as well as fault conditions. It is so designed that it
can be operated manually (or by remote control) under normal
conditions and automatically under fault conditions. For the latter
operation, a relay circuit is used with a circuit breaker. Generally, bulk
oil circuit breakers are used for voltages upto 66kV while for high (>66
kV) voltages, low oil circuit breakers are used. For still higher voltages,
air-blast, vacuum or SF6 circuit breakers are used.

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5. Power Transformers
A power transformer is used in a sub-station to step-up or step-
down the voltage. Except at the power station, all the subsequent sub-
stations use step-down transformers to gradually reduce the voltage of
electric supply and finally deliver it at utilisation voltage. The modern
practice is to use 3-phase transformers in sub-stations ; although 3
single phase bank of transformers can also be used. The use of 3-phase
transformer (instead of 3 single phase bank of transformers) permits two
advantages. Firstly, only one 3-phase load-tap changing mechanism can
be used. Secondly, its installation is much simpler than the three single
phase transformers. The power transformer is generally installed upon
lengths of rails fixed on concrete slabs having foundations 1 to 1.5 m
deep. For ratings upto 10 MVA, naturally cooled, oil immersed
transformers are used. For higher ratings, the transformers are generally
air blast cooled.
6. Instrument transformers.
The lines in sub-stations operate at high voltages and carry
current of thousands of amperes. The measuring instruments and
protective devices are designed for low voltages (generally 110 V) and
currents (about 5 A). Therefore, they will not work satisfactorily if
mounted directly on the power lines. This difficulty is overcome by
installing instrument transformers on the power lines. The function of
these instrument transformers is to transfer voltages or currents in the 16
power lines to values which are convenient for the operation of
measuring instruments and relays. There are two types of instrument
transformers viz.
(i) Current transformer (C.T.) (ii) Potential transformer (P.T.)
(i) Current transformer (C.T.): A current transformer in essentially a
step-up transformer which steps down the current to a known ratio.
The primary of this transformer consists of one or more turns of thick
wire connected in series with the line. The secondary consists of a large
number of turns of fine wire and provides for the measuring
instruments and relays a current which is a constant fraction of the
current in the line. Suppose a current transformer rated at 100/5 A is
connected in the line to measure current. If the current in the line is
100 A, then current in the secondary will be 5A. Thus the C.T. under
consideration will step down the line current by a factor of 20.
(ii) Potential transformer (P.T.): It is essentially a step down
transformer and steps down the voltage to a known ratio. The primary
of this transformer consists of a large number of turns of fine wire
connected across the line. The secondary winding consists of a few
turns and provides for measuring instruments and relays a voltage
which is a known fraction of the line voltage. Suppose a potential
transformer rated at 66kV/110V is connected to a power line. If line
voltage is 66kV, then voltage across the secondary will be 110 V.
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7. Metering and Indicating Instruments
There are several metering and indicating instruments (e.g.
ammeters, voltmeters, energy meters etc.) installed in a sub-station
to maintain watch over the circuit quantities. The instrument
transformers are invariably used with them for satisfactory operation.
8. Miscellaneous equipment
In addition to above, there may be following equipment in a sub-
station :
(i) fuses
(ii) carrier-current equipment
(iii) sub-station auxiliary supplies

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Key Diagram of 11 kV/400 V Indoor Sub-Station

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The key diagram of this 11 kV/400 V sub-station can be explained as
under :
(i) The 3-phase, 3-wire 11 kV line is tapped and brought to the gang
operating switch installed near the sub-station. The G.O. switch consists
of isolators connected in each phase of the 3-phase line.
(ii) From the G.O. switch, the 11 kV line is brought to the indoor sub-
station as underground cable. It is fed to the H.T. side of the transformer
(11 kV/400 V) via the 11 kV O.C.B. The transformer steps down the
voltage to 400 V, 3-phase, 4-wire.
(iii) The secondary of transformer supplies to the bus-bars via the main
O.C.B. From the busbars, 400 V, 3-phase, 4-wire supply is given to the
various consumers via 400 V O.C.B. The voltage between any two phases
is 400 V and between any phase and neutral it is 230 V. The single phase
residential load is connected between any one phase and neutral whereas
3-phase, 400 V motor load is connected across 3-phase lines directly.
(iv) The CTs are located at suitable places in the sub-station circuit and
supply for the metering and indicating instruments and relay circuits.

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INTRODUCTION TO SMART GRID
1. TRADITIONAL POWER GRID

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2. SMART GRID

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 2. SMART GRID
• A smart grid is an electrical grid which includes a
variety of operation and energy measures including:
– Advanced metering infrastructure (of which smart meters
are a generic name for any utility side device even if it is
more capable e.g. a fiber optic router)
– Smart distribution boards and circuit breakers integrated
with home control and demand response (behind the
meter from a utility perspective)
– Load control switches and smart appliances, often
financed by efficiency gains on municipal programs (e.g.
PACE financing)
– Renewable energy resources, including the capacity to
charge parked (electric vehicle) batteries or larger arrays of
batteries recycled from these, or other energy storage.
– Energy efficient resources
– Sufficient utility grade fiber broadband to connect and
monitor the above, with wireless as a backup. Sufficient
spare if "dark" capacity to ensure failover, often leased for
revenue.

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Safety Precautions when Working with Electricity

1. Never touch or try repairing any electrical equipment or

circuits with wet hands. It increases the conductivity of
electric current.
2. Never use equipment with damaged insulation or broken
plugs.
3. If you are working on any electrical socket at your home
then always turn off the mains.
4. Always use insulated tools while working.(never use
aluminium or steel ladder )
5. Electrical hazards include exposed energized parts and
unguarded electrical equipment which may become energized
unexpectedly -carries warning signs like “Shock Risk”. Always
be observant such electrical signs.

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6. when working electrical circuit always use appropriate
insulated rubber gloves and goggles.
7. Never try repairing energized equipment. Always check that it
is de-energized first by using a tester. When an electric tester
touches a live or hot wire, the bulb inside the tester lights up
showing that an electrical current is flowing through the
respective wire.
8. Know the wire code of your country.
9. Always use a circuit breaker or fuse with the appropriate
current rating. Circuit breakers and fuses are protection devices
that automatically disconnect the live wire when a condition of
short circuit or over current occurs. The selection of the
appropriate fuse or circuit breaker is essential.
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 ELECTRICAL SAFETY DEVICES
• It is extremely important to have various safety devices to
protect from fire and electrocution.

• FUSE: A fuse is an electrical safety device that has the

capability to protect an electric circuit from excessive electric
current. It is designed to allow current through the circuit, but
in the event that the current exceeds some maximum value it
will open, severing the circuit.

• Circuit breaker: Circuit breakers are devices that protect

circuits from overload current conditions. They do the same job
as fuses, but they are not destroyed when activated.

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 EARTHING
❖ The potential of the earth is considered to be at
zero for all practical purposes.
❖ Earthing is to connect any electrical equipment to
earth with a very low resistance wire, making it to
attain earth’s potential.
❖ This ensures safe discharge of electric energy,
which may be due to reasons like failure of the
insulation, line coming in contact with the casing
etc.
❖ Earthing brings the potential of the body of the
equipment to ZERO i.e. to the earth’s potential,
thus protecting the operating personnel against
electrical shock.

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29
Importance of Earthing

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 EARTHING AND ITS NECESSITY
• Earthing means generally connected to the mass of the earth.
It shall be in such a manner as to ensure at all times an
immediate and safe discharge of electric current due to
leakages, faults, etc.

• All metallic parts of every electrical installation such as

conduit, metallic sheathing, armouring of cables, metallic
panels, frames, iron clad switches, instrument frames,
household appliances, motors, starting gears, transformers,
regulators etc, shall be earthed using one continuous bus
(barewire). If one earth bus for the entire installation is found
impracticable, more than one earthing system shall be
introduced. Then, the equipment and appliances shall be
divided into sub-groups and connected to the different earth
buses.

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The earthing conductors, when taken out doors to the earthing
point, shall be encased in pipe securely supported and
continued up to a point not less than 0.3 more below ground
level. No joints are permitted in an earth bus. Whenever there
is a lightning conductor system installed in a building, its
earthing shall not be bonded to the earthing of the electrical
installation.
Before electric supply lines or apparatus are energized, all
earthing system shall be tested for electrical resistance to
ensure efficient earthing. It shall not be more than two ohms
including the ohmic value of earth electrode.

Types of Earthing

1. Plate Earthing

2. Pipe Earthing

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY
•Renewable energy is a term used to refer to forms of energy
that are naturally obtained from the environment and from
sources that can be replenished naturally.
•These include solar energy, wind energy, geothermal
energy, hydropower, tidal and biomass.
Advantages of Renewable Energy
•Less maintenance cost as most sources entail few or no moving
parts, hence, less mechanical damages.
•Economical and can cut costs spent on fossil fuel.
•They emit little or no waste in the environment.
•Renewable energy sources do not deplete.

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38
 Solar Photovoltaic system
A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is
defined as an electrical device that converts light energy into
electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. A solar cell is
basically a p-n junction diode. Solar cells are a form of
photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical
characteristics – such as current, voltage, or resistance – vary
when exposed to light.

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❑ Solar cells, a type of
semiconductor device that
efficiently absorbs solar radiation
and converts it into electrical
energy, are also known as
photovoltaic cells because of
their photo-voltaic effect using
various potential barriers.

❑ A photovoltaic cell is also

called a solar cell. It is a
semiconductor device which
converts sunlight into DC power
using the photoelectric effect.
Practically, all solar cells are
photodiodes made of
semiconductor material like
silicon.

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❑ A solar cell works in three steps: Photons in the sunlight
hit the solar cell and are absorbed by the semiconductor
material. Negatively-charged electrons are knocked off from
their atoms and start flowing in the same direction to
produce electric current.
❑Output of a single solar cell is very small, a large number
of solar cells are interconnected to form a solar module,
combination of solar modules is called panel and
combination of panels is called solar array. It is done to get
the required power output from a PV system.
❑When the solar cells are connected in series their voltage
increases as much as the number of cells connected in series.
But the current remains the same. When cells are connected
in parallel, voltage remains constant, same as that of one cell
but current gets multiplied

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Solar Photovoltaic system

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 Introduction to Energy Storage

✓ Energy storage systems have

been in use for a very long time,
for diverse applications.
✓Quantitative property held by
an object or a system that can be
consumed to perform work or
convert the form of energy.
✓retention of anything, whether
physical or virtual, for (possible)
usage in the future.

(i) Portable electronics (ii) Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)

(iii) Energy offset for renewable energy 43

 Overview of Battery
❑ Batteries are a collection of one or more cells whose
chemical reactions create a flow of electrons in a circuit. All
batteries are made up of three basic components: an anode
(the ‘+' side), a cathode (the ‘-' side), and some kind of
electrolyte (a substance that chemically reacts with the
anode and cathode).
Types:
1. Lead acid
2. Nickel cadmium
3. Nickel metal hydride
4. Lithium ion
5. Sodium sulfur
6. Redox flow

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 Fuel cell technologies

The fuel cell technology is a clean technology with low

chemical pollution and is a chemical engineering way
of producing energy based on electrochemical energy
conversion of chemical energy of hydrogen and oxygen
into electricity and heat which produces only water as
the by product.

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 Types of Electric Vehicles
• Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs)
• Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles
(PHEVs)
• Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)

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BEV (Battery Electric Vehicle)

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(i) BEV (Battery Electric Vehicle)
❑ EVs run on battery power
without an internal combustion
engine’s assistance, they can
run much faster on a single
charge than hybrid vehicles.
❑They’re also known as battery
electric vehicles, or BEVs.
That’s what distinguishes them
from hybrids that run on
battery power with assistance
from internal combustion
engines

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HEV (Hybrid Electric Vehicle)

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(ii) HEV (Hybrid Electric Vehicle)

❑ HEVs run on both an internal

combustion engine and an electric
motor that uses energy stored in a
battery. Unlike most electric
vehicles, however, HEV drivers
charge their batteries via
regenerative braking.
❑ Regenerative braking stores the
kinetic energy used to stop the car
to charge its battery and help the
internal combustion engine
accelerate the vehicle. 50
PHEV (Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicle)

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(iii) PHEV (Plug in Hybrid ❑ PHEVs expand on the concept of the
Electric Vehicle) standard hybrid vehicle. They have
both an internal combustion engine
and a battery-powered electric motor.
This allows the battery to store enough
power to feed the electric motor and in
turn decrease your gas usage by as
much as 60 percent.
❑This can save you time and money at
the gas pump. PHEVs can travel up to
40 miles on electric power alone, rather
than a couple of miles with a standard
hybrid vehicle.

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 EV Charging station
❑ EV charging points are primarily defined by the power (in kW) they
can produce and therefore what speed they are capable of charging an
EV. While connector types are also a key issue, most EVs are equipped
with two or more cables to allow the use of chargers with different
connector outlets.

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CHARGE POINT TYPES 4 categories:
❑ The Process
(i) Slow charging (up to 3kW) ❑ Time
(ii) Fast charging (7-22kW) ❑ Price
❑ EVs are better for the
(iii) Rapid chargers (43-50kW)
environment

‘Charge de Move’ Combined DC Fast Charging

Only Tesla
Nissan, Toyota, Charging
System (all EVs all EVs except Tesla
and Mitsubishi
except Tesla) 54