Alternating Current Circuits with Practical example

1. Introduction to Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

Alternating Current (AC) is an electric current that periodically reverses direction, in contrast to
direct current (DC), which flows only in one direction. The voltage in an AC circuit also
periodically reverses because the current changes direction. This periodic change is typically
sinusoidal, meaning it follows a sine wave pattern.

AC power is the most common form of electricity used for power transmission and distribution
around the world. Its widespread adoption is due to several key advantages over DC, primarily
the ease with which its voltage can be stepped up or down using transformers, making
long-distance transmission more efficient and cost-effective by minimizing power losses.

Key characteristics of an AC waveform include:

●​ Peak Value (Vp or Ip): The maximum voltage or current value reached in one cycle.
●​ Root Mean Square (RMS) Value (Vrms or Irms): The effective value of an alternating
current or voltage, which is equivalent to the DC value that would produce the same
amount of heat in a resistive load. For a sinusoidal waveform, Vrms = Vp / √2 and Irms =
Ip / √2.
●​ Frequency (f): The number of complete cycles of the waveform per second, measured
in Hertz (Hz). Common frequencies are 50 Hz or 60 Hz.
●​ Period (T): The time taken for one complete cycle, where T = 1/f.
●​ Phase: The position of a point in time (or angle) on a waveform cycle. In AC circuits with
reactive components (inductors and capacitors), the current and voltage waveforms can
be out of phase with each other.

Basic AC circuits typically involve resistors (R), inductors (L), and capacitors (C), either
individually or in various series and parallel combinations. Each of these components behaves
differently in an AC circuit compared to a DC circuit due to their impedance characteristics.
In a purely resistive AC circuit, current and voltage are in phase. However, in purely inductive
circuits, current lags the voltage by 90 degrees, and in purely capacitive circuits, current leads
the voltage by 90 degrees. These phase relationships are crucial for understanding the behavior
of complex AC circuits.

2. Galvanometer

A galvanometer is an electromechanical instrument used for detecting and indicating an electric

current. It is a highly sensitive device, capable of detecting very small currents, often in the
microampere range. Galvanometers are fundamental to many electrical measurements and
served as the basis for the development of ammeters and voltmeters.

Working Principle

The working principle of a galvanometer is based on the motor effect: when a current-carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force. In a typical moving-coil
galvanometer (D'Arsonval or Weston type), a coil of wire is suspended within a strong magnetic
field produced by a permanent magnet. When a current flows through the coil, it generates its
own magnetic field, which interacts with the permanent magnetic field. This interaction produces
a torque on the coil, causing it to rotate. The amount of deflection of the coil (and an attached
pointer) is directly proportional to the current flowing through it.

Construction

A moving-coil galvanometer typically consists of:

●​ Coil: A rectangular or circular coil of many turns of fine insulated copper wire.
●​ Permanent Magnet: A strong U-shaped permanent magnet providing a uniform radial
magnetic field.
●​ Soft Iron Core: A cylindrical soft iron core placed inside the coil to make the magnetic
field radial and uniform, increasing the sensitivity of the galvanometer.
●​ Suspension Wire/Springs: The coil is suspended by a phosphor bronze wire or pivoted
on jeweled bearings, allowing it to rotate freely. A hairspring often provides the restoring
torque.
●​ Pointer and Scale: A lightweight pointer attached to the coil moves over a calibrated
scale to indicate the current.
Applications

While modern digital meters have largely replaced them for direct measurement, galvanometers
are still vital:

●​ As null detectors in bridge circuits (e.g., Wheatstone bridge, Carey Foster bridge) to
detect a balanced condition (zero current).
●​ In laboratory experiments for detecting small currents.
●​ As components within analog ammeters and voltmeters, where shunts and multipliers
are used to extend their range.

For AC current detection, specific types of galvanometers or adaptations are required, as a

simple moving coil galvanometer would average out the alternating current to zero over a cycle,
leading to no deflection unless the frequency is very low. Rectifiers are often used in conjunction
with DC galvanometers to measure AC.
3. Ammeter and Voltmeter for AC Circuits

Ammeter and voltmeters are essential instruments for measuring electrical quantities in AC
circuits. While their basic function (measuring current and voltage) remains the same as in DC
circuits, their internal construction and operating principles must account for the alternating
nature of the current and voltage.

AC Ammeters

An ammeter is always connected in series with the component or circuit branch where the
current is to be measured. It has a very low internal resistance to minimize its impact on the
circuit's current flow. For AC measurements, common types of ammeters include:

●​ Moving Iron (MI) Ammeter: These meters use the magnetic effect of current. Both fixed
and moving parts are made of soft iron. When current flows, both pieces are magnetized
in the same direction, causing repulsion and deflection. MI meters can measure both AC
and DC, and their deflection is proportional to the square of the current, so the scale is
non-linear. They typically read the RMS value of the current.
●​ Electrodynamic Ammeter: Also known as dynamometer-type instruments, they use the
interaction between the magnetic fields of a fixed coil and a moving coil. These are
highly accurate and can measure both AC and DC, and also power.
●​ Hot-Wire Ammeter: Operates on the heating effect of current (I²R). The expansion of a
wire due to heat is used to deflect a pointer. These meters are independent of frequency
and waveform and can measure the true RMS value of AC.
●​ Rectifier Type Ammeter: For measuring AC with a DC moving coil galvanometer, a
rectifier circuit (like a bridge rectifier) is used to convert the AC into pulsating DC, which
is then measured by the galvanometer. These meters typically read the average value,
but are calibrated to show RMS for sinusoidal waveforms.
AC Voltmeters

A voltmeter is always connected in parallel across the two points between which the potential
difference (voltage) is to be measured. It has a very high internal resistance to draw minimal
current from the circuit, thus not significantly altering the voltage being measured. Similar to
ammeters, AC voltmeters also come in various types:

●​ Moving Iron (MI) Voltmeter: Similar in principle to the MI ammeter but designed with a
high series resistance to limit current.
●​ Electrodynamic Voltmeter: Similar to the ammeter version, offering high accuracy.
●​ Rectifier Type Voltmeter: Uses a rectifier to convert AC voltage to DC, which is then
measured by a DC moving coil voltmeter. These are very common for general-purpose
AC voltage measurements.
●​ Induction Type Voltmeter: Used for AC measurements only, based on the principle of
electromagnetic induction. They are primarily used in AC circuits and are robust.
 ●​ Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO): While not a traditional meter, a CRO can be used to
measure AC voltage by displaying the waveform, allowing for peak voltage, RMS
voltage, frequency, and phase measurements.

It is crucial to select the correct type of meter for AC measurements, especially when dealing
with non-sinusoidal waveforms, as some meters (like rectifier types) are calibrated for RMS
based on the assumption of a pure sine wave, leading to inaccuracies with other waveforms.

4. Potentiometer

A potentiometer, often simply called a "pot," is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating
contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used (one end and the
wiper), it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. Potentiometers are widely used for controlling
electrical signals and voltages, such as volume control in audio equipment, dimming lights, and
in sensor applications.

Working Principle

The basic principle of a potentiometer is to provide a variable resistance by moving a contact

along a uniform resistive element. When a voltage is applied across the two fixed terminals of
the potentiometer, the wiper terminal taps off a portion of that voltage, which varies as the wiper
position changes. This creates a variable voltage output proportional to the wiper's position
along the resistive track.

For example, if a 10V source is connected across a 10kΩ potentiometer, and the wiper is set
exactly halfway, the voltage at the wiper will be 5V. As the wiper moves towards one end, the
resistance on one side decreases and on the other side increases, thereby changing the voltage
division.

Construction

Potentiometers typically consist of:

●​ Resistive Element: A track of resistive material (e.g., carbon composition, cermet,

wirewound) arranged linearly or circularly.
●​ Wiper/Sliding Contact: A conductive contact that moves along the resistive element,
providing the variable output.
●​ Terminals: Three terminals – two fixed terminals at the ends of the resistive element
and one connected to the movable wiper.
●​ Shaft/Slider: A mechanical part (rotary shaft or linear slider) used to move the wiper.
Uses and Applications

Potentiometers have numerous applications in both AC and DC circuits:

●​ Voltage Dividers: The most common application, providing a continuously variable

output voltage from a fixed input voltage. This is used in control circuits where a variable
voltage is needed (e.g., controlling motor speed, setting reference voltages).
●​ Rheostats (Variable Resistors): When only two terminals are used (one end and the
wiper), the potentiometer functions as a variable resistor. This is used to control current
in a circuit, such as in dimmers for lights or fan speed controllers.
●​ Measurement of EMF: A potentiometer can be used in a null deflection method to
accurately measure the electromotive force (EMF) of a cell or compare EMFs of two
cells, as well as to measure internal resistance of a cell, without drawing any current
from the source under test at the point of balance, thus providing a more accurate
measurement than a voltmeter.
●​ Sensors: Used as position sensors (e.g., in joysticks, throttle controls) where the
physical position is converted into an electrical signal.
●​ Audio Control: Adjusting volume, tone, and balance in audio amplifiers and mixers.

In AC circuits, potentiometers can be used for controlling AC voltage or current, but care must
be taken regarding power dissipation, especially in high-power AC applications.
5. Wheatstone Bridge

The Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical resistance
by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which contains the unknown component. Its
principle is similar to that of a potentiometer, where a balance condition is achieved.

Working Principle

A standard Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistive arms (R1, R2, R3, and Rx, where Rx is
the unknown resistance) connected in a diamond-like configuration. A voltage source (usually
DC for basic resistance measurement) is connected across two opposite corners, and a
galvanometer (or a sensitive current detector) is connected across the other two opposite
corners. The bridge is "balanced" when no current flows through the galvanometer. At this point,
the potential difference across the galvanometer is zero, meaning the voltage ratios across the
arms are equal.

The balance condition for a DC Wheatstone bridge is given by: R1/R2 = R3/Rx, which allows for
the calculation of the unknown resistance Rx = R2 * R3 / R1.

Wheatstone Bridge in AC Circuits (AC Bridge)

While the classic Wheatstone bridge is for DC resistance measurement, its principle is extended
to AC circuits to measure unknown impedances (inductance, capacitance, and resistance).
These are known as AC bridges. In AC bridges, the resistive arms are replaced by impedance
arms (Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4), and the DC voltage source is replaced by an AC source (oscillator). The
galvanometer is replaced by a sensitive AC detector, such as headphones (for audio frequency)
or an oscilloscope.

The balance condition for an AC bridge is similar, but it involves complex impedances. For the
bridge to be balanced, two conditions must be met: both the magnitudes and the phase angles
of the impedances must be in proportion. That is, Z1/Z2 = Z3/Z4.
Applications of AC Bridges

AC bridges are highly versatile and are used for precise measurement of various AC circuit
parameters:

●​ Measurement of Inductance: Bridges like Maxwell's Bridge, Hay's Bridge, and

Anderson's Bridge are used to measure unknown inductances. They are particularly
useful for measuring inductors with different Q factors.
●​ Measurement of Capacitance: Bridges such as Wien Bridge and De Sauty's Bridge are
employed for accurate capacitance measurements. The Wien bridge is also notably
used in oscillator circuits for generating sine waves.
●​ Measurement of Frequency: The Wien bridge can also be used to measure unknown
frequencies by balancing the bridge.
●​ Measurement of Impedance: General AC bridge circuits can be configured to measure
the impedance of various components, including unknown resistors in the presence of
reactive components.
●​ Sensor Applications: AC bridges are used in conjunction with AC excited sensors (e.g.,
LVDTs for displacement, capacitive sensors for proximity) where the change in physical
quantity causes a change in inductance or capacitance, which is then measured by the
bridge.

AC bridge circuits are crucial for characterization of reactive components and are widely used in
laboratories and industrial settings for precision measurements.

6. Summary and Solved Examples on Alternating Current Circuits

Summary of Alternating Current Circuits

Alternating current (AC) circuits are characterized by voltages and currents that vary
sinusoidally with time. Unlike DC, AC allows for efficient long-distance power transmission via
transformers. Key concepts in AC include peak value, RMS value (the effective value),
frequency, and phase. Components like resistors, inductors, and capacitors behave differently in
AC circuits, introducing impedance (the total opposition to current flow) and phase shifts.
Inductors cause current to lag voltage, while capacitors cause current to lead voltage.
Resonance occurs in RLC circuits when inductive and capacitive reactances cancel, leading to
maximum current (series resonance) or maximum impedance (parallel resonance) at a specific
frequency. Instruments like galvanometers, ammeters, and voltmeters are adapted for AC
measurements, often using rectifiers or thermal effects to measure RMS values.

Bridge circuits, particularly AC bridges (like the Wheatstone bridge generalized for AC), are vital
for precise measurement of unknown impedances (inductance, capacitance) by achieving a
balanced condition where no current flows through the detector.

20 Solved Examples on Alternating Current Circuits

Example 1: RMS Voltage Calculation

Problem: A sinusoidal AC voltage has a peak value of 311 V. What is its RMS value?

Solution: V_rms = V_peak / √2 = 311 V / √2 ≈ 220 V

Example 2: Peak Current Calculation

Problem: An AC current has an RMS value of 10 A. What is its peak value?

Solution: I_peak = I_rms * √2 = 10 A * √2 ≈ 14.14 A

Example 3: Frequency from Period

Problem: An AC waveform has a period of 20 ms. Calculate its frequency.

Solution: f = 1 / T = 1 / (20 × 10&supn-3 s) = 50 Hz

Example 4: Inductive Reactance

Problem: A 100 mH inductor is connected to a 50 Hz AC supply. Calculate its inductive

reactance (X_L).

Solution: X_L = 2πfL = 2π × 50 Hz × 0.1 H = 10π Ω ≈ 31.42 Ω

Example 5: Capacitive Reactance

Problem: A 100 μF capacitor is connected to a 50 Hz AC supply. Calculate its capacitive

reactance (X_C).
Solution: X_C = 1 / (2πfC) = 1 / (2π × 50 Hz × 100 × 10&supn-6 F) = 1 / (0.01π) Ω ≈ 31.83 Ω

Example 6: Impedance of Series RL Circuit

Problem: A series circuit has a resistor of 30 Ω and an inductor with an inductive reactance of
40 Ω. Calculate the total impedance (Z).

Solution: Z = √(R² + X_L²) = √((30 Ω)² + (40 Ω)²) = √(900 + 1600) = √2500 = 50 Ω

Example 7: Impedance of Series RC Circuit

Problem: A series circuit has a resistor of 60 Ω and a capacitor with a capacitive reactance of
80 Ω. Calculate the total impedance (Z).

Solution: Z = √(R² + X_C²) = √((60 Ω)² + (80 Ω)²) = √(3600 + 6400) = √10000 = 100 Ω

Example 8: Impedance of Series RLC Circuit

Problem: A series RLC circuit has R = 20 Ω, X_L = 50 Ω, and X_C = 30 Ω. Calculate the total
impedance (Z).

Solution: Z = √(R² + (X_L - X_C)²) = √((20 Ω)² + (50 Ω - 30 Ω)²) = √(400 + 400) = √800 ≈ 28.28
Ω

Example 9: Current in a Series RLC Circuit

Problem: If the circuit in Example 8 is connected to a 100 V AC supply, calculate the current
flowing through it.

Solution: I = V / Z = 100 V / 28.28 Ω ≈ 3.535 A

Example 10: Phase Angle of Series RL Circuit

Problem: For the circuit in Example 6, calculate the phase angle (φ) between voltage and
current.

Solution: tan(φ) = X_L / R = 40 / 30 = 4/3. φ = arctan(4/3) ≈ 53.13° (current lags voltage)

Solved Examples (Continued)

Example 11: Phase Angle of Series RC Circuit

Problem: For the circuit in Example 7, calculate the phase angle (φ) between voltage and
current.

Solution: tan(φ) = -X_C / R = -80 / 60 = -4/3. φ = arctan(-4/3) ≈ -53.13° (current leads voltage)
Example 12: Phase Angle of Series RLC Circuit

Problem: For the circuit in Example 8, calculate the phase angle (φ) between voltage and
current.

Solution: tan(φ) = (X_L - X_C) / R = (50 - 30) / 20 = 20 / 20 = 1. φ = arctan(1) = 45° (current

lags voltage)

Example 13: Power Factor

Problem: Calculate the power factor for the series RL circuit in Example 6.

Solution: Power Factor (PF) = cos(φ) = R / Z = 30 Ω / 50 Ω = 0.6 lagging

Example 14: Real Power (Average Power)

Problem: A 100 V, 50 Hz AC source is connected to a series circuit with R = 10 Ω and X_L = 10

Ω. Calculate the real power dissipated.

Solution: Z = √(10² + 10²) = √200 ≈ 14.14 Ω. I = V/Z = 100 V / 14.14 Ω ≈ 7.07 A. Real Power (P)
= I²R = (7.07 A)² × 10 Ω ≈ 500 W

Example 15: Apparent Power

Problem: For the circuit in Example 14, calculate the apparent power.

Solution: Apparent Power (S) = V_rms * I_rms = 100 V * 7.07 A = 707 VA

Example 16: Reactive Power

Problem: For the circuit in Example 14, calculate the reactive power.

Solution: Reactive Power (Q) = √(S² - P²) = √((707 VA)² - (500 W)²) = √(499849 - 250000) =
√249849 ≈ 499.85 VAR (lagging)

Example 17: Series Resonance Frequency

Problem: A series RLC circuit has L = 10 mH and C = 1 μF. Calculate its resonant frequency
(f_r).

Solution: f_r = 1 / (2π√(LC)) = 1 / (2π√(10 × 10&supn-3 H × 1 × 10&supn-6 F)) = 1 /

(2π√(10&supn-8)) = 1 / (2π × 10&supn-4) = 10000 / (2π) ≈ 1591.55 Hz

Example 18: Current at Resonance (Series)

Problem: If the series RLC circuit from Example 17 has R = 50 Ω and is connected to a 20 V
AC source at resonance, what is the current?
Solution: At resonance, Z = R. So, I = V / R = 20 V / 50 Ω = 0.4 A

Example 19: Parallel Resonance Frequency (approximate for high Q)

Problem: A parallel LC circuit has L = 10 mH and C = 1 μF. What is its resonant frequency
(f_r)?

Solution: For a parallel LC circuit, f_r = 1 / (2π√(LC)) (same formula as series for ideal
components). So, f_r ≈ 1591.55 Hz

Example 20: Wheatstone Bridge Application (DC for simplicity, principle transferable)

Problem: In a balanced DC Wheatstone bridge, R1 = 100 Ω, R2 = 200 Ω, R3 = 150 Ω. What is

the unknown resistance Rx?

Solution: For a balanced bridge, R1/R2 = R3/Rx. So, Rx = (R2 * R3) / R1 = (200 Ω * 150 Ω) /
100 Ω = 300 Ω