Time Constant in R-L and R-C Circuits

Definition of Time Constant

The time constant of a circuit is a measure of the time required for a system to respond
to a change in its input. It indicates how quickly currents and voltages rise or fall.

• Denoted by the Greek letter τ (tau).

• Physically, it is the time taken by a system to reach approximately 63.2% of its final
steady-state value after a step input is applied.

Time Constant in Series R-L Circuit

Circuit Description
A resistor R and inductor L connected in series with a DC voltage source V .

Differential Equation
Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):

di
V = iR + L
dt
Rewriting:
di R V
+ i=
dt L L

Solution for Current

i(t) = Ifinal 1 − e−t/τ

Where:

• Ifinal = V
R

• τ= L
R
is the time constant

At t = τ , i(t) = 0.632 × Ifinal

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Time Constant in Series R-C Circuit
Circuit Description
A resistor R and capacitor C in series with a DC voltage source V .

Charging of Capacitor
Applying KVL:
V = vC + iR
Current i = C dvdtC , so:
dvC
V = vC + RC
dt
Rewriting:
dvC 1 V
+ vC =
dt RC RC

Solution for Capacitor Voltage

vC (t) = V 1 − e−t/τ

Where:

• τ = RC is the time constant

Discharging
vC (t) = V e−t/τ
At t = τ , the capacitor charges to 63.2% of the final voltage.

Summary Table
Circuit Type Time Constant (τ ) Response Equation
R-L Series τ=R L
i(t) = I(1 − e−t/τ )
R-C Series τ = RC vC (t) = V (1 − e−t/τ )

Conclusion
Time constant plays a crucial role in analyzing transient responses of first-order circuits. It
determines the speed at which a system reaches its steady state.

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 Q1. (b) Transient Behavior of R, L, and C Elements

Q1(b): Explain the behaviour of R, L, and C elements for tran-

sients. Mention the representation at the instant of switching.
Introduction to Transients
A transient is the temporary behavior of a circuit immediately after a sudden change, such as switching
ON or OFF a voltage or current source. During this short period, currents and voltages change from
one steady-state value to another.

Behaviour of Individual Elements

1. Resistor (R)
• Voltage-current relation:
vR (t) = i(t) · R
• Transient behavior: A resistor responds instantaneously to a voltage or current change. It does
not store energy and therefore does not cause transients on its own.
• At the instant of switching: No change in behavior.

2. Inductor (L)
• Voltage-current relation:
di(t)
vL (t) = L
dt
• Transient behavior:
– Inductor opposes a sudden change in current.
– At switching instant, current through inductor is continuous:
iL (0+ ) = iL (0− )
• Initial representation: Current source (to maintain continuity), behaves like an open circuit if
unenergized.
• Final representation: Behaves like a short circuit for DC.

3. Capacitor (C)
• Voltage-current relation:
dv(t)
iC (t) = C
dt
• Transient behavior:
– Capacitor opposes a sudden change in voltage.
– At switching instant, voltage across capacitor is continuous:
vC (0+ ) = vC (0− )
• Initial representation: Voltage source (to maintain continuity), behaves like a short circuit if
uncharged.
• Final representation: Behaves like an open circuit for DC.

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Summary Table
Element Stores Energy As At t = 0+ At t → ∞ (DC)
Resistor (R) – Instantaneous change Instantaneous change
Inductor (L) Magnetic field iL (0+ ) = iL (0− ) Short circuit
Capacitor (C) Electric field vC (0+ ) = vC (0− ) Open circuit

Conclusion
Understanding the transient behavior of R, L, and C elements is crucial for analyzing circuits involving
switching operations. This behavior defines how voltages and currents evolve with time immediately
after the circuit configuration is changed.

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Q1 (c) Derivation of Voltage Across Inductor in Series RL Circuit

Given
A series RL circuit is connected to a DC voltage source V at time t = 0.

• R: Resistance in ohms (Ω)

• L: Inductance in henries (H)
• i(t): Current flowing through the circuit

• vL (t): Voltage across the inductor

• Initial current: i(0) = 0

Step 1: Apply KVL

Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL),

di(t)
V = i(t)R + L
dt
Rewriting,
di(t)
L + Ri(t) = V (1)
dt

Step 2: Solve the Differential Equation

Equation (1) is a first-order linear differential equation.

Homogeneous Solution:
Set the right-hand side to zero:

di(t) di(t) R
L + Ri(t) = 0 ⇒ = − i(t)
dt dt L
Separating variables and integrating:
Z Z
1 R R
di(t) = − dt ⇒ ln |i(t)| = − t + C1
i(t) L L

L
ih (t) = Ce−t/τ , where τ =
R

Particular Solution:
At steady-state (as t → ∞), the current is constant:

V
ip (t) =
R

1
General Solution:
V
i(t) = ip (t) + ih (t) = + Ce−t/τ
R
Apply initial condition i(0) = 0:

V V
0= +C ⇒C =−
R R

V  
i(t) = 1 − e−t/τ
R

Step 3: Voltage Across Inductor

di(t)
vL (t) = L
dt
Differentiate i(t):
di(t) V 1 −t/τ V R −t/τ V
= · e = · e = e−t/τ
dt R τ R L L
Substitute in the expression for vL (t):

V −t/τ
vL (t) = L · e ⇒ vL (t) = V e−t/τ
L

Conclusion
V
• Current: i(t) = 1 − e−t/τ


R
• Voltage across inductor: vL (t) = V e−t/τ
• At t = 0: i(0) = 0, vL (0) = V
V
• As t → ∞: i(t) → , vL (t) → 0
R

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 Solution to Q2 (a): Transient Analysis of RLC Series Circuit

Figure 1: A Given RLC Circuit

Problem Statement
Given:
• R = 1 Ω, L = 1 H, C = 0.5 F

• A 2 V DC source is connected through a switch to a series RLC circuit

• At t = 0− , switch is closed, steady-state is reached
• At t = 0+ , switch is opened

• Find the voltage across the switch at t = 0+

Initial Conditions Before Switching (t = 0− )

Before t = 0, the switch is closed for a long time, and the DC voltage has fully charged the capacitor.

• The capacitor acts as an open circuit in steady state for DC.

• Hence, voltage across capacitor VC (0− ) = 2 V
• Current through inductor iL (0− ) = 0 because no current flows through the open circuit.

At t = 0+ (After Switching)
At t = 0+ , the switch opens and the RLC circuit is left to discharge:

1
 We apply KVL: Z
di(t) 1
L + Ri(t) + i(t)dt = 0
dt C
Differentiate:
d2 i di 1
L + R + i(t) = 0
dt2 dt C
Substitute values:
d2 i 1 di 1
2
+ + i(t) = 0
dt 1 dt 0.5
d2 i di
+ + 2i(t) = 0 (1)
dt2 dt

Solving the Differential Equation

The characteristic equation of (1):
√ √
2 −1 ± 1−8 −1 ± j 7
s +s+2=0⇒s= =
2 2
√
7
So roots are complex: s = − 12 ± j 2
General solution for current:
√ √
−t/2 7 7
i(t) = e (A cos( t) + B sin( t))
2 2

Initial Conditions
• i(0) = 0 ⇒ A = 0
• VC (0) = 2 V ⇒ initial inductor voltage equals capacitor voltage, use:

di di vC
vL = L = −vR − vC ⇒ t=0
=− = −2
dt dt L
" √ √ √ #
1 7 7 7
⇒ i′ (0) = −2 ⇒ From i(t) : i′ (t) = e−t/2 − B sin( t) + B · cos( t)
2 2 2 2
√
′ 7 4
i (0) = B · = −2 ⇒ B = − √
2 7

2
 Thus,
√ !
4 7
i(t) = − √ e−t/2 sin t
7 2

Voltage Across Switch

At t = 0+ , voltage across switch = voltage across capacitor = VC (0+ ) = 2 V (capacitor voltage cannot
change instantly)

Final Answer
vswitch (0+ ) = 2 V

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Behavior of R, L, and C Elements at Switching Times

Q2 (b) Explanation:
Question: Explain the behaviour of R, L and C elements at the time of switching, at
t = 0, at t = 0+ and at t = ∞.

1. Resistor (R):
The resistor’s behavior is time-invariant. It obeys Ohm’s Law:

vR (t) = R · i(t)

• At t = 0, t = 0+ , and t = ∞: the resistor does not store energy. It only dissipates

energy as heat.

• Behavior remains unchanged during switching.

2. Inductor (L):
Inductor voltage-current relation is:

di(t)
vL (t) = L ·
dt
• It opposes sudden changes in current.

• Current through inductor is continuous across switching.

Behavior:

• t = 0: Stores energy and behaves as a short circuit in steady-state DC.

• t = 0+ : Current remains same as at t = 0− .

• t = ∞: In steady state, behaves like a short circuit (DC conditions).

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3. Capacitor (C):
Capacitor current-voltage relation is:

dv(t)
iC (t) = C ·
dt
• It opposes sudden changes in voltage.

• Voltage across capacitor is continuous.

Behavior:

• t = 0: Stores energy and behaves as open circuit in steady-state DC.

• t = 0+ : Voltage remains same as at t = 0− .

• t = ∞: In steady state, behaves like an open circuit (DC conditions).

Summary Table:
Element t = 0− t = 0+ t→∞
Resistor (R) Normal Normal Normal
Inductor (L) Short Circuit (DC) Maintains current Short Circuit (DC)
Capacitor (C) Open Circuit (DC) Maintains voltage Open Circuit (DC)

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 Laplace Transform Questions - Detailed Solutions

Q3 a) Find the Laplace Transform of a ramp function

A ramp function is defined as:
f (t) = At, t≥0
The Laplace Transform of f (t) = At is:
1
L{At} = A · L{t} = A · , for s > 0
s2
Hence, the Laplace transform of the ramp function At is:

A
L{At} =
s2

Q3 b) State and explain the convolution theorem of

Laplace Transform
The convolution theorem of the Laplace transform states:
Z t 
L{f (t) ∗ g(t)} = L f (τ )g(t − τ ) dτ = F (s) · G(s)
0

Where:
• f (t), g(t) are time-domain functions,

• ∗ denotes convolution,

• F (s), G(s) are Laplace transforms of f (t), g(t).

Explanation: The convolution theorem helps in simplifying the Laplace transform of
the convolution of two functions. Instead of convolving in the time domain, we multiply
their Laplace transforms in the s-domain.

Q3 c) State any six properties of Laplace Transform

1. Linearity:
L{af (t) + bg(t)} = aF (s) + bG(s)

2. Time Shifting:
L{f (t − a)u(t − a)} = e−as F (s)

1
3. Frequency Shifting:
L{eat f (t)} = F (s − a)

4. Differentiation in Time Domain:

 
df (t)
L = sF (s) − f (0− )
dt

5. Integration in Time Domain:

Z t 
F (s)
L f (τ )dτ =
0 s

6. Initial Value Theorem:

lim f (t) = lim sF (s)

t→0+ s→∞

7. Final Value Theorem:

lim f (t) = lim sF (s) (if the limit exists)

t→∞ s→0

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 Relationship Between Unit Step and Unit Ramp
Functions

1. Unit Step Function u(t)

(
0, t < 0
u(t) =
1, t ≥ 0

2. Unit Ramp Function r(t)

(
0, t < 0
r(t) =
t, t ≥ 0

3. Derivation Using Differentiation

We know:
r(t) = t · u(t)
Differentiating both sides:
d d
[r(t)] = [t · u(t)]
dt dt
Using the product rule:
d d d
[t · u(t)] = [t] · u(t) + t · [u(t)]
dt dt dt

= 1 · u(t) + t · δ(t)
Since t · δ(t) = 0, we get:
d
[r(t)] = u(t)
dt

1
4. Derivation Using Integration
Integrate the unit step function:
Z t
r(t) = u(τ ) dτ
−∞

Since u(τ ) = 0 for τ < 0 and u(τ ) = 1 for τ ≥ 0, the integral becomes:
Z t
r(t) = 1 dτ = t for t ≥ 0
0

Thus: Z
r(t) = u(t) dt

5. Final Relationship
Z
d
r(t) = u(t) and r(t) = u(t) dt
dt

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 Solution to Q4 (b) and (c)

Q4 (b):
Find the Laplace transform of f (t) = e−at sin(ωt)

Solution:
We use the Laplace transform identity:
ω
L{e−at sin(ωt)} =
(s + a)2 + ω 2
Therefore, the Laplace transform of f (t) = e−at sin(ωt) is:
ω
F (s) =
(s + a)2 + ω 2

Q4 (c):
Obtain F (s) for the signal shown in Fig. No. 2. Also determine its Laplace transform.

Signal Description:
From the figure, the signal is a triangular waveform:

5
 2 t,
 0≤t<2
f (t) = − 25 t + 10, 2 ≤ t ≤ 4

0, otherwise


Expressing using Unit Step Functions:

5 5
f (t) = t · [u(t) − u(t − 2)] + (− t + 10) · [u(t − 2) − u(t − 4)]
2 2

Laplace Transform:
We apply the Laplace transform term by term using the standard formulas:

e−as
 
1 1 a
L{t} = 2 , L{t · u(t − a)} = e−as 2
+ , L{u(t − a)} =
s s s s
Term 1:     
5 5 1 −2s 1 2
L t · [u(t) − u(t − 2)] = −e +
2 2 s2 s2 s
Term 2:
 −2s
− e−4s
       
5 5 1 2 1 4 e
L (− t + 10) · [u(t − 2) − u(t − 4)] = − e−2s + − e −4s
+ + 10
2 2 s2 s s2 s s

Final Expression for F (s):

 −2s
− e−4s
        
5 1 1 2 5 −2s 1 2 1 4 e
F (s) = − e−2s + − e + −e −4s
+ + 10
2 s2 s2 s 2 s2 s s2 s s

1
 Solution to Q5 (a) and (b)

Q5 (a):
Express impedance parameters in terms of transmission line parameters.

Solution:
In transmission lines, the primary constants are:

• R: resistance per unit length (/m)

• L: inductance per unit length (H/m)
• G: conductance per unit length (S/m)

• C: capacitance per unit length (F/m)

The transmission line is characterized by two important secondary parameters:

• Characteristic impedance Z0
• Propagation constant γ

These are given by:

s
R + jωL p
Z0 = , γ = α + jβ = (R + jωL)(G + jωC)
G + jωC
For a transmission line of length l, the impedance (Z) parameters can be expressed as:

cosh(γl)
Z11 = Z22 = Z0 = Z0 coth(γl)
sinh(γl)
1
Z12 = Z21 = Z0
sinh(γl)
Hence, the impedance parameters in terms of transmission line parameters are:

Z11 = Z22 = Z0 coth(γl)

Z12 = Z21 = Z0 cosech(γl)

1
Q5 (b):
Find Z-parameters of the network shown in figure no. 3

Circuit Description:
From the diagram, the circuit contains:

• Series resistors: R1 = 10 Ω and R2 = 15 Ω

• A shunt resistor between the series path: R3 = 5 Ω

1 I1 I2 2

V1 V2

1’ 2’

Z-Parameter Definitions:
V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2

Case 1: Find Z11 and Z21

Set I2 = 0 (open circuit at port 2)
Then: - Circuit becomes series: R1 = 10 Ω and R3 = 5 Ω - So:

Z11 = 10 + 5 = 15 Ω

Z21 = 5 Ω (voltage across R3 due to I1 )

Case 2: Find Z22 and Z12

Set I1 = 0 (open circuit at port 1)
Then: - Circuit becomes series: R2 = 15 Ω and R3 = 5 Ω - So:

Z22 = 15 + 5 = 20 Ω

Z12 = 5 Ω

Final Z-Parameters:
   
Z11 Z12 15 5
= Ω
Z21 Z22 5 20

2
 Solution to Q6

Q6 (a): Define the following terms in relation with filter and give
significance of each.
i) Pass Band:
The pass band of a filter is the range of frequencies that can pass through the filter with minimal
attenuation. The filter allows signals within this band to pass while attenuating signals outside of
it. The efficiency of the filter is determined by how effectively it retains the signals within the pass
band.
Significance: In communication systems, the pass band determines the bandwidth of useful signal
transmission.
ii) Stop Band:
The stop band is the range of frequencies that the filter significantly attenuates or blocks. Signals
within this frequency range are greatly reduced in amplitude.
Significance: Stop bands are essential in eliminating unwanted frequencies, such as noise or inter-
ference, in signal processing systems.
iii) Cutoff Frequency:
The cutoff frequency is the boundary frequency that separates the pass band and the stop band.
At this frequency, the output power drops to 50% (or amplitude drops to √12 ) of the maximum
pass band level, corresponding to a -3 dB point.
Significance: It helps define the limit up to which signals are considered part of the pass band,
thus shaping the behavior of filters (low-pass, high-pass, etc.).

Q6 (b): What is high pass filter? Derive the expression for the
cutoff frequency of prototype low pass filter in terms of L and C.
High Pass Filter:
A high-pass filter is an electronic filter that allows signals with a frequency higher than a certain cutoff
frequency to pass through and attenuates signals with frequencies lower than the cutoff frequency.
Types of High Pass Filters:

• Passive High Pass Filter (using resistor and capacitor)

• Active High Pass Filter (using op-amps)

Cutoff Frequency Derivation for Prototype Low Pass Filter:

Consider a simple low-pass LC filter:

1
 lowpass_filter.png

Let L be the inductance and C the capacitance.

The cutoff angular frequency ωc is given by:
1
ωc = √
LC
The cutoff frequency fc in hertz is:
1
fc = √
2π LC

Conclusion:
1 1
fc = √ or ωc = √
2π LC LC
This expression defines the cutoff frequency in terms of the inductor L and capacitor C. It is valid
for both low-pass and high-pass filters with appropriate circuit configurations.

2
 Solution to Q7

Q7 (a): Explain the necessary conditions for transfer function.

A transfer function, usually denoted by H(s), is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the
output to the Laplace transform of the input, assuming zero initial conditions.

Y (s)
H(s) =
X(s)
Necessary conditions for a valid transfer function:

1. Linearity: The system must be linear, i.e., it must obey the principle of superposition.
2. Time-Invariance: The system should be time-invariant. A time-invariant system behaves the
same regardless of when the input is applied.
3. Causality: The system should be causal, i.e., the output at any time depends only on the present
and past inputs, not future inputs.
4. Zero Initial Conditions: Transfer function is defined only for systems with zero initial conditions.

5. Stability: For practical applications, the system must be stable. That means all poles of the
transfer function should lie in the left half of the s-plane.
6. Rational Function: The transfer function should be a rational function (i.e., ratio of two poly-
nomials in s).

1
Q7 (b): Determine the driving point impedance, voltage ratio,
and transfer function for the network shown in Fig. No. 4.

Figure 1: A descriptive caption

Given: RC Network
• A resistor R in series with capacitor C

• Input: V1 , Output: V2

Let us analyze the RC series circuit.

1. Driving Point Impedance Zin (s)

Total impedance seen from input:
1
Zin (s) = R +
sC

V2 (s)
2. Voltage Ratio V1 (s)

Voltage across capacitor C is:

1
V2 (s) = I(s) ·
sC
Total current in the loop:

V1 (s) V1 (s)
I(s) = 1 = 1+sRC
R + sC sC
So,
1
V1 (s) 1 sC V1 (s)
V2 (s) = 1+sRC
· = V1 (s) · 1+sRC
=
sC
sC sC
1 + sRC

3. Transfer Function H(s)

V2 (s) 1
H(s) = =
V1 (s) 1 + sRC
This is the transfer function of a **low-pass filter**.
Conclusion:

1 V2 (s) 1 1
Zin (s) = R + ; = ; H(s) =
sC V1 (s) 1 + sRC 1 + sRC

2
 Solution to Q8

Q8 (a): What is pole-zero plot? Explain with suitable example.

A pole-zero plot is a graphical representation in the complex plane that shows the locations of the
poles and zeros of a transfer function H(s).

• Poles are the values of s that make the denominator of H(s) zero.
• Zeros are the values of s that make the numerator of H(s) zero.

Example:
Consider a transfer function:
s+2
H(s) =
(s + 1)(s + 3)
Zeros: s = −2
Poles: s = −1, −3
Pole-zero plot:
• Plot a circle or ’o’ at s = −2 (zero).

• Plot crosses ’x’ at s = −1 and s = −3 (poles).

This plot helps in analyzing system behavior such as:
• Stability (all poles in left half plane means stable system),
• Frequency response (location of zeros and poles affects magnitude/phase),

• Transient response.

1
Q8 (b): Obtain the pole-zero plot of transform impedance for
the network shown in Fig. No. 5

Figure 1: A descriptive caption

Given Circuit:
• A 4 Ω resistor in series with a 1 H inductor.
• The inductor is connected to a parallel network of:
– 1 Ω resistor,
– 1 F capacitor.

Step 1: Impedances in Laplace domain

• Resistor: R = R

• Inductor: sL = s · 1 = s
• Capacitor: 1
sC = 1
s

Step 2: Parallel branch impedance

The parallel combination of 1 Ω resistor and 1 F capacitor:
 −1
1 1 −1 1
Zp = + 1 = (1 + s) ⇒ Zp =
1 s
1+s

Step 3: Total impedance

Total transform impedance:
1
Z(s) = 4 + s +
1+s
To simplify:

(4 + s)(1 + s) + 1 4(1 + s) + s(1 + s) + 1 4 + 4s + s + s2 + 1 s2 + 5s + 5

Z(s) = = = =
1+s 1+s 1+s s+1

Step 4: Find Poles and Zeros

• Zeros: Roots of numerator:
√ √
2 −5 ± 25 − 20 −5 ± 5
s + 5s + 5 = 0 ⇒ s = =
2 2
√
−5± 5
So, zeros at s = 2

2
 • Pole: Root of denominator:
s + 1 = 0 ⇒ s = −1

Final Result:
s2 + 5s + 5
Z(s) =
s+1
Poles: s = −1
√
Zeros: s = −5±2 5
Pole-Zero Plot:
• Plot poles (x) at s = −1
√
• Plot zeros (o) at s = −5± 5
2 ≈ −1.38, −3.62