ST4013 - STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING

UNIT II SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTATION FOR SHM

Sensors for measurements: Electrical Resistance Strain Gages, Vibrating Wire Strain
Gauges, Fiber Optic Sensors, Temperature Sensors, Accelerometers, Displacement
Transducers, Load Cells, Humidity Sensors, Crack Propagation Measuring Sensors,
Corrosion Monitoring Sensors, Pressure Sensors, Data Acquisition – Data Transmission
- Data Processing – Storage of processed data - Knowledgeable information processing

1. Sensors for measurements

Structural health monitoring (SHM) involves the use of sensors to collect data on the
condition of a structure, such as a building, bridge, or aircraft. The collected data can
then be analyzed to assess the structural integrity of the system and detect any
potential issues or damages.

There are several types of sensors that can be used for SHM, including:

Strain gauges: These sensors measure changes in the strain or deformation of a

structure and can provide information on the stresses and loads that the structure is
experiencing.

Accelerometers: These sensors measure the acceleration or vibration of a structure

and can be used to detect any abnormal movement or resonance.

Fiber optic sensors: These sensors use optical fibers to measure strain, temperature,
and other parameters in a structure. They are particularly useful for monitoring large
structures or structures in harsh environments.

Ultrasonic sensors: These sensors use high-frequency sound waves to detect any
defects or discontinuities in a structure, such as cracks or voids.

Piezoelectric sensors: These sensors use a material that generates an electric charge
when it is subjected to stress or strain. They can be used to measure vibration, strain, or
pressure in a structure.

Thermal sensors: These sensors measure temperature changes in a structure and can
be used to detect any hotspots or areas of potential damage.

The choice of sensor(s) to use for SHM depends on the specific application and the
type of data that needs to be collected. Often, a combination of sensors is used to
provide a more comprehensive view of the structural health of a system

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i) Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges

Electrical resistance strain gauges are one of the most common types of sensors used
for measuring strain in materials. They work by measuring the change in electrical
resistance of a conductive material as it is stretched or compressed.

The basic design of a strain gauge consists of a thin wire or foil that is bonded to the
surface of the material being measured. When the material is subjected to strain, the
wire or foil experiences a change in length, which in turn changes its resistance. This
change in resistance can be measured and used to calculate the amount of strain that
the material is experiencing.

There are several types of electrical resistance strain gauges, including foil strain
gauges and wire strain gauges. Foil strain gauges are made of a thin strip of conductive
material that is wrapped in a zigzag pattern, while wire strain gauges consist of a wire
that is wound into a coil. Both types of strain gauges are available in a variety of sizes
and shapes to suit different applications.

To use a strain gauge, it is typically bonded to the surface of the material being
measured using a special adhesive. The gauge is then wired into a bridge circuit, which
measures the change in resistance when the material is subjected to strain. The output
of the bridge circuit can be read using a strain indicator or data acquisition system,
which provides a measurement of the amount of strain in the material.

Electrical resistance strain gauges are widely used in a variety of applications, including
structural testing, load measurement, and stress analysis. They are relatively easy to
install and can provide accurate and reliable measurements with high sensitivity.

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However, they can be affected by temperature changes and can be subject to drift over
time, so they require careful calibration and maintenance to ensure accurate results.

ii) Vibrating Wire Strain Gauges

Vibrating wire strain gauges are a type of sensor used for measuring strain in materials.
They work by measuring changes in the resonant frequency of a vibrating wire as it is
subjected to strain.

The basic design of a vibrating wire strain gauge consists of a wire that is stretched
between two points, forming a resonant system. When the wire is subjected to strain, its
tension changes, which in turn changes its resonant frequency. By measuring the
change in resonant frequency, it is possible to calculate the amount of strain that the
wire is experiencing.

To use a vibrating wire strain gauge, it is typically mounted onto the surface of the
material being measured using a special adhesive. The gauge is then wired into a
circuit that provides an excitation signal to vibrate the wire and measures the resonant
frequency of the wire. The output of the circuit can be read using a strain indicator or
data acquisition system, which provides a measurement of the amount of strain in the
material.

Vibrating wire strain gauges have several advantages over other types of strain gauges.
They are highly sensitive, with a resolution of up to 0.1 microstrain, and have a wide
measurement range. They are also immune to temperature changes and can provide

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accurate measurements in harsh environments. Additionally, they have a long lifespan

and require minimal maintenance.

Vibrating wire strain gauges are commonly used in civil engineering applications, such
as monitoring the stability of structures like bridges, dams, and tunnels. They are also
used in geotechnical engineering to monitor the deformation of soil and rock.

iii) Fiber Optic Sensors

Fiber optic sensors are a type of sensor that use optical fibers to measure various
physical parameters such as strain, temperature, pressure, and vibration. They work on
the principle of light transmission and detection through a fiber optic cable.

Fiber optic sensors consist of a fiber optic cable that is coated with a material that can
change its optical properties in response to the physical parameter being measured. For
example, a fiber optic strain sensor might have a coating that changes its refractive
index when the fiber is stretched, causing a change in the way light travels through the
fiber. This change in light can be detected and measured using specialized equipment.

One of the main advantages of fiber optic sensors is their ability to measure physical
parameters over long distances without being affected by electromagnetic interference
or signal loss. They are also immune to electrical noise and can operate in harsh
environments, such as high temperatures, high pressures, and corrosive environments.
Additionally, they are highly accurate and have a fast response time.

Fiber optic sensors have a wide range of applications, including structural health
monitoring of buildings, bridges, and pipelines, as well as monitoring the performance of
wind turbines and aircraft. They are also used in the oil and gas industry for monitoring
the integrity of pipelines and in biomedical applications for monitoring vital signs and
tissue properties.

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There are different types of fiber optic sensors, including Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG)
sensors, Fabry-Perot sensors, and Interferometric sensors, each with unique features
and advantages. The choice of fiber optic sensor depends on the application and the
specific physical parameter that needs to be measured.

iv) Temperature Sensors

Temperature sensors can be used as a part of a structural health monitoring (SHM)

system to measure the temperature of a structure over time. Changes in temperature
can affect the structural integrity of a material and can be an early indicator of potential
damage.

There are several types of temperature sensors that can be used in SHM systems,
including thermocouples, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), and thermistors.
Thermocouples are the most commonly used temperature sensors and consist of two
dissimilar metals that generate a voltage when there is a temperature difference
between the two junctions. RTDs and thermistors work by measuring changes in
electrical resistance as the temperature changes.

Temperature sensors can be placed at strategic locations on a structure, such as near

joints or stress points, to monitor changes in temperature over time. Data from the
sensors can be collected and analyzed to identify patterns and trends that may indicate
changes in the structural integrity of the material.

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In addition to measuring temperature, temperature sensors can also be used to detect

hot spots and areas of high thermal stress in a structure. This can be particularly useful
in industrial settings where high temperatures and thermal stresses can lead to
equipment failure or damage.

Overall, temperature sensors are an important tool in SHM systems as they can provide
valuable information about the condition of a structure and help prevent potential
damage or failure.

v) Accelerometers

Accelerometers are sensors that measure acceleration, which is the rate of change of
velocity with respect to time. They are commonly used in structural health monitoring
(SHM) systems to measure vibrations and detect changes in the dynamic behavior of a
structure.

Accelerometers work by measuring the displacement of a mass due to acceleration.

When an object accelerates, the mass inside the accelerometer moves in response,
which causes a change in the electrical output of the sensor. This change can be
measured and recorded, and used to analyze the dynamic behavior of the structure.

Accelerometers can be mounted at various locations on a structure, such as at joints or

critical points, to monitor vibration and detect changes in the structural behavior. They
can also be used to identify resonance frequencies and other dynamic characteristics of
the structure.

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Accelerometers can be used in conjunction with other sensors, such as strain gauges
and temperature sensors, to provide a more complete picture of the condition of a
structure. Data from these sensors can be collected and analyzed to identify patterns
and trends that may indicate changes in the structural integrity of the material.

Overall, accelerometers are an important tool in SHM systems as they can provide
valuable information about the dynamic behavior of a structure and help prevent
potential damage or failure.

vi) Displacement Transducers

Displacement transducers are sensors that measure the displacement or movement of

a structure or object. They are commonly used in structural health monitoring (SHM)
systems to monitor the behavior of a structure and detect changes over time.

There are several types of displacement transducers that can be used in SHM systems,
including linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs), potentiometers, and
capacitance sensors. LVDTs are the most commonly used displacement transducers in
SHM systems and work by converting linear displacement into an electrical signal that
can be measured and recorded. Potentiometers work by converting displacement into a
change in resistance, while capacitance sensors work by measuring the change in
capacitance as the distance between two plates changes.

Displacement transducers can be used to monitor various aspects of a structure, such

as deformation, movement, and displacement. They can also be used to monitor the
performance of equipment, such as rotating machinery or hydraulic systems.

Data from displacement transducers can be collected and analyzed to identify patterns
and trends that may indicate changes in the structural integrity of the material. This
information can be used to detect potential damage or failure, and to implement
maintenance or repair procedures before serious problems occur.

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Overall, displacement transducers are an important tool in SHM systems as they can
provide valuable information about the movement and behavior of a structure and help
prevent potential damage or failure.

vii) Load Cells

Load cells are sensors that are used to measure the force or weight acting on a
structure or object. They are commonly used in structural health monitoring (SHM)
systems to monitor the loading conditions of a structure and detect changes over time.

Load cells come in various types and designs, including hydraulic load cells, strain
gauge load cells, and piezoelectric load cells. Hydraulic load cells work by measuring
the pressure in a fluid that is proportional to the force acting on the load cell. Strain
gauge load cells work by measuring the changes in electrical resistance that occur in a
strain gauge element as the load on the load cell changes. Piezoelectric load cells work
by measuring the electrical charge that is generated in a piezoelectric crystal as it is
subjected to a force.

Load cells can be used to monitor various aspects of a structure, such as the load
distribution, load magnitude, and load frequency. They can also be used to monitor the
performance of equipment, such as lifting systems, cranes, and hoists.

Data from load cells can be collected and analyzed to identify patterns and trends that
may indicate changes in the structural integrity of the material. This information can be
used to detect potential damage or failure, and to implement maintenance or repair
procedures before serious problems occur.

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Overall, load cells are an important tool in SHM systems as they can provide valuable
information about the loading conditions of a structure and help prevent potential
damage or failure.

viii) Humidity Sensors

Humidity sensors are sensors that are used to measure the relative humidity of the air in
a given environment. They are not typically used in isolation in structural health
monitoring (SHM) systems, but can be used in conjunction with other sensors to provide
a more complete picture of the environmental conditions affecting a structure.

Humidity sensors can be used to monitor the humidity levels in the environment
surrounding a structure, such as in an indoor or outdoor environment. High humidity
levels can lead to corrosion, mold growth, and other forms of damage to the structure,
while low humidity levels can lead to drying and cracking of the material. Monitoring
humidity levels can help prevent these issues and ensure the structural integrity of the
material.

In SHM systems, humidity sensors can be used in conjunction with temperature sensors
to monitor the dew point of the environment. The dew point is the temperature at which
water vapor in the air begins to condense into liquid water. If the temperature of a
structure falls below the dew point, condensation can occur, which can lead to moisture
accumulation and potential damage to the material. Monitoring the dew point can help
prevent these issues and ensure the structural integrity of the material.

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Overall, humidity sensors can be a valuable tool in SHM systems as they can provide
information about the environmental conditions affecting a structure and help prevent
potential damage or failure.

ix) Crack Propagation Measuring Sensors

Crack propagation measuring sensors are sensors that are used to monitor and
measure the growth of cracks in a structure. They are commonly used in structural
health monitoring (SHM) systems to detect crack growth and predict potential failures
before they occur.

There are several types of crack propagation measuring sensors that can be used in
SHM systems, including optical sensors, acoustic emission sensors, and eddy current
sensors. Optical sensors work by measuring the changes in light transmission or
reflection as a crack grows or changes shape. Acoustic emission sensors work by
measuring the acoustic signals generated by a crack as it grows or changes shape.
Eddy current sensors work by measuring the changes in electrical conductivity of the
material as a crack grows or changes shape.

Data from crack propagation measuring sensors can be collected and analyzed to
identify patterns and trends that may indicate changes in the structural integrity of the
material. This information can be used to detect potential damage or failure, and to
implement maintenance or repair procedures before serious problems occur.

Overall, crack propagation measuring sensors are an important tool in SHM systems as
they can provide valuable information about the growth and behavior of cracks in a
structure and help prevent potential damage or failure.

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x) Corrosion Monitoring Sensors

Corrosion monitoring sensors are sensors that are used to detect and monitor the
corrosion rate and corrosion potential of metal structures in a variety of environments.
They are commonly used in structural health monitoring (SHM) systems to detect and
prevent corrosion-related damage to structures.

There are several types of corrosion monitoring sensors that can be used in SHM
systems, including electrochemical sensors, ultrasonic sensors, and magnetic sensors.
Electrochemical sensors work by measuring the electrical properties of the metal, such
as its corrosion potential or current density. Ultrasonic sensors work by measuring the
ultrasonic waves that are generated by the corrosion process. Magnetic sensors work
by measuring the changes in magnetic properties that occur as the metal corrodes.

Data from corrosion monitoring sensors can be collected and analyzed to identify
patterns and trends that may indicate changes in the corrosion rate or corrosion
potential of the metal. This information can be used to detect potential damage or
failure, and to implement maintenance or repair procedures before serious problems
occur.

Overall, corrosion monitoring sensors are an important tool in SHM systems as they can
provide valuable information about the corrosion rate and potential of metal structures
and help prevent potential damage or failure due to corrosion.

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xi) Pressure Sensors

Pressure sensors are sensors that are used to measure the pressure of a fluid or gas.
They are commonly used in structural health monitoring (SHM) systems to monitor the
internal pressure of structures such as pipelines, tanks, and vessels.

In SHM systems, pressure sensors can be used to monitor the pressure inside a
structure and detect changes that may indicate a potential issue. For example, a
sudden drop in pressure may indicate a leak, while a sudden increase in pressure may
indicate an obstruction or other problem. Monitoring the pressure inside a structure can
help prevent potential damage or failure by detecting these issues early and
implementing maintenance or repair procedures before serious problems occur.

There are several types of pressure sensors that can be used in SHM systems,
including piezoresistive sensors, capacitive sensors, and optical sensors. Piezoresistive
sensors work by measuring the changes in resistance that occur when a force is applied
to a material. Capacitive sensors work by measuring the changes in capacitance that
occur when a force is applied to a material. Optical sensors work by measuring the
changes in light that occur when a force is applied to a material.

Overall, pressure sensors are an important tool in SHM systems as they can provide
valuable information about the internal pressure of structures and help prevent potential
damage or failure by detecting issues early and implementing maintenance or repair
procedures.

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1.1 Data Acquisition

Data acquisition in structural health monitoring (SHM) involves the collection, storage,
and analysis of data from sensors and other sources to monitor the health of structures
over time. The primary goal of data acquisition in SHM is to detect changes in the
structure's behavior that may indicate damage or deterioration, and to provide early
warning of potential issues before they become serious problems.

Data acquisition systems typically consist of sensors or monitoring devices that are
placed on the structure and connected to a data acquisition unit, which collects and
stores the data from the sensors. The data acquisition unit can be either a standalone
device or a computer-based system that is equipped with specialized software for data
acquisition and analysis.

The data acquired from the sensors can be processed and analyzed using a variety of
techniques, including statistical analysis, pattern recognition, and machine learning
algorithms. This analysis can help identify changes in the structure's behavior and
predict potential issues before they occur. The data can also be used to optimize
maintenance and repair schedules and to improve the overall performance and safety of
the structure.

Data acquisition in SHM is an ongoing process that requires regular monitoring and
analysis of the collected data. It is important to ensure that the data is accurate, reliable,
and complete, and that the data acquisition system is properly maintained and
calibrated to ensure accurate measurements over time. With proper data acquisition
and analysis, SHM can help extend the lifespan of structures, reduce maintenance
costs, and improve the safety of structures over time.

1.2 Data Transmission

Data transmission is a critical aspect of SHM as it enables the transfer of data collected
by sensors from the structure being monitored to a data processing system for analysis.
The goal of data transmission is to ensure that the data is transmitted in a timely,
reliable, and secure manner.

There are two main types of data transmission in SHM: wired and wireless.

Wired data transmission:

Wired data transmission involves the use of cables and connectors to transfer data from
sensors to the data processing system. This type of data transmission is commonly
used in situations where the distance between the sensors and the data processing
system is relatively short. It can provide reliable and high-speed data transmission but
can be costly to install and maintain.

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Wireless data transmission:

Wireless data transmission involves the use of wireless communication technologies

such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, or cellular networks to transfer data from sensors to the data
processing system. This type of data transmission is commonly used in situations where
the distance between the sensors and the data processing system is large or where it is
not feasible to install cables. It provides greater flexibility and lower installation costs
compared to wired data transmission, but can be subject to interference and may
require additional security measures to protect the data being transmitted.

In addition to choosing the appropriate type of data transmission, it is also important to

consider factors such as data rate, latency, power consumption, and reliability when
designing the data transmission system for SHM applications. The choice of data
transmission technology and parameters should be carefully evaluated to ensure that
they meet the specific requirements of the SHM application.

1.3 Data Processing

Data processing is a critical aspect of SHM as it enables the analysis of the data
collected from sensors to identify patterns, trends, and anomalies that may indicate
damage or deterioration in the structure being monitored. The goal of data processing is
to extract useful information from the raw sensor data, which can be used to make
informed decisions about the condition of the structure and to plan appropriate
maintenance or repair activities.

There are various data processing techniques that are commonly used in SHM
applications, including:

Signal processing:

Signal processing techniques are used to filter, smooth, and preprocess the raw sensor
data to remove noise and artifacts and to extract relevant features that can be used for
further analysis. These techniques may include digital signal processing algorithms
such as Fourier transforms, wavelet transforms, and filtering methods.

Feature extraction:

Feature extraction techniques are used to identify specific patterns or characteristics in

the sensor data that may indicate damage or deterioration in the structure. These
techniques may include statistical analysis methods such as correlation analysis,
principal component analysis, and wavelet packet analysis.

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Machine learning:

Machine learning algorithms are used to identify patterns and trends in the sensor data
that may be difficult to detect using traditional signal processing or feature extraction
techniques. These algorithms can learn from historical data to make predictions about
future behavior and can be used to detect anomalies or deviations from normal
behavior.

Data visualization:

Data visualization techniques are used to present the results of data processing in a
way that is easily interpretable by humans. These techniques may include graphs,
charts, or maps that highlight specific features or trends in the data.

Overall, the choice of data processing techniques will depend on the specific
requirements of the SHM application and the type of data being collected. It is important
to carefully evaluate the performance and accuracy of different data processing
techniques to ensure that they provide useful and reliable results for making informed
decisions about the condition of the structure being monitored

1.4 Storage of processed data

The storage of processed data is a critical aspect of SHM as it enables long-term

monitoring of the condition of the structure being monitored and provides a historical
record of changes in the structure over time. The goal of storing processed data is to
ensure that it is easily accessible, secure, and well-organized for future analysis.

There are various storage options available for storing processed data in SHM,
including:

Databases:

Databases are commonly used to store processed data in SHM applications. They
provide a structured and efficient way of organizing large amounts of data and can
support complex queries and analysis. Examples of databases commonly used in SHM
applications include SQL and NoSQL databases.

Cloud-based storage:

Cloud-based storage is becoming increasingly popular for storing processed data in

SHM applications. It offers scalable and flexible storage options and enables data to be
easily accessed and analyzed from anywhere with an internet connection. Examples of
cloud-based storage services include Amazon Web Services, Microsoft Azure, and
Google Cloud.

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Local storage:

Local storage, such as hard drives or network-attached storage (NAS), is another option
for storing processed data in SHM applications. It offers high-speed access to data and
can be a cost-effective option for smaller projects.

It is important to consider factors such as data security, data redundancy, and data
backup when designing the storage system for SHM applications. It is also important to
ensure that the data is stored in a standardized and well-documented format to facilitate
future analysis and to enable the data to be easily shared with other researchers or
stakeholders.

Overall, the choice of storage system will depend on the specific requirements of the
SHM application and the amount and type of data being collected. It is important to
carefully evaluate the performance and reliability of different storage options to ensure
that they meet the specific needs of the project.

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