ELECTRIC

and
HYBRID
VEHICLES
Design Fundamentals
 ELECTRIC
and
HYBRID
VEHICLES
Design Fundamentals

Iqbal Husain

CRC PRESS
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Husain, Iqbal, 1964-
Electric and hybrid vehicles: design fundamentals/by Iqbal Husain.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-1466-6 (alk. paper)
1. Electric vehicles. 2. Hybrid electric vehicles. I. Title.
TL220 .H87 2003
629.22′93–dc21 2002041120
CIP

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 Preface

The book presents a comprehensive systems-level perspective of electric and

hybrid electric vehicles, with emphasis on technical details, mathematical
relationships, and basic design guidelines. The electric vehicle is an excellent
example of an electro-mechanical and electrochemical system that is technically
challenging as well as highly intriguing to engineering students. With a good
balance between technical details, design equations, numerical examples, and
case studies, the subject matter presents an ideal platform for educating today’s
engineers with a systems-level perspective—a concept that served as the primary
motivation to develop this textbook on electric and hybrid vehicles.
Automobiles are an integral part of our everyday lives. Yet, conventional auto-
mobiles are the major cause of urban pollution in the 21st century. The world
will eventually encounter an acute energy crisis if we do not focus on alternative
energy sources and transportation modes. Current environmental concerns are
driving the international community toward developing low-emission (hybrid
electric) and zero-emission (electric) vehicles to replace conventional internal
combustion engine vehicles. The subject of electric and hybrid vehicles is
becoming increasingly important, with intense drive from the government,
environmental activists, and associated industries to advance the technology.
Several auto industries have already started marketing electric and hybrid electric
vehicles. Furthermore, the next generation of conventional automobiles will
experience a gradual replacement of the hydraulically driven actuators by
electrically driven actuators. The trend clearly suggests that there is a need to
adequately educate the engineers of today and tomorrow with the technical
details of electric and hybrid vehicles and the electrical units used within an
automobile. While there are ample books on electric and hybrid vehicles
available, providing narrative descriptions of the components of vehicles, and
numerous technical papers published with research results, none covers the
technical aspects and mathematical relationships in a comprehensive way to
educate a junior-or senior-level or a beginning graduate-level engineering
student.
This book will serve to educate students on aspects of electric vehicles, which
will generate interest to support the development and use of electric vehicles.
The book will also serve as a reference for a working engineer dealing with
 v

design and improvement of electric and hybrid vehicles. Discussion on most

topics has been limited to fundamentals only in the book, considering the wide
spectrum of technical aspects related to an electric and hybrid vehicle system.
Appropriate references are given to direct the readers toward details on topics for
further reading. The intent of the book is not to present the wide spectrum of the
state of the art in electric and hybrid electric vehicles, but rather to prepare the
student with the necessary background to evaluate the technology.
The book, starting with a historical background on electric vehicles, will
describe the system components, the laws of physics that govern vehicle motion,
the mathematical relationships within a component and between components, the
energy sources, and the design of components to meet the specifications for the
complete vehicle system. After the introduction of the systems concept in
Chapter 1, Chapter 2 focuses on the laws of physics to define the force
characteristics of ground vehicles. The design guidelines for the power and
energy requirements based on design specifications are established in this
chapter.
The flow of the book shifts from mechanical to chemical concepts, when
energy sources are introduced in Chapter 3, and the topic is continued in
Chapter 4, with alternatives to battery power. The two major contenders for
energy sources in road vehicles are batteries and fuel cells, which are described
in detail, while other types of energy sources are mentioned briefly.
Chapters 5 through 8 are mostly electrical, where electric motors for
propulsion and power electronic drives for the motors are presented. The DC
machines and AC induction machines suitable for propulsion are discussed in
Chapter 5, while the permanent magnet and switched reluctance machines are
presented in Chapter 6. Chapters 7 and 8 are dedicated to the power-electronics-
based motor drives for electric propulsion units. Vehicle system control
fundamentals are also addressed in these two chapters.
Mechanical and electrical concepts merge in Chapters 9 and 10. Drivetrain
components, including the transmission for electric vehicles, are presented in
Chapter 9, while Chapter 10 discusses the drivetrain and the design basics of hybrid
electric vehicles.
This book is intended to be used as a textbook for an undergraduate or
beginning graduate-level course on electric and hybrid electric vehicles. The ten
chapters of the book can be comfortably covered in a three-credit, one-semester
or a four-credit, one-quarter course. Although the materials in this book are
biased toward the electrical units, it is still multidisciplinary enough to teach
electrical, mechanical, and chemical engineers all in one course, utilizing the
systems approach. In that case, parts of the electrical details appearing in
Chapters 5 though 8 should be skipped. This type of course will certainly mimic
the real situation existing in many industries, where multidisciplinary engineers
work together to devise a system and develop a product. The equations
aaaaaaaaa
vi

developed can be utilized to develop a system-level modeling and simulation

tool for electric and hybrid electric vehicles on a suitable platform, such as
MATLAB/SIMULINK. The book has several worked-out problems and many
exercises that are suitable to convey the concept to students through numerical
examples.
 Author

Dr. Iqbal Husain is an Associate Professor in the Department of Electrical and

Computer Engineering at the University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, where he is
engaged in teaching and research. After earning his Ph.D. degree in Electrical
Engineering from Texas A&M University, College Station, in 1993, Dr. Husain
worked as a lecturer at Texas A&M University and as a consulting engineer for
Delco Chassis at Dayton, Ohio, prior to joining the University of Akron in 1994.
He worked as a summer researcher for Wright Patterson AFB Laboratories in
1996 and 1997. More recently, he taught at Oregon State University as a short-
term visiting faculty member. His research interests are in the areas of control
and modeling of electrical drives, design of electric machines, and development
of power conditioning circuits. He has worked extensively in the development of
switched reluctance motor drives, including sensorless controllers. He also
worked as a consultant for Delphi Automotive Systems, Goodyear Tire and
Rubber Industry, ITT Automotive, Delphi Chassis, Graphic Enterprises, and Hy-
Tech Inc.
Dr. Husain received the 2000 IEEE Third Millenium Medal, the 1998 IEEE-
IAS Outstanding Young Member award, and the NSF CAREER Award in 1997.
He is also the recipient of three IEEE Industry Applications Society prize paper
awards.
 Acknowledgments

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all those who helped me

devotedly to complete the work. I would like to thank my former and current
graduate students, John Bates, Liu Tong, Nazmul Anwar, Shahidul Islam, Afjal
Hossain, Faizul Momen, Virginie Raulin, Mihaela Radu, Ahmed Khalil, and Jin
Wang, who helped me tremendously with problems, figures, and materials. I
offer my gratitude to Dr. Don Zinger, who first offered a course on electric
vehicles at the University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, and created an opportunity for
me to prepare textbook materials on the topic.
I am extremely thankful to Dr. Robert Pasch of Oregon State University and Dr.
Richard Gross of the University of Akron, both from Mechanical Engineering
Departments, who educated and helped me in writing about the mechanical-
related topics. I would also like to thank the reviewers who provided extremely
useful suggestions that helped enhance the quality of the book. The reviewers
included Prof. Alan K.Wallace and Prof. Annette von Jouanne, Department of
Electrical and Computer Engineering, Oregon State University; Prof. M. Ehsani,
Department of Electrical Engineering, Texas A&M University; Prof. Longya
Xu, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Ohio State University;
Prof. Pragassen Pillay, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Clarkson University; Dr. Khwaja M.Rahman, General Motors ATV; and Dr.
Alexander Yokochi, Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University.
I thank the staff of CRC Press LLC, especially Nora Konopka and Helena
Redshaw, whose guidance was invaluable in preparing my first textbook
manuscript. Finally, my sincere apologies and heartfelt gratitude to my wife,
Salina, and my children Inan and Imon, who patiently stood by me with grave
understanding and continuous support while I was preoccupied with the project.
Iqbal Husain
Akron, Ohio
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction to Electric Vehicles 1

1.1 EV System 2
1.1.1 Components of an EV 2
1.2 EV History 4
1.2.1 The Early Years 4
1.2.2 1960s 5
1.2.3 1970s 6
1.2.4 1980s and 1990s 7
1.2.5 Recent EVs and HEVs 9
1.3 EV Advantages 10
1.3.1 Efficiency Comparison 10
1.3.2 Pollution Comparison 12
1.3.3 Capital and Operating Cost Comparison 14
1.3.4 U.S. Dependence on Foreign Oil 14
1.4 EV Market 15
References 16
Assignment 16
Chapter 2 Vehicle Mechanics 17
2.1 Roadway Fundamentals 18
2.2 Laws of Motion 20
2.3 Vehicle Kinetics 22
2.4 Dynamics of Vehicle Motion 25
2.5 Propulsion Power 26
2.5.1 Force-Velocity Characteristics 27
x

2.5.2 Maximum Gradability 28

2.6 Velocity and Acceleration 29
2.6.1 Constant FTR, Level Road 29
2.6.1.1 Velocity Profile 31
2.6.1.2 Distance Traversed 31
2.6.1.3 Tractive Power 32
2.6.1.4 Energy Required 33
2.6.2 Nonconstant FTR, General Acceleration 35
2.7 Propulsion System Design 37
Problems 38
Chapter 3 Energy Source: Battery 41
3.1 Battery Basics 42
3.2 Lead-Acid Battery 45
3.2.1 Cell Discharge Operation 46
3.2.2 Cell Charge Operation 47
3.2.3 Construction 48
3.3 Alternative Batteries 49
3.3.1 Nickel-Cadmium Battery 49
3.3.2 Nickel-Metal-Hydride (NiMH) Battery 49
3.3.3 Li-Ion Battery 50
3.3.4 Li-Polymer Battery 52
3.3.5 Zinc-Air Battery 53
3.3.6 Sodium-Sulfur Battery 53
3.3.7 Sodium-Metal-Chloride Battery 54
3.4 Battery Parameters 55
3.4.1 Battery Capacity 55
3.4.2 Discharge Rate 56
3.4.3 State of Charge 56
3.4.4 State of Discharge 57
 xi

3.4.5 Depth of Discharge 57

3.5 Technical Characteristics 58
3.5.1 Practical Capacity 59
3.5.1.1 Capacity Redefined 60
3.5.1.2 Battery Energy 61
3.5.1.3 Constant Current Discharge 61
3.5.1.4 Specific Energy 62
3.5.2 Battery Power 63
3.5.2.1 Specific Power 64
3.5.2.2 Battery Pack Design 64
3.5.3 Ragone Plots 64
3.6 Targets and Properties of Batteries 66
3.7 Battery Modeling 67
3.7.1 Constant Current Discharge Approach 68
3.7.1.1 Fractional Depletion Model 69
3.7.2 Standard Driving Cycles 71
3.7.3 Power Density Approach 74
References 75
Problems 75
Chapter 4 Alternative Energy Sources 79
4.1 Fuel Cells 79
4.1.1 Fuel Cell Characteristics 81
4.1.2 Fuel Cell Types 82
4.1.2.1 Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC) 82
4.1.2.2 Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) 82
4.1.2.3 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC) 83
4.1.2.4 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) 83
4.1.2.5 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) 83
4.1.2.6 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC, ITSOFC) 83
xii

4.1.3 Hydrogen Storage Systems 84

4.1.4 Reformers 86
4.1.5 Fuel Cell EV 87
4.2 Supercapacitors and Ultracapacitors 90
4.3 Flywheels 91
References 92
Problem 93
Chapter 5 DC and AC Electric Machines 95
5.1 Motor and Engine Ratings 96
5.2 EV and HEV Motor Requirements 98
5.3 DC Machines 98
5.4 Three-Phase AC Machines 104
5.4.1 Sinusoidal Stator Windings 105
5.4.2 Number of Poles 107
5.4.3 Three-Phase Sinusoidal Windings 108
5.4.4 Space Vector Representation 108
5.4.4.1 Interpretation of Space Vectors 112
5.4.4.2 Inverse Relations 113
5.4.4.3 Resultant mmf in a Balanced System 113
5.4.4.4 Mutual Inductance Lm and Induced Stator Voltage 115
5.4.5 Types of AC Machines 116
5.5 Induction Machines 117
5.5.1 Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit 119
5.5.2 Simplified Torque Expression 121
5.5.3 Speed Control Methods 124
5.6 Regenerative Braking 125
5.7 dq Modeling 127
5.7.1 Rotating Reference Frame 130
5.7.2 Induction Machine dq Model 131
 xiii

5.7.3 Power and Electromagnetic Torque 132

References 134
Problems 135
Chapter 6 PM and SR Machines 137
6.1 Permanent Magnet Machines 137
6.1.1. Permanent Magnets 138
6.1.1.1 Ferrites 138
6.1.1.2 Samarium Cobalt (SmCo) 139
6.1.1.3 Neodymium-Iron-Boron (NdFeB) 139
6.1.2 PM Synchronous Motors 140
6.1.2.1 Types of PMSMs 141
6.1.3 PMSM Models 142
6.1.3.1 Voltage Equations 143
6.1.3.2 Voltage and Torque in Reference Frames 144
6.1.3.3 dq and αβ Model 145
6.1.3.4 Transformation Equations 145
6.1.4 PM Brushless DC Motors 147
6.1.4.1 Brushless DC Motor Modeling 147
6.2 Switched Reluctance Machines 149
6.2.1 SRM Configuration 149
6.2.1.1 Advantages and Drawbacks 150
6.2.2 Basic Principle of Operation 151
6.2.2.1 Voltage-Balance Equation 151
6.2.2.2 Energy Conversion 153
6.2.2.3 Torque Production 154
6.2.2.4 Torque-Speed Characteristics 155
6.2.3 SRM Design 157
6.2.3.1 Basic Design Guidelines 157
References 158
xiv

Problems 159
Chapter 7 Power Electronics and Motor Drives 161
7.1 Electric Drive Components 161
7.1.1 Power Converters 161
7.1.2 Drive Controller 162
7.2 Power Electronic Switches 163
7.2.1 Diode 164
7.2.2 Power Transistors 166
7.2.3 Power MOSFETs 167
7.2.4 IGBT 167
7.2.5 Bidirectional Switch 167
7.3 DC Drives 168
7.3.1 Two-Quadrant Chopper 169
7.3.2 Open-Loop Drive 171
7.3.2.1 Steady State Analysis of Quadrant I 172
7.3.2.2 Ripple Reduction in ia 175
7.3.2.3 Acceleration (Continuous Conduction Mode, CCM) 175
7.3.2.4 Acceleration (Discontinuous Conduction Mode, DCM) 177
7.3.2.5 Acceleration (Uncontrollable Mode, UNCM) 178
7.3.2.6 Braking Operation (CCM in Steady State) 179
7.3.2.7 Regenerative Power 181
7.4 Operating Point Analysis 183
7.4.1 Scenario 1 183
7.4.2 Scenario 2 183
7.4.3 Scenario 3 185
7.4.4 Scenario 4 185
References 188
Problems 188
Chapter 8 AC and SR Motor Drives 191
 xv

8.1 AC Drive 191

8.1.1 Six-Step Operation 192
8.1.1.1 Harmonic Analysis 195
8.1.2 Pulse Width Modulation 196
8.1.2.1 Sinusoidal PWM 197
8.1.2.2 Harmonics in Sinusoidal PWM 199
8.1.2.3 Space Vector PWM 200
8.1.2.4 Generation of SV PWM Switching Signals 201
8.1.3 Current Control Methods 205
8.1.3.1 Hysteresis Current Controller 205
8.1.3.2 Ramp Comparison Controller 207
8.2 Vector Control of AC Motors 208
8.2.1 Vector Control of Induction Motors 210
8.2.2 Rotor Flux-Oriented Vector Control 211
8.2.3 Direct and Indirect Vector Control 213
8.2.3.1 Direct Vector Control 214
8.2.3.2 Indirect Vector Control 215
8.2.3.3 Vector Control Implementation 215
8.3 PM Synchronous Motor Drives 216
8.3.1 Vector Control 217
8.3.2 Flux Weakening 218
8.3.3 Current and Voltage Controllers 219
8.4 SR Motor Drives 219
8.4.1 SRM Converters 219
8.4.2 SRM Controls 222
8.4.2.1 Control Parameters 222
8.4.2.2 Advance Angle Calculation 223
8.4.2.3 Voltage-Controlled Drive 223
8.4.2.4 Current-Controlled Drive 224
xvi

8.4.2.5 Advanced Control Strategies 225

References 225
Problems 226
Chapter 9 Electric Vehicle Drivetrain 229
9.1 EV Transmission Configurations 229
9.2 Transmission Components 231
9.2.1 Gears 231
9.2.2 Automobile Differential 232
9.2.3 Clutch 232
9.2.4 Brakes 233
9.3 Ideal Gearbox: Steady State Model 234
9.3.1 Gear Ratio (GR) 234
9.3.2 Torque-Speed Characteristics 235
9.4 EV Motor Sizing 238
9.4.1 Initial Acceleration 240
9.4.2 Rated Vehicle Velocity 241
9.4.3 Maximum Velocity 241
9.4.4 Maximum Gradability 242
References 242
Problem 242
Chapter 10 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 245
10.1 Types of Hybrids 245
10.1.1 Series and Parallel HEVs 245
10.1.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages 247
10.1.2 Series-Parallel Combination 248
10.2 Internal Combustion Engines 249
10.2.1 Reciprocating Engines 250
10.2.1.1 Practical and Air-Standard Cycles 252
10.2.1.2 Air-Standard Otto Cycle 253
 xvii

10.2.1.3 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle 255

10.2.1.4 Example IC Engines in HEVs 257
10.2.2 Gas Turbine Engine 258
10.3 Design of an HEV 260
10.3.1 Hybrid Drivetrains 260
10.3.2 Sizing of Components 260
10.3.2.1 Rated Vehicle Velocity 261
10.3.2.2 Initial Acceleration 262
10.3.2.3 Maximum Velocity 263
10.3.2.4 Maximum Gradability 263
References 265
Problem 265

Index 267
xviii
 1
Introduction to Electric Vehicles

Environmental as well as economical issues provide a compelling impetus to

develop clean, efficient, and sustainable vehicles for urban transportation.
Automobiles constitute an integral part of our everyday life, yet the exhaust
emissions of conventional internal combustion (IC) engine vehicles are to blame
for the major source of urban pollution that causes the greenhouse effect leading
to global warming.1 The dependence on oil as the sole source of energy for
passenger vehicles has economical and political implications, and the crisis will
inevitably become acute as the oil reserve of the world diminishes. The number
of automobiles on our planet doubled to about a billion or so in the last 10 years.
The increasing number of automobiles being introduced on the road every year is
only adding to the pollution problem. There is also an economic factor inherent
in the poor energy conversion efficiency of combustion engines. Although the
number for alternative electric vehicles is not significantly higher when
efficiency is evaluated on the basis of conversion from crude oil to traction effort
at the wheels, it makes a difference. Emission due to power generation at
localized plants is much easier to regulate than that emanating from IC engine
vehicles (ICEV) that are individually maintained and scattered. People dwelling
in cities are not exposed to power plant related emissions, because these are
mostly located outside urban areas. Electric vehicles (EV) enabled by high-
efficiency electric motors and controllers and powered by alternative energy
sources provide the means for a clean, efficient, and environmentally friendly
urban transportation system. Electric vehicles have no emission, having the
potential to curb the pollution problem in an efficient way. Consequently, EVs
are the only zero-emission vehicles possible.
Electric vehicles paved their way into public use as early as the middle of the
19th century, even before the introduction of gasoline-powered vehicles.2 In the
year 1900, 4200 automobiles were sold, out of which 40% were steam powered,
38% were electric powered, and 22% were gasoline powered. However, the
invention of the starter motor, improvements in mass production technology of
gas-powered vehicles, and inconvenience in battery charging led to the
disappearance of the EV in the early 1900s. However, environmental issues and
the unpleasant dependence on oil led to the resurgence of interest in EVs in the
1960s. Growth in the enabling technologies added to environmental and
2 ELECTRIC AND HYBRID VEHICLES: DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS

economic concerns over the next several decades, increasing the demand for
investing in research and development for EVs. Interest and research in EVs
soared in the 1990s, with the major automobile manufacturers embarking on
plans for introducing their own electric or hybrid electric vehicles. The trend
increases today, with EVs serving as zero-emission vehicles, and hybrid electric
vehicles already filling in for ultralow-emission vehicles.

FIGURE 1.1 Top-level perspective of an EV system.

1.1
EV SYSTEM
An EV has the following two features:

1. The energy source is portable and chemical or electromechanical in

nature.
2. Traction effort is supplied only by an electric motor.

Figure 1.1 shows an EV system driven by a portable energy source. The

electromechanical energy conversion linkage system between the vehicle energy
source and the wheels is the drivetrain of the vehicle. The drivetrain has electrical
as well as mechanical components.

1.1.1
COMPONENTS OF AN EV
The primary components of an EV system are the motor, controller, power
source, and transmission. The detailed structure of an EV system and the
interaction among its various components are shown in Figure 1.2. Figure 1.2
also shows the choices available for each of the subsystem level components.
Electrochemical batteries have been the traditional source of energy in EVs.
Lead-acid batteries have been the primary choice, because of their well-
developed technology and lower cost, although promising new battery
technologies are being tested in many prototype vehicles. The batteries need a
charger to restore the stored energy level once its available energy is near
depletion due to usage. Alternative energy sources are also being developed for
 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC VEHICLES 3

FIGURE 1.2 Major electrical components and choices for an EV system.

zero-emission vehicles. The limited range problem of battery-driven EVs

prompted the search for alternative energy sources, such as fuel cells and
flywheels. Prototypes have been developed with fuel cells, while production
vehicles will emerge in the near future.
The majority of electric vehicles developed so far are based on DC machines,
induction machines, or permanent magnet machines. The disadvantages of DC
machines pushed EV developers to look into various types of AC machines. The
maintenance-free, low-cost induction machines became an attractive alternative
to many developers. However, high-speed operation of induction machines is
only possible with a penalty in size and weight. Excellent performance together
with high-power density features of permanent magnet machines make them an
attractive solution for EV applications, although the cost of permanent magnets
can become prohibitive. High-power density and a potentially low production
cost of switched reluctance machines make them ideally suited for EV
applications. However, the acoustic noise problem has so far been a deterrent for
the use of switched reluctance machines in EVs. The electric motor design
includes not only electromagnetic aspects of the machine but also thermal and
mechanical considerations. The motor design tasks of today are supported by
finite element studies and various computer-aided design tools, making the
design process highly efficient.
The electric motor is driven by a power-electronics-based power-processing
unit that converts the fixed DC voltage available from the source into a variable
voltage, variable frequency source controlled to maintain the desired operating
point of the vehicle. The power electronics circuit comprised of power
semiconductor devices saw tremendous development over the past 3 decades. The
enabling technology of power electronics is a key driving force in developing
efficient and high-performance power-train units for EVs. High-power devices in
4 ELECTRIC AND HYBRID VEHICLES: DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS

compact packaging are available today, enabling the development of lightweight

and efficient power-processing units known as power electronic motor drives.
Advances in power solid state devices and very large-scale integration (VLSI)
technology are responsible for the development of efficient and compact power
electronics circuits. The developments in high-speed digital signal processors or
microprocessors enable complex control algorithm implementation with a high
degree of accuracy. The controller includes algorithms for the motor drive in the
inner loop as well as system-level control in the outer loop.

1.2
EV HISTORY
The history of EVs is interesting. It includes the insurgence of EVs following the
discovery of electricity and the means of electromechanical energy conversion
and later being overtaken by gasoline-powered vehicles. People digressed from
the environmentally friendly mode of transportation due to lack of technology in
the early years, but they are again focused on the correct track today.

1.2.1
THE EARLY YEARS
Prior to the 1830s, the means of transportation was only through steam power,
because the laws of electromagnetic induction, and consequently, electric motors
and generators, were yet to be discovered. Faraday demonstrated the principle of
the electric motor as early as in 1820 through a wire rod carrying electric current
and a magnet, but in 1831 he discovered the laws of electromagnetic induction
that enabled the development and demonstration of the electric motors and
generators essential for electric transportation. The history of EVs in those early
years up to its peak period in the early 1900s is summarized below:

• Pre-830—Steam-powered transportation
• 1831—Faraday’s law, and shortly thereafter, invention of DC motor
• 1834—Nonrechargeable battery-powered electric car used on a short track
• 1851—Nonrechargeable 19 mph electric car
• 1859—Development of lead storage battery
• 1874—Battery-powered carriage
• Early 1870s-Electricity produced by dynamo-generators
• 1885—Gasoline-powered tricycle car
• 1900—4200 automobiles sold:

• 40% steam powered

• 38% electric powered
• 22% gasoline powered
 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC VEHICLES 5

The specifications of some of the early EVs are given below:

• 1897—French Krieger Co. EV: weight, 2230 lb; top speed, 15 mph;
range, 50 mi/charge
• 1900—French B.G.S. Co. EV: top speed, 40 mph; range, 100 mi/charge
• 1912—34,000 EVs registered; EVs outnumber gas-powered vehicles
2-to-1
• 1915—Woods EV: top speed, 40 mph; range, 100 mi/charge
• 1915—Lansden EV: weight, 2460 Ib, top speed, 93 mi/charge, capacity,
1 ton payload
• 1920s—EVs disappear, and ICEVs become predominant

The factors that led to the disappearance of EV after its short period of success were
as follows:

1. Invention of starter motor in 1911 made gas vehicles easier to start.

2. Improvements in mass production of Henry T (gas-powered car) vehicles
sold for $260 in 1925, compared to $850 in 1909. EVs were more
expensive.
3. Rural areas had limited access to electricity to charge batteries, whereas
gasoline could be sold in those areas.

1.2.2
1960s
Electric vehicles started to resurge in the 1960s, primarily due to environmental
hazards being caused by the emissions of ICEVs. The major ICEV
manufacturers, General Motors (GM) and Ford, became involved in EV research
and development. General Motors started a $15 million program that culminated
in the vehicles called Electrovair and Electrovan. The components and
specifications of two Electrovair vehicles (Electrovair I (1964) and Electrovair II
(1966) by GM) are given below.

Systems and characteristics:

Motor—three-phase induction motor, 115 hp, 13,000 rev/m
Battery—silver-zinc (Ag-Zn), 512 V, 680 lb
Motor drive—DC-to-AC inverter using a silicon-controlled rectifier
(SCR)
Top speed—80 mi/h
Range—40 to 80 miles
Acceleration—0–60 mi/h in 15.6 s
Vehicle weight—3400 lb
6 ELECTRIC AND HYBRID VEHICLES: DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS

The Electrovair utilized the Chevy Corvair body and chassis. Among the
positive features was the acceleration performance that was comparable to the
ICEV Corvair. The major disadvantage of the vehicle was the silver-zinc (Ag-Zn)
battery pack that was too expensive and heavy, with a short cycle life and a long
recharge time.
An additional factor in the 1960s that provided the impetus for EV
development included “The Great Electric Car Race” cross-country competition
(3300 miles) between an EV from Caltech and an EV from MIT in August 1968.
The race generated great public interest in EVs and provided an extensive road
test of the EV technology. However, technology of the 1960s was not mature
enough to produce a commercially viable EV.

1.2.3
1970s
The scenario turned in favor of EVs in the early 1970s, as gasoline prices
increased dramatically due to an energy crisis. The Arab oil embargo of 1973
increased demands for alternate energy sources, which led to immense interest in
EVs. It became highly desirable to be less dependent on foreign oil as a nation.
In 1975, 352 electric vans were delivered to the U.S. Postal Service for testing.
In 1976, Congress enacted Public Law 94–413, the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle
Research, Development and Demonstration Act of 1976. This act authorized a
federal program to promote electric and hybrid vehicle technologies and to
demonstrate the commercial feasibility of EVs. The Department of Energy (DOE)
standardized EV performance, which is summarized in Table 1.1.
The case study of a GM EV of the 1970s is as follows:

System and characteristics:

Motor—separately excited DC, 34 hp, 2400 rev/m
Battery pack—Ni-Zn, 120 V, 735 lb
Auxiliary battery—Ni-Zn, 14 V
Motor drive—armature DC chopper using SCRs; field DC chopper
aaaaa using bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)
Top speed—60 mi/h
Range—60–80 miles
Acceleration—0–55 mi/h in 27 s
 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC VEHICLES 7

TABLE 1.1
EV Performance Standardization of 1976

The vehicle utilized a modified Chevy Chevette chassis and body. This EV
was used mainly as a test bed for Ni-Zn batteries. Over 35,500 miles of on-road
testing proved that this EV was sufficiently road worthy.

1.2.4
1980s AND 1990s
In the 1980s and the 1990s, there were tremendous developments of high-power,
high-frequency semiconductor switches, along with the microprocessor
revolution, which led to improved power converter design to drive the electric
motors efficiently. Also in this period, factors contributed to the development of
magnetic bearings used in flywheel energy storage systems, although these are
not utilized in mainstream EV development projects.
In the last 2 decades, legislative mandates pushed the cause for zero-emission
vehicles. Legislation passed by the California Air Resources Board in 1990
stated that by 1998 2% of vehicles should be zero-emission vehicles (ZEV) for
each automotive company selling more than 35,000 vehicles. The percentages
were to increase to 5% by 2001 and to 10% by 2003. The legislation provided a
tremendous impetus to develop EVs by the major automotive manufacturers. The
legislation was relaxed somewhat later due to practical limitations and the
inability of the manufacturers to meet the 1998 and 2001 requirements. The
mandate now stands that 4% of all vehicles sold should be ZEV by 2003, and an
additional 6% of the sales must be made up of ZEVs and partial ZEVs, which
would require GM to sell about 14,000 EVs in California.
Motivated by the pollution concern and potential energy crisis, government
agencies, federal laboratories, and the major automotive manufacturers launched
a number of initiatives to push for ZEVs. The partnership for next-generation
vehicles (PNGV) is such an initiative (established in 1993), which is a
8 ELECTRIC AND HYBRID VEHICLES: DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS

partnership of federal laboratories and automotive industries to promote and

develop electric and hybrid electric vehicles. The most recent initiative by the
DOE and the automotive industries is the Freedom CAR initiative.
The trends in EV developments in recent years can be attributed to the
following:

• High level of activity exists at the major automotive manufacturers.

• New independent manufacturers bring vigor.
• New prototypes are even better.
• High levels of activity overseas exist.
• There are high levels of hybrid vehicle activity.
• A boom in individual ICEV to EV conversions is ongoing.
• The fuel cell shows great promise in solving the battery range problem.

The case studies of two GM EVs of the 1990s are given below:

1. GM Impact 3 (1993 completed):

a. Based on 1990 Impact displayed at the Los Angeles auto show

b. Two-passenger, two-door coupe, street legal and safe
c. Initially, 12 built for testing; 50 built by 1995 to be evaluated by 1000
potential customers
d. System and characteristics:

i. Motor—one, three-phase induction motor; 137 hp; 12,000 rev/m

ii. Battery pack—lead-acid (26), 12 V batteries connected in series
(312 V), 869 lb
iii. Motor drive—DC-to-AC inverter using insulated gate bipolar
transistors (IGBTs)
iv. Top speed—75 mph
v. Range—90 miles on highway
vi. Acceleration—0 to 60 miles in 8.5 s
vii. Vehicle weight—2900 lb

e. This vehicle was used as a test bed for mass production of EVs.

2. Saturn EVl

a. Commercially available electric vehicle made by GM in 1995.

b. Leased in California and Arizona for a total cost of about $30,000.
c. System and characteristics:

i. Motor—one, three-phase induction motor

ii. Battery pack—lead-acid batteries
 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC VEHICLES 9

iii. Motor drive—DC-to-AC inverter using IGBTs

iv. Top speed—75 mph
v. Range—90 miles on highway, 70 miles in city
vi. Acceleration—0 to 60 mi in 8.5 s

d. Power consumption:

i. 30 kW-h/100 mi in city, 25 kW-h/100 mi on highway

e. This vehicle was also used as a test bed for mass production of EVs.

1.2.5
RECENT EVs AND HEVs
All of the major automotive manufacturers have production EVs, many of which
are available for sale or lease to the general public. The status of these vehicle
programs changes rapidly, with manufacturers suspending production frequently
due to the small existing market demand of such vehicles. Examples of
production EVs which are or until recently have been available are GM EVl,
Ford Think City, Toyota RAV4, Nissan Hypermini, and Peugeot 106 Electric.
There are also many prototype and experimental EVs being developed by the
major automotive manufacturers. Most of these vehicles use AC induction
motors or PM synchronous motors. Also, interestingly, almost all of these
vehicles use battery technology other than the lead-acid battery pack. The list of
EVs in production and under development is extensive, and readers are referred
to the literature3,4 for the details of many of these vehicles.
The manufacturers of EVs in the 1990s realized that their significant research
and development efforts on ZEV technologies were hindered by unsuitable
battery technologies. A number of auto industries started developing hybrid
electric vehicles (HEVs) to overcome the battery and range problem of pure
electric vehicles. The Japanese auto industries lead this trend with Toyota,
Honda, and Nissan already marketing their Prius, Insight, and Tino model hybrids.
The hybrid vehicles use an electric motor and an internal combustion engine and,
thus, do not solve the pollution problem, although it does mitigate it. It is perceived
by many that the hybrids, with their multiple propulsion units and control
complexities, are not economically viable in the long run, although currently a
number of commercial, prototype, and experimental hybrid vehicle models are
available from almost all of the major automotive industries around the world.
Toyota, Honda, and Nissan are marketing the hybrid vehicles well below the
production cost, with significant subsidy and incentive from the government.
However, the cost of HEVs and EVs are expected to be high until production
volume increases significantly.
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) can be a viable alternative to battery electric
vehicles, serving as zero-emission vehicles without the range problem. Toyota is
10 ELECTRIC AND HYBRID VEHICLES: DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS

FIGURE 1.3 EV process from crude oil to power at the wheels.

leading the way with FCEV, announcing the availability of its FCEV in 2003.
The Toyota FCEV is based on the Toyota RAV4 model.

1.3
EV ADVANTAGES
The relative advantages and disadvantages of an EV over an ICEV can be better
appreciated from a comparison of the two on the bases of efficiency, pollution,
cost, and dependence on oil. The comparison must be executed with care,
ensuring fairness to both systems.

1.3.1
EFFICIENCY COMPARISON
To evaluate the efficiencies of EV and ICEV on level ground, the complete
process in both systems starting from crude oil to power available at the wheels
must be considered. The EV process starts not at the vehicles, but at the source
of raw power whose conversion efficiency must be considered to calculate the
overall efficiency of electric vehicles. The power input PIN to the EV comes from
two sources—the stored power source and the applied power source. Stored
power is available during the process from an energy storage device. The power
delivered by a battery through electrochemical reaction on demand or the power
extracted from a piece of coal by burning it are examples of stored power.
Applied power is obtained indirectly from raw materials. Electricity generated
from crude oil and delivered to an electric car for battery charging is an example
of applied power. Applied power is labeled as PIN AW while stored power is
designated as PIN PROCESS in Figure 1.3. Therefore, we have the following:

The complete EV process can be broken down into its constituent stages
involving a chain of events responsible for power generation, transmission, and
usage, as shown in Figure 1.4. Raw power from the applied source is fed to the
system only at the first stage, although stored power can be added in each stage.
Each stage has its efficiency based on total input to that stage and output
delivered to the following stage. For example, the efficiency of the first stage
based on the input and output shown in Figure 1.4 is
 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC VEHICLES 11

FIGURE 1.4 The complete EV process broken into stages.

The efficiency of each stage must be calculated from input-output power

considerations, although the efficiency may vary widely, depending on the
technology being used. Finally, overall efficiency can be calculated by
multiplying the efficiencies of the individual stages. The overall efficiency of the
EV system shown in Figure 1.4 is

The overall ICEV process is shown in Figure 1.5, while the process details are
illustrated in Figure 1.6. Starting from the conversion of crude oil to fuel oil in the
refinery, the ICEV process includes the transmission of fuel oil from refinery to
gas stations, power conversion in the internal combustion engine of the vehicle,
and power transfer from the engine to the wheels through the transmission before
it is available at the wheels. The efficiency of the ICEV process is the product of
the efficiencies of the individual stages indicated in Figure 1.6 and is given by

A sample comparison of EV and ICEV process efficiencies based on the

diagrams of Figure 1.4 and 1.6 is given in Table 1.2. Representative numbers
have been used for the energy conversion stages in each process to convey a
general idea of the efficiencies of the two systems. From Table 1.2, it can be
claimed that the overall efficiency of an EV is comparable to the overall
efficiency of an ICEV.
 12

TABLE 1.2 EV and ICEV Efficiencies from

Crude Oil to Traction Effort
 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC VEHICLES 13

FIGURE 1.5 ICEV process from crude oil to power at the wheels.

FIGURE 1.6 The complete ICEV process broken into stages.

1.3.2
POLLUTION COMPARISON
Transportation accounts for one third of all energy usage, making it the leading
cause of environmental pollution through carbon emissions.5 The DOE projected
that if 10% of automobiles nationwide were zero-emission vehicles, regulated
air pollutants would be cut by 1,000,000 tons per year, and 60,000,000 tons of
green-house carbon dioxide gas would be eliminated. With 100% electrification,
i.e., every ICEV replaced by an EV, the following was claimed:

• Carbon dioxide in air, which is linked to global warming, would be cut in

half.
• Nitrogen oxides (a greenhouse gas causing global warming) would be cut
slightly, depending on government-regulated utility emission standards.
• Sulfur dioxide, which is linked to acid rain, would increase slightly.
• Waste oil dumping would decrease, because EVs do not require crankcase
oil.
• EVs reduce noise pollution, because they are quieter than ICEVs.
• Thermal pollution by large power plants would increase with increased EV
usage.

EVs will considerably reduce the major causes of smog, substantially

eliminate ozone depletion, and reduce greenhouse gases. With stricter SO2 power
plant emission standards, EVs would have little impact on SO2 levels. Pollution
reduction is the driving force behind EV usage.
14 ELECTRIC AND HYBRID VEHICLES: DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS

FIGURE 1.7 Electricity generation Piechart

1.3.3
CAPITAL AND OPERATING COST COMPARISON
The initial EV capital costs are higher than ICEV capital costs primarily due to
the lack of mass production opportunities. However, EV capital costs are
expected to decrease as volume increases. Capital costs of EVs easily exceed
capital costs of ICEVs due to the cost of the battery. The power electronics
stages are also expensive, although not at the same level as batteries. Total life
cycle cost of an EV is projected to be less than that of a comparable ICEV. EVs
are more reliable and will require less maintenance, giving a favorable bias over
ICEV as far as operating cost is concerned.

1.3.4
U.S. DEPENDENCE ON FOREIGN OIL
The importance of searching for alternative energy sources cannot be
overemphasized, and sooner or later, there will be another energy crisis if we, the
people of the earth, do not reduce our dependence on oil. Today’s industries,
particularly the transportation industry, are heavily dependent on oil, the reserve
of which will eventually deplete in the not so distant future. Today, about 42% of
petroleum used for transportation in the United States is imported. An average
ICEV in its lifetime uses 94 barrels of oil, based on 28 mi/gallon fuel
consumption. On the other hand, an average EV uses two barrels of oil in its
lifetime, based on 4 mi/kWh. The oil is used in the EV process during electricity
generation, although only 4% of electricity generated is from oil. The energy
sources for electricity generation are shown in the pie chart of Figure 1.7.
 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC VEHICLES 15

1.4
EV MARKET
We normally discuss the use of EVs for passenger and public transportation but
tend to forget about their use as off-road vehicles in specialty applications, where
range is not an issue. EVs have penetrated the market of off-road vehicles
successfully over the years for clean air as well as for cost advantages. Examples
of such applications are airport vehicles for passenger and ground support;
recreational vehicles as in golf carts and for theme parks, plant operation
vehicles like forklifts and loader trucks; vehicles for disabled persons; utility
vehicles for ground transportation in closed but large compounds; etc. There are
also EVs that run on tracks for material haulage in mines. There is potential for
EV use for construction vehicles. The locomotives that run on tracks with
electricity supplied from transmission lines are theoretically no different from
other EVs, the major difference being in the way energy is fed for the propulsion
motors.
Motivated by the growing concern about global pollution and the success of
electric motor driven transportation in various areas, the interest is ever
increasing for road EVs that can deliver the performance of ICEV counterparts.
The major impediments for mass acceptance of EVs by the general public are the
limited EV range and the lack of EV infrastructure. The solution of the range
problem may come from extensive research and development efforts in batteries,
fuel cells, and other alternative energy storage devices. An alternative approach
is to create awareness among people on the problems of global warming and the
advantages of EVs, while considering the fact that most people drive less than 50
miles a day, a requirement that can be easily met by today’s technology.
The appropriate infrastructure must also be in place for EVs to become more
popular. The issues related to infrastructure are as follows:

• Battery charging facilities: residential and public charging facilities and

stations
• Standardization of EV plugs, cords, and outlets, and safety issues
• Sales and distribution
• Service and technical support
• Parts supply

The current initial cost of an EV is also a big disadvantage for the EV market.
The replacement of the batteries, even for HEVs, is quite expensive, added to
which is the limited life problem of these batteries. The cost of EVs will come
down as volume goes up, but in the meantime, subsidies and incentives from the
government can create momentum.
The increasing use of EVs will improve the job prospects of electrical
engineers. The new jobs related to EVs will be in the following areas:
16 ELECTRIC AND HYBRID VEHICLES: DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS

• Power electronics and motor drives: Design and development of the

electrical systems of an EV
• Power generation: Increased utility demand due to EV usage
• EV infrastructure: Design and development of battery charging stations
and of hydrogen generation, storage and distribution systems

REFERENCES
1. California Air Resources Board Office of Strategic Planning, Air-Pollution
Transportation Linkage, 1989.
2. Wakefield, E.H., History of Electric Automobile, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Warrendale, PA, 1994.
3. Westbrook, M.H., The Electric Car, The Institute of Electrical Engineers, London,
United Kingdom, and Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 2001.
4. Hodkinson, R. and Fenton, J., Lightweight Electric/Hybrid Vehicle Design, Society
of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 2001.
5. The Energy Foundation, 2001 annual report.

ASSIGNMENT
Search through reference materials and write a short report on the following
topics:

1. Commercial and research EV/HEV programs around the world over the
last 5 years, describing the various programs, goals, power range, motor
used, type of IC engine, battery source, etc.
2. Case study of a recent EV/HEV
3. State and federal legislations and standardizations
References

1 Introduction to Electric Vehicles

1. California Air Resources Board Office of Strategic

Planning, Air-Pollution Transportation Linkage, 1989.

2. Wakefield, E.H., History of Electric Automobile, Society

of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1994.

3. Westbrook, M.H., The Electric Car, The Institute of

Electrical Engineers, London, United Kingdom, and Society
of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 2001.

4. Hodkinson, R. and Fenton, J., Lightweight

Electric/Hybrid Vehicle Design, Society of Automotive
Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 2001.

5. The Energy Foundation, 2001 annual report. ASSIGNMENT

Search through reference materials and write a short report

on the following

topics: 1. Commercial and research EV/HEV programs around

the world over the last 5 years, describing the various
programs, goals, power range, motor used, type of IC
engine, battery source, etc. 2. Case study of a recent
EV/HEV 3. State and federal legislations and
standardizations
3 Energy Source: Battery

1. Rand, D.A.J., Woods, R., and Dell, R.M., Batteries for

Electric Vehicles, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1998.

2. Dhameja, S., Electric Vehicle Battery Systems, Newnes

(Elsevier Science), Burlington, MA, 2002.

3. Dell, R.M. and Rand, D.A.J., Understanding Batteries,

Royal Society of Chemistry, United Kingdom, 2001. PROBLEMS

3.1

Estimate the weight of a 12 V, 100 Ah lead-acid battery by

calculating the

reactant masses participating in the overall chemical

reaction. Assume that the

mass of H 2 O in the electrolyte is twice the mass of H 2

SO 4 . Neglect battery casing

mass, electrode grid mass, separator mass, and current bus

mass. (Note that n=2

for Pb and PbO 2 , and n=1 for H 2 SO 4 .)

3.2

In the nickel-cadmium cell, nickel oxyhydroxide NiOOH is

the active material in

the charged positive plate. During discharge, it reduces to

the lower valence state,

nickel hydroxide Ni(OH) 2 , by accepting electrons from the

external circuit:

Cadmium metal is the active material in the charged

negative plate. During

discharge, it oxidizes to cadmium hydroxide Cd(OH) 2 and

releases electrons to

the external circuit:

The net reaction occurring in the potassium hydroxide (KOH)

electrolyte is:

Estimate the weight of an 11.7 V, 100 Ah Ni-Cd battery.

Neglect the mass of the

KOH component of the electrolyte.

FIGURE P3.3

3.3

A 12 V battery is connected to a series RL load as shown in

Figure P3.3 . The

battery has a rated capacity of 80 Ah. At t=0, the switch

is closed, and the battery

begins to discharge. (a) Calculate and plot the battery

discharge current, i(t), if the steady state discharge rate
is C/2. Neglect battery voltage drop. (b) Calculate and
plot SoD(t) in Ah for 0<t<2 h. (c) Calculate and plot
SoC(t), assuming that at t=0 the battery is charged to
rated capacity. Assume also that the rated capacity is the
practical capacity. (d) Calculate the time corresponding to
80% DoD.

3.4

Given below are constant power discharge characteristics of

a 12 V lead-acid

battery:

The battery characteristics are to be expressed in terms of

Peukert’s equation,

which has the following form: (a) Derive the constants n

and λ, assuming a linear relationship between log (SP) and
log(SE). (b) Find the capacity Q T of the battery if the
theoretical energy density is SE T =67.5 Wh/kg, given a
battery mass of 15 kg.

3.5

An EV battery pack consists of four parallel sets of six

series-connected 12 V,

100 Ah lead-acid batteries. One steady state motoring

(discharge) cycle of

battery current is shown in Figure P3.5a. The steady-state

regenerative braking
(charge) cycle of the battery is shown in Figure P3.5b.

FIGURE P3.5 (a) Suppose no regenerative braking is

employed. How much time does it take to reach 80% DoD? (b)
If regenerative braking is employed such that for every 50
motoring cycles there is one regenerative braking cycle,
how much time does it take to reach 80% DoD?

(Note: In this problem, neglect variation of capacity with

discharge rate. Assume

that the practical capacity is equal to the rated capacity.)

3.6

Given a lead-acid battery having the following empirical

characteristics:

where SP is specific power, and SE is specific energy. The

EV parameters are as

follows:

Also, take (a) Derive and plot F TR (t) vs. t (assume level
road). (b) Derive and plot P TR (t) vs. t. (c) Calculate
the EV range based on the SAE J227a Schedule B driving
cycle using the power density approach of the FDM. The SAE
J227a driving cycle and the current profile of the EV are
given in Figures P3.6a and P3.6b. (Assume no regenerative
braking.)

FIGURE P3.6
4 Alternative Energy Sources

1. Appleby, A.J. and Foulkes, F.R., Fuel Cell Handbook, Van

Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1989.

2. Andrews, N., Poised for growth: DG and ride through

power, Power Quality, January/February, 10–15. 2002.

3. Laughton, M.A., Fuel cells, Power Eng. J., February,

37–47. 2002.

4. Ford Motor Co., Direct-Hydrogen-Fueled

Proton-Exchange-Membrane Fuel Cell System for
Transportation Applications: Hydrogen Vehicle Safety,
Report DOE/ CE/50389–502, Directed Technologies Inc.,
Arlington, VA, May, 1997.

5. Linney, R.E. and Hansel, J.G., Safety considerations in

the design of hydrogenpowered vehicles, Part 2, Hydrogen
Energy Progress XI: Proc. llth World Hydrogen Energy Conf.,
Stuttgart, Veziroglu, T.N. et al., Eds., International
Association for Hydrogen Energy, Coral Gables, FL, 1996.

6. Ringland, J.T. et al., Safety Issues for Hydrogen

Powered Vehicles, Report SAND-94–8226, UC407, Sandia
National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, March, 1994.

7. Singh, R., Will developing countries spur fuel cell

surge?, Chem. Eng. Process, March, 59–66. 1999.

8. EC&G Services, Parson’s Inc., Fuel Cell Handbook, 5th

ed., U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy,
October, 2000.

9. Dell, R.M. and Rand, D.A.J., Understanding Batteries,

Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK, 2001.

10. Dhameja, S., Electric Vehicle Battery Systems, Newnes

(Elsevier Science), Burlington, MA, 2002.

11. Rand, D.A.J., Woods, R., and Dell, R.M., Batteries for
Electric Vehicles, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1998.
PROBLEM

4.1

The current drawn by an electric motor of a fuel cell EV

for a SAE Schedule D

J227A driving cycle is

The fuel flow rate for PEM fuel cell used in the vehicle is
(a) Calculate the amount of fuel (hydrogen) needed for one
cycle of Schedule D. (b) Calculate the amount of hydrogen
needed for a range of 200 mi.
5 DC and AC Electric Machines

1. Dubey, G., Power Semiconductor Controlled Drives,

Prentice Hall, New York, 1989.

2. Park, R.H., Two-Reaction Theory of Synchronous

Machines—Generalized Method of Analysis—Part I, AIEE
Transactions, Vol. 48, July, New York, 1929, pp. 716– 727.

3. Vas, P., Electric Machines and Drives: A Space-Vector

Theory Approach, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1992.

4. Novotny, D.W. and Lipo, T.A., Vector Control and

Dynamics of AC Drives, Oxford University Press, Oxford,
1996.

5. Mohan, N., Electric Drives—An Integrated Approach,

MNPERE, Minneapolis, MN, 2001.

6. Lyon, W.V., Transient Analysis of Alternating Current

Machinery, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1954.

7. Krasue, P.C. and Wasynchuk, O., Analysis of Electric

Machinery, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1986. PROBLEMS

5.1

Find the condition of operation that minimizes the losses

in a separately excited

DC machine. (Start by writing an equation for P loss in

terms of the field currents

and armature currents. Assuming linearity for all the

nonlinear functions,

establish the relation between armature current and field

current, and then find the

condition for minimum P loss .)

5.2

Present an argument why it is impossible to achieve maximum

efficiency at

every operating point (T*,ω*) for a permanent magnet DC

machine. (Start by

writing an equation for P loss in terms of T, ω, and

machine flux ).

5.3

Proceeding as in Problem 5.2, explain why it is impossible

to minimize losses at

any operating point (T*,ω*) for a series DC motor.

6 PM and SR Machines

1. Miller, T.J.E., Brushless Permanent Magnet and Switched

Reluctance Motor Drives, Oxford University Press, Oxford,
1989.

2. Lawrenson, P.J. et al., Variable-speed switched

reluctance motors, IEE Proc., Pt. B, Vol. 127, No. 4, July,
1980, pp. 253–265.

3. Miller, T.J.E., Switched Reluctance Motors and Their

Control, Magna Physics Publishing, Hillsboro, OH; Oxford
Science Publications, Oxford, UK, 1993.

4. Anwar, M.N., Husain, I., and Radun, A.V., A

Comprehensive Design Methodology for Switched Reluctance
Machines, IEEE-IAS Annual Conf., Italy, October, 2000.
PROBLEMS

6.1 (a) A PM brushless DC has a torque constant of 0.12

N-m/A referred to the DC supply. Estimate its no-load speed
in rpm when connected to a 48 V DC supply. (b) If the
armature resistance is 0.15 Ω/phase and the total voltage
drop in the controller transistors is 2 V, determine the
stall current and the stall torque.

6.2

Consider a three-phase 6/8 SRM. The stator phases are

excited sequentially

with a total time of 25 ms required to excite all three

phases. Find the angular

velocity of the rotor. Express your answer in rad/s and

rev/m.

6.3

The following flux equation describes the nonlinear

characteristics of a three

phase, 6/4 SRM:

where

and

Here, j=1, 2, 3 denotes the phase number, and m=3. Also,

a=0.024 and
b=0.019.

Derive the expression for the phase torque T j (i,θ).

7 Power Electronics and Motor Drives

1. Baliga, B.J., Power Semiconductor Devices, PWS

Publishing Company, Boston, MA, 1995.

2. Kassakian, J.G., Schlecht, M.F., and Verghese, G.C.,

Principles of Power Electronics, Addison-Wesley, Reading,
MA, 1991.

3. Mohan, N., Undeland, T.M., and Robins, W.P., Power

Electronics: Converters, Applications and Design, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1995.

4. Dubey, G.K., Power Semiconductor Controlled Drives,

Prentice Hall, New York, 1989. PROBLEMS

Parameters for Problems 7.1 and 7.2 are as follows:

7.1

The time γ(see Figure P7.1) in the discontinuous conduction

mode (DCM)

during acceleration of a two-quadrant chopper can be

derived as

where

Derive the <ω>−<T> characteristics for acceleration

operation of the two

quadrant chopper operating in the DCM. (Do not substitute

numerical values

for parameters yet.) Do not try to solve <ω> in terms of

<T>. Instead, solve for

<T> in terms of <ω>. Plot <T> vs. <ω> for the given
parameters, and d 1 =0.9, 0.

5, and 0.1.

7.2

Calculate the worst-case armature current ripple in CCM for

the given

parameters. If the worst-case ripple is required to be less

than 10 A, what is the
value of the filter inductance, or what value should the
switching frequency be

changed to?

7.3

Find the regions in the T-ω plane for DCM, CCM, and UNCM
acceleration

operation of a two-quadrant chopper-fed DC motor. That is,

find the restrictions

on T and ω for each mode. Hint: Start with the condition on

E. Solve the

inequality for d 1 . Then, use the ω-T characteristics to

eliminate d 1 . Also,

remember, 0≤d 1 ≤ 1.

Plot these regions for the given parameters, and also plot
the safe operating

area given:

aa−100 Nm ≤T≤100 Nm −300 rad/s ≤ω≤300 rad/s −30 hp ≤P≤30 hp

FIGURE P7.1

7.4

Describe the UNCM of braking operation. Draw waveforms of

armature current

and terminal voltage. Calculate the speed-torque

characteristics for this mode. In

what quadrant in the ω-T plane is this mode?

7.5

Consider the EV drivetrain driven by a two-quadrant

chopper, as shown in

Figure 7.26. The duty ratio for the acceleration operation

is d 1 , while the duty

ratio for braking operation is d 2 . The various parameters

are given below:
EV parameters:

aam=1050 kg, M B =150 kg, C D =0.25, A F =2 m 2 , C 0

=0.01, C 1 =0 ρ=1.1614 kg/m 3 , and g=9.81 m/s 2 r wh
=radius of wheel=0.28 m

Motor and controller parameters:

aaR a =0.1 Ω, L a =2 mH, K=0.6 V-s, I arated =200 A f s

=chopper switching frequency=500 Hz L f =series filter
inductance =1.6 mH

In each of the following cases, determine whether steady

state operation is in

CCM, DCM, or UNCM. (a) d 1 =0.4, d 2 =0, V=25 m/s (b) d 1

=0.8, d 2 , V=45 m/s (c) d 2 =0, V=25 m/s, T=40 Nm

Note: V is the vehicle steady state velocity, and T is the

motor torque. Also,

neglect friction and windage loss, and assume zero power

loss between the

motor shaft and the vehicle wheels.

8 AC and SR Motor Drives

1. Trzynadlowski, A.M., Introduction to Modern Power

Electronics, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1998.

2. Dubey, G.K., Power Semiconductor Controlled Drives,

Prentice Hall, New York, 1989.

3. Hou, C., DSP Implementation of Sensorless Vector Control

for Induction Motors, MS thesis, University of Akron, OH,
2001.

4. Bose, B.K., Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives,

Prentice Hall, New York, 2001.

5. Novotny, D.W. and Lipo, T.A., Vector Control and

Dynamics of AC Drives, Oxford University Press, Oxford,
1996.

6. Mohan, N., Electric Drives—An Integrated Approach,

MNPERE, Minneapolis, MN, 2001.

7. Davis, R.M., Ray, W.F., and Blake, R.J., Inverter drive

for switched reluctance motor: circuits and component
ratings, IEE Proc., Vol. 128, B, No. 2, March, 1981, pp.
126–136.

8. Miller, T.J.E., Switched Reluctance Motors and Their

Control, Magna Physics Publishing, Hillsboro, OH; Oxford
Science Publications, Oxford, 1993.

9. Pollock, C. and Williams, B.W., Power converter circuits

for switched reluctance motors with the minimum number of
switches, IEE Proc., Vol. 137, B, No. 6, November, 1990,
pp. 373–384.

10. Mir, S., Husain, I., and Elbuluk, M., Energy-efficient

C-dump converters for switched reluctance motors, IEEE
Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 12, No. 5,
September, 1997, pp. 912–921.

11. Mir, S., Husain, I., and Elbuluk, M., Switched

reluctance motor modeling with online parameter adaptation,
IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, Vol. 34, No. 4,
July-August, 1998, pp. 776–783.

12. Islam, M.S., Anwar, M.N., and Husain, I., A Sensorless

Wide Speed Range SRM Drive with Optimally Designed Critical
Rotor Angles, IEEE-IAS Annual Conference Proc., Rome, 2000,
pp. 1730–1737. PROBLEMS
8.1

A 460 V, 60 Hz, six-pole, 1176 rpm, Y-connected induction

motor has the

following parameters referred to the stator at rated

condition:

The motor is fed by a six-step inverter. The inverter is

fed from a battery pack

through a DC/DC converter.

The battery pack voltage is 72 V. Neglecting all the

losses: (a) Determine the output of the DC/DC converter.
(b) Mention the type of the converter and its conversion
ratio.

8.2

The motor in Problem 8.1 is employed to drive an EV that

requires 300 N-m to

propel the vehicle on a level road at constant velocity.

The configuration is

shown in Figure P8.2. Determine its operating speed and

slip, while the

frequency and voltage are kept constant at rated value.

8.3

The vehicle in Problem 8.1 is moving downwards so that it

requires 250 N-m. (a) What will be the input voltage for
the motor from the inverter? Hence, determine the
conversion ratio of the converter. Frequency is kept
constant at rated value, and the motor is running at the
rated speed. (b) What should be the operating frequency of
the inverter if the input voltage to the motor is kept
constant at rated value, and the motor is running at rated
speed?

8.4

Find the speed of the motor mentioned in Problem 8.1 for a

braking torque of

350 N-m and the inverter frequency of 40 Hz when the motor

is supplied at rated

voltage.

8.5

A three-phase induction machine is operated from a variable

voltage, fixed

frequency source. (a) Derive an expression for machine

efficiency in terms of slip (not in terms of torque and
speed). Include only stator and rotor copper losses and
core loss in P loss . Model core loss by a constant
resistance in the equivalent circuit. To simplify the
analysis, assume that core loss resistance and magnetizing
reactance are large compared to the other parameters. Under
this assumption, you can use an approximate equivalent
circuit, where the core loss resistance and magnetizing
reactance are directly across the stator terminals. (b)
Does motor efficiency depend on terminal voltage? Calculate
the slip that maximizes motor efficiency.

8.6

An AC inverter is operated in a sinusoidal pulse mode. The

transistor base

current waveforms are shown in Figure P8.6. Sketch

line-to-line voltages v AB ,

v BC , and v CA , and line to neutral voltage v AN in the

space provided. Briefly

comment on the voltages. Are they balanced? (i ci for i=1

to 6 are the base

currents for transistors 1 to 6, respectively).

FIGURE P8.2

FIGURE P8.6
9 Electric Vehicle Drivetrain

1. Willis, R.L. and Brandes, J., Ford next generation

electric vehicle powertrain, 12th Electric Vehicle Symp.,
December, 1994, pp. 449–458.

2. Scott, T.E., Power Transmission Mechanical, Hydraulic,

Pneumatic, and Electrical, Prentice Hall, New York, 2000.

3. Ehsani, M., Rahman, K.M., and Toliyat, H.A., Propulsion

system design for electric and hybrid vehicles, IEEE
Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 44, No. 1,
February, 1997, pp. 19–27. PROBLEM

9.1

An EV drivetrain employs a separately excited DC motor that

drives the EV

rear axle through a gearbox, as shown below in Figure P9.1.

The vehicle is

traveling in fourth gear on a level road at a constant

velocity of 60 mi/h. All

necessary parameters are as follows:

Motor parameters are as follows:

In the following calculations, assume no power loss from

motor output to

wheels. Also, assume that chopper outputs are pure DC. (a)
Calculate the operating speed and torque of the motor. (b)
For 0.5≤I F ≤4 A, plot I A vs.I F

FIGURE P9.1
10 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

1. Moran, M.J. and Shapiro, H.N., Fundamentals of

Engineering Thermodynamcis, 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1995.

2. Howell, J.R. and Buckius, R.O., Fundamentals of

Engineering Thermodynamics, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York,
1992.

3. Ehsani, M., Rahman, K.M., and Toliyat, H.A., Propulsion

system design for electric and hybrid vehicles, IEEE
Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 44, No. 1,
February, 1997, pp. 19–27. PROBLEM

10.1

An HEV has the following parameter values: ρ=1.16 kg/m 3 ,

m=692 kg, C D =0.2,

A F =2 m 2 , g=9.81 m/s 2 , C 0 =0.009, and C 1 =1.75*10– 6

s 2 /m 2 . The type of IC

engine that will be used for the vehicle has the force (at
wheel) vs. velocity

characteristics of FTR=2.0 sin 0.0285x N for 5<x<100, where

x is the vehicle

speed in mi/h. Determine the displacement of the ICE for a

rated cruising

velocity of 60 mi/h on a 2% slope.