Unit 1: Foundations of Chemistry

Chapter 1: The Language of Chemistry

Lesson 2: Working with Scientific Notation and Units

<H1>Essential Question
How does scientific notation simplify the representation of extremely large and small numbers in science?

<H1>Big Idea
Mastering scientific notation and consistent units is key for clear communication and accurate results in scientific
work.

<H1>Lesson Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
 express values in scientific notation
 perform dimensional analysis to convert units
 develop a systematic approach for converting units using dimensional analysis

▲International System of Units.

<H1>Key Vocabulary
 ampere
 base units
 candela
 derived units
 dimensional analysis
 kelvin
 kilogram
 meter
 scientific notation
 second
 SI units

<H1>Curiosity Corner: The Importance of Units and Scientific Notation

The forensic chemist conducted several measurements of the bracelet, including its mass and volume. The assistant
chemist was asked to report the findings to the insurance company. The assistant reported values of 40,000 and 2.07,
but the insurance company could not make sense of those numbers. Was the mass 40,000 g, 4000 mg, or 2.07 kg?
Was the volume 40,000 mm3? Without units, the measurements were meaningless.
The forensic chemist also measured the width of several diamond facets on the bracelet. A diamond facet is a
precisely cut and polished surface that reflects and refracts light, contributing to the diamond's brilliance and
sparkle. The width and angles of a diamond's facets significantly influence its value. The width of a facet can vary
significantly depending on the diamond's cut, shape, and size. The forensic chemist measured some facet widths at
0.00003 m while others were at 0.000025 m. Which is the greater measurement, and which is the smaller one? It is
hard to compare when presented this way, with a long string of zeros in decimal places.

Table 1.2: Standard Form vs. Scientific Notation

Measurement Standard Form Scientific Notation

Volume 40,000 mm3 4.0 × 10⁴ mm³
Mass 2.07 kg 2.07 × 10⁰ kg
Facet Width (small) 0.00003 m 3.0 × 10⁻⁵ m
Facet Width (smaller) 0.000025 m 2.5 × 10⁻5 m

Using scientific notation helps quickly identify the order of magnitude, making it easier to compare very large or
very small values without counting zeros.

<H1>Direct Instruction: The SI Units

The forensic chemist wanted to report the density of gold according to international standards. The International
System of Units, commonly abbreviated as SI (derived from its French name, Système International d'Unités ), is a
modern metric measurement system established in France in the late 18th century. It provides a standardized set of
units used worldwide to ensure consistency in measurements. In Figure 1.3, the SI is a metric system, which is
made up of seven base units:
 Kilogram (kg) is the unit for mass.
 Second (s) is the unit for time.
 Meter (m) is the unit for length.
 Kelvin (K) is the unit for temperature.
 Ampere (A) is the unit for electric current.
 Mole (mol) is the unit for the amount of substance.
 Candela (cd) is the unit for luminous intensity.

Figure 1.3: Base units of the SI

These seven base units are not the only units used to express physical quantities. For example, in addition to
kilograms, mass can also be measured in grams; likewise, time can be measured in seconds, minutes, hours, days,
weeks, years, or decades. How do you convert from one unit to another?
Figure 1.4: Decimal-based systems

Some SI units can be expressed as standard multiples or as fractional quantities in powers of 10, as shown in Figure
1.4. These units are called decimal-based systems and are named with prefix multipliers. For example, a thousandth
of a meter is a millimeter, written as 0.001 m.

For example, the chemist measured the mass of the metal in the bracelet as 40,000 mg and the volume as 2.07 cm 3.
Although both values are in SI units, they need to be converted into consistent SI base units—such as kilograms and
liters—to correctly calculate density using standard SI units.

To determine how many factors of 10 to use when converting between metric units, use Figure 1.4. Each step on the
ladder represents a factor of 10.

Moving down the ladder (e.g., kg → g), multiply by 10 for each step.
Moving up the ladder (e.g., cm → m), divide by 10 for each step.

To convert kilograms to grams, you need to multiply by 10 several times. You use multiplication because you go
down the ladder to smaller units.
kg → hg → dag → g = 3 steps down

7 kg = 7 × 10 hg = 7 × 10 × 10 dag = 7 × 10 × 10 × 10 g

7 kg = 7 × 1000 g = 7000 g

The conversion factor is 1000, which is expressed as 103.

To convert centimeters to meters, you need to go up the ladder to larger units.
Since SI units are based on powers of 10, you divide by 10 for every step up the scale.
1
In this case, 1 m=100 cm∨102 cm . So, 1 cm= 2
m.
10
For example, to convert 25 cm to meters:

25 cm = (25 ÷ 10) dm = (25 ÷ 10 ÷ 10) m = (25 ÷ 100) m

25 cm = (25 ÷ 100) m = (25 ÷ 102) m = 0.25 m

The conversion factor is always expressed as a multiplication factor. According to the rules of exponents, division
can be rewritten as multiplication by changing the sign of the exponent.

1
25 cm=(25 × )
2 m
10

1m
The conversion factor is 2
=1 .
10 cm

<H2>Progress Check 1
1. What are the SI units for area and volume?
2. What is the SI unit for density?

<H2> Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional analysis is a method used to convert between units where conversion factors are expressed as
fractions, allowing units to cancel out systematically.

Converting between different units is performed in the same way, but the conversion factor may not be powers of
10. For instance, when converting hours to minutes and then minutes to seconds, you multiply by 60 at each step
because there are 60 seconds in a minute and 60 minutes in an hour, as shown below.

60 min s s
1 h= ∙ 60 =3600 .
1hr min h

3600 s
Conversion factor (from hours to seconds) = .
1h
To convert from seconds to hours, the conversion factor is the reverse.
 1h
Conversion factor (from seconds to hours) =
3600 s
Using dimensional analysis:

(1) Convert 9 h to seconds

3600 s
Use the conversion factor of as follows:
1ℎ

3600 s
9h× =32,400 s .
1h
(2) Convert 7200 s to h
1h
Use the conversion factor of as follows:
3600 s

1h
7200 s × =2h .
3600 s
Some countries (the United States, Liberia, and Myanmar) use miles instead of kilometers to measure large
distances. The relationship between miles and kilometers is given by:
1 mi = 1.6 km
Using this, the conversion factor can be expressed as:
1.6 km 1 mi
, or its inverse,
1 mi 1.6 km
For example,
km
8.4 mi × 1.6 = 13.44 km
mi

<H2>Progress Check 2
1. What is the conversion factor between grams and kilograms? How would you convert 452 g into
units of kilograms?
2. A road trip covers a distance of 245 miles. Convert this distance to kilometers using dimensional
analysis. What conversion factor do you use?

<H1> Derived Units

You have probably noticed there are no units of volume in the seven base units of the SI. Volume is measured in
units of liters (L). How is a liter defined? While the SI base unit for volume is the cubic meter (m³), the liter (L),
equivalent to 1 dm³, is commonly used in practice. So, a liter is defined as a cubic decimeter. That is, a liter is the
volume occupied by a cube, as shown in Figure 1.5, measuring 1 dm × 1 dm × 1 dm. Therefore, 1 L = 1 dm3.
Figure 1.5: Volume of a cube

The seven base units serve as the foundation for defining derived units, which are created by combining these base
units through mathematical operations such as multiplication or division.
For instance, force (measured in Newtons, N) represents the push or pull acting on an object and is derived from the
relationship between mass, distance, and time. This is expressed as
1 N = 1 kg·m·s−²

where force combines mass (kg), length (m), and time (s).
Energy (Joule, J) is expressed as kg·m²·s−², representing work done or energy transferred.

You can also perform dimensional analysis with derived units. For example, you know that
1 N = 1 kg·m·s−²
But there is another unit for force called dyne, where
1 dyne = 1 g·cm·s−²
How do you convert from Newtons to dynes?

Negative exponents in derived units indicate that the corresponding unit is in the denominator when expressed as a
fraction. For example:

The unit of force, kg·m· s −2 , can also be written as (kg·m)/s².

Similarly, the unit of energy (Joule, J), expressed as kg·m ² · s −2, can be written as kg·m²/s², representing the
combination of mass, distance squared, and time squared in the denominator.

Kilograms to grams:
1 kg = 103 g

Meters to centimeters:
1 m = 102 cm

Now, substitute these into the equation for Newtons:

2 cm
10
m m cm
1 N=1 kg ∙ 2
=( 10 3 g ) ∙ 2
=105 g· 2
s s s
Thus,
1 N = 105 dynes
<H2>Progress Check 3
1. What would be the size of the cube that holds 1 mL?
2. Write an equation to show the relationship between milliliters and cubic centimeters.

<H1>Pathfinder: Creating a Density Column

Objective:
To investigate the density of liquids—syrup, water, and olive oil—by layering them in a graduated cylinder or
beaker to create a density column, and to compare the density of different solid objects based on their position
in the column.

Materials:
 graduated cylinder or beaker
 syrup (density: 1.2 g/cm3), water (density: 1.0 g/cm3), and olive oil (density: 0.9 g/cm 3)
 a small metal piece, a strawberry, and a piece of foam plastic
 lab notebook

Figure 1.6: Density of liquids

Lab safety procedure:

1. Handle water carefully to avoid spills and ensure all equipment stays dry.
2. Handle glassware carefully to prevent breakage.
3. Wash hands thoroughly after handling liquids and materials.

Procedure:
1. Mix the liquids in a graduated cylinder or a beaker. Let them sit for a few moments until they separate.
2. Gently place a small metal piece, a strawberry, and a piece of foam plastic into the column, ensuring they
do not disturb the layers, as shown in Figure 1.6.
3. Observe the results, then draw, and/or take pictures.
4. Report your results.
Discussion: In your lab report, answer the following questions:
 Why do the liquids separate in this specific order?
 What can you conclude about the density of the metal piece, strawberry, and foam plastic based on
their position in the density column?
 Convert the density of olive oil to kg·m−3 using the conversion factor (1 g/cm³ = 1000 kg/m³).
<H1> Lightbulb: Scientific Notation
Scientists often work with extremely small or large numbers, making direct comparison challenging. For instance, a
forensic chemist may measure facet widths as small as 0.000025 m. Counting multiple zeros can introduce errors
and slow down calculations. Similarly, astronomers deal with vast distances, such as the distance from Earth to the
Sun, which is 149,597,871 km, and from Earth to Jupiter, which is 714,000,000 km. Comparing these values
efficiently requires a standardized approach.
To understand the importance of scientific notation, consider the following table:

Table 1.3: Comparison of standard notation, scientific notation, and alternative units for various measurements

Measurement type Standard notation Scientific notation Alternative unit

Small distance (facet 0.000025 m 2.5 ×10 m
−5
25 µm
width)
Large distance (Earth 149,597,871 km 8 -
1.50 ×10 km
to the Sun)
Large distance (Earth 714,000,000 km 8 -
7.14 × 10 km
to Jupiter)
Mass of gold atom 0.000000000000000000000000000000325 g 3.25 × 10⁻31g -
Mass of carbon atom 0.00000000000000000000000000000001993 1.993 × 10⁻32 g -
g

Scientists, such as chemists and astronomers, face these types of questions all the time. For example, the mass of a
gold atom is 0.000000000000000000000325 g and that of a carbon atom is 0.00000000000000000000001993 g.
Which one is heavier? You would have to count the zeros, which can introduce significant human error. To avoid
this, scientists use scientific notation. Scientific notation expresses numbers as the product of a number with only
one integer and decimals as needed for significant figures times ten to a certain power. For example, the mass of an
atom of gold is 3.25 × 10−22. Note the negative power because the number is smaller than 1. In the same manner, the
mass of an atom of carbon is 1.993 × 10−23. Now, it is easy to see that carbon is much lighter, actually more than ten
times lighter because 1.993 × 10−23 is more than ten times smaller than 3.25 × 10−22. The mass of carbon is
− 23 − 22
1.993 ×10 . To see how much lighter carbon is compared to a mass of 3.25 ×10 , let us first understand
how scientific notation works. Scientific notation not only simplifies large or small numbers but also preserves the
correct number of significant figures, which is essential for maintaining precision in scientific calculations.

How to convert numbers to scientific notation:

 Adjust the decimal placement: Shift the decimal point in the number so that only one nonzero digit remains
to the left of it while keeping the necessary significant figures. Example: For 0.0001993, move the decimal
point 4 places to the right, resulting in 1.993.
 Determine the exponent: The number of places the decimal is shifted determines the exponent of base 10.
Moving the decimal to the right makes the exponent negative while moving it to the left makes the
exponent positive.
Example: Since the decimal was shifted 4 places to the right, the exponent is − 4 .
 Write in scientific notation: Combine the significant figure with 10 raised to the calculated exponent.
Example: 0.0001993 becomes 1.993 ×10− 4 .
 Using scientific notation makes it easy to compare numbers by focusing on the powers of ten. For example,
since 10− 23 is smaller than 10− 22 by a factor of 10, you can determine that 3.25 ×10− 22 is about 16 times
larger than 1.993 ×10− 23.

<H2>Progress Check 4
1. Use dimensional analysis to determine the Earth-to-Sun distance in meters.
2. The mass of Earth is about 59,722,000,000,000,000,000,000,00000 kg. Write this value in
scientific notation using three significant figures.
3. The mass of a single gold atom is approximately 0.000000000000000000000000327 kg. Write
this value in scientific notation using two significant figures.
<H1> Power Up
The Questioneer Icon
Reflect on the following prompts to think critically about the content and come up with meaningful questions for
inquiry about scientific notation and units.
 Different units can represent the same quantity.
 Unit conversions are essential for comparisons of measurements.
 Understanding significant figures is important when using scientific notation.

<H1>Lesson Check
1. Which of the following represents the correct conversion of 0.0035 kg into grams, expressed in scientific
notation?

A. 3.5 ×10 0 g

B. 3.5 ×102 g

C. 3.5 ×103 g
D. 3.5 ×10 4 g
2. Why is it important to use scientific notation when working with very large or very small numbers?

A. it reduces the number of calculations needed.

B. it simplifies the numbers for easier reading and accurate calculations.

C. it eliminates the need for consistent units.

D. it ensures every calculation is performed with complete precision.

3. A metal block has a mass of 250 g and a volume of 100 mL. Calculate the density of the metal in g/mL. Express
the density in kg/L and g/cm3.
4. Convert the value of 4500 km to scientific notation in meters, make sure to preserve significant figures in your
final answer.