Data and Computer

Communications
Chapter 2 – Protocol Architecture,
TCP/IP, and Internet-Based
Applications

1
Protocol Architecture, TCP/IP, and
Internet-Based Applications

n To destroy communication completely, there must

be no rules in common between transmitter and
receiver—neither of alphabet nor of syntax —On
Human Communication, Colin Cherry

2
 KEY POINTS
n A protocol architecture is the layered structure of hardware
and software that supports the exchange of data between
systems and supports distributed applications, such as
electronic mail and file transfer.
n At each layer of a protocol architecture, one or more common
protocols are implemented in communicating systems. Each
protocol provides a set of rules for the exchange of data
between systems.
n The most widely used protocol architecture is the TCP/IP
protocol suite, which consists of the following layers: physical,
network access,internet, transport, and application.
n Another important protocol architecture is the seven-layer
OSI model.

3
Overview

1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular

forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

4
Reference: Data Communications and Networking · Forouzan
Overview

3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.

4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a

message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.

5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an

agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may
be connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be
understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.

5
Reference: Data Communications and Networking · Forouzan
 Need For Protocol Architecture
• When computers, terminals, and/or other data processing
devices exchange data, the procedures involved can be
quite complex procedures, cf. file transfer example
• Typical tasks to be performed are as follow:
1. The source system must either activate the direct data communication
path or inform the communication network of the identity of the desired
destination system.
2. The source system must ascertain that the destination system is
prepared to receive data.
3. The file transfer application on the source system must ascertain
that the file management program on the destination system is
prepared to accept and store the file for this particular user.
4. If the file formats used on the two systems are different, one or the
other system must perform a format translation function.

6
Reference: Data Communications and Networking · Forouzan
Need For Protocol Architecture
n better if task broken into subtasks
n implemented separately in layers in stack
q each layer provides functions needed to perform
communications for layers above
q using functions provided by layers below

n peer layers communicate using a set of rules or

conventions known as a protocol.
n What is a protocol?

7
n Peer layers communicate by means of
formatted blocks of data that obey a set or
rules.
n Protocol is a set of rules or conventions used
for peer layers to communicate.

Key Elements of a Protocol

n syntax - data format
n semantics - control info & error handling
n timing - speed matching & sequencing

8
 Example: A single-layer protocol

• Communication is so simple that it can occur in only one layer. Assume Maria and Ann
are neighbours with a lot of common ideas. Communication between Maria and Ann
takes place in one layer, face to face, in the same language.

• Even in this simple scenario;

• A set of rules needs to be followed
1. Maria and Ann need to greet each other when they meet
2. Confine their vocabulary to the level of their friendship
3. Refrain from speaking when other party is speaking
4. Conversation need to dialog and not a monolog
5. At the end, the exchange of nice words

9
Reference: Data Communications and Networking · Forouzan
 TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
n TCP/IP (Transmission Control protocol/Internet
Protocol)
n developed by US Defense Advanced Research
Project Agency (DARPA)
n for ARPANET packet switched network
n protocol suite (a set of protocols organized in
different layers) used by the global Internet
n protocol suite comprises a large collection of
standardized protocols

10
 TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
n It is a hierarchical protocol made up of
interactive modules, each of which provides a
specific functionality.
n The term hierarchical means that each upper
level protocol is supported by the services
provided by one or more lower level protocols.
n The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined
as four software layers built upon the hardware.
Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-
layer model.

11
Simplified Network Architecture

12
TCP/IP Layers

n In general terms, communications can be

said to involve three agents: applications,
computers, and networks.
n no official model but a working one
q Application layer
q Host-to-host, or transport layer (TCP layer)
q Internet layer (Network Layer)
q Network access layer (OSI:Data link Layer)
q Physical layer

13
TCP/IP Layers

14
Reference: Data Communications and Networking · Forouzan
Physical Layer

n concerned with physical interface between

computer and network
n concerned with issues like:
q characteristics of transmission medium
q signal levels
q data rates
q other related matters

15
Network Access Layer

n exchange of data between an end system

and attached network
n concerned with issues like :
q destination address provision
q invoking specific services like priority
q access to & routing data across a network link
between two attached systems
n allows layers above to ignore link specifics

16
Internet Layer (IP)

n routing functions across multiple networks

n for systems attached to different networks
n using IP protocol
n implemented in end systems and routers
n routers connect two networks and relays data
between them

17
Transport Layer (TCP)

n common layer shared by all applications

n provides reliable delivery of data
n in same order as sent
n commonly uses TCP

18
Application Layer

n provide support for user applications

n need a separate module for each type of
application
n In brief, the application layer contains the
logic needed to support the various user
applications. For each different type of
application, such as file transfer, a separate
module is needed that is peculiar to that
application.
19
Operation of TCP and IP

20
• Indicates how these protocols are configured for communications.
• To make clear that the total communications facility may consist of
multiple networks, the constituent networks are usually referred to as
subnetworks. Some sort of network access protocol, such as the
Ethernet logic, is used to connect a computer to a subnetwork.
• This protocol enables the host to send data across the subnetwork to
another host or, if the target host is on another subnetwork, to a router
that will forward the data. IP is implemented in all of the end systems and
the routers.
• It acts as a relay to move a block of data from one host, through one or
more routers, to another host.
• TCP is implemented only in the end systems; it keeps track of the blocks
of data to assure that all are delivered reliably to the appropriate
application.

21
Addressing Requirements
n two levels of addressing required
n each host on a subnet needs a unique global
network address, this allows the data to be
delivered to the proper host.
q its IP address
n each application on a (multi-tasking) host
needs a unique address within the host. This
allows the host-to-host protocol (TCP) to
deliver data to the proper process.
q known as a port

22
Operation of TCP/IP

23
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

n usual transport layer is (TCP)

n provides a reliable connection for transfer of data
between applications
n a TCP segment is the basic protocol unit
n TCP tracks segments between entities for duration
of each connection

24
TCP Header

25
User Datagram Protocol
(UDP)
n an alternative to TCP
n no guaranteed delivery
n no preservation of sequence
n no protection against duplication
n minimum overhead
n adds port addressing to IP

26
UDP Header

27
IP Header

28
IPv6 Header

29
 TCP/IP Applications
n have a number of standard TCP/IP applications such as:
q Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
provides a basic electronic mail transport facility for transferring messages among
separate hosts. The SMTP protocol does not specify the way in which messages are to
be created; some local editing or native electronic mail facility is required. The target
SMTP module will store the incoming message in a user's mailbox.
q The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used to send files from one system to another
under user command. Both text and binary files are accommodated. FTP sets up a TCP
connection to the target system for the exchange of control messages. Once a file
transfer is approved, a second TCP data connection is set up for the data transfer,
without the overhead of any headers or control information at the application level.
When the transfer is complete, the control connection is used to signal the completion
and to accept new file transfer commands.
q TELNET provides a remote logon capability, which enables a user at a terminal or
personal computer to logon to a remote computer and function as if directly connected
to that computer. The protocol was designed to work with simple scroll-mode terminals.
Terminal traffic between User and Server TELNET is carried on a TCP connection.

30
Some TCP/IP Protocols

31
OSI

n Open Systems Interconnection

n developed by the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO)
n has seven layers
n is a theoretical system delivered too late!
n TCP/IP is the de facto standard

32
OSI Layers

33
Interaction between layers in the OSI model

34
Reference: Data Communications and Networking · Forouzan
OSI v TCP/IP

35
Reference: Prescribed Text & Data Communications and Networking · Forouzan
There are a number of reasons why the TCP/IP
architecture has come to dominate.
•Perhaps the most important is that the key TCP/IP
protocols were mature and well tested at a time when
similar OSI protocols were in the development stage.
When businesses began to recognize the need for
interoperability across networks, only TCP/IP was
available and ready to go.
•Another reason is that the OSI model is unnecessarily
complex, with seven layers to accomplish what TCP/IP
does with fewer layers. Figure illustrates the layers of
the TCP/IP and OSI architectures, showing roughly the
correspondence in functionality between the two.

36
Standardized Protocol Architectures

37
• The principal motivation for the development of the OSI model
was to provide a framework for standardization. Within the model,
one or more protocol standards can be developed at each layer. The
model defines in general terms the functions to be performed at that
layer and facilitates the standards-making process in two ways by
allowing standards to be developed independently and
simultaneously for each layer, and because changes in standards in
one layer need not affect already existing software in another layer.
• Figure illustrates the use of the OSI model as such a framework.
The overall communications function is decomposed into seven
distinct layers, making the interfaces between modules as simple as
possible. In addition, the design principle of information hiding is
used: Lower layers are concerned with greater levels of detail;
upper layers are independent of these details. Each layer provides
services to the next higher layer and implements a protocol to the
peer layer in other systems.

38
Layer Specific Standards

39
Figure shows more specifically the nature of the standardization
required at each layer. Three elements are key:
• Protocol specification: Two entities at the same layer in different
systems cooperate and interact by means of a protocol. Because two
different open systems are involved, the protocol must be specified
precisely. This includes the format of the protocol data units
exchanged, the semantics of all fields, and the allowable sequence of
PDUs.
• Service definition: In addition to the protocol or protocols that
operate at a given layer, standards are needed for the services that
each layer provides to the next higher layer. Typically, the definition
of services is equivalent to a functional description that defines what
services are provided, but not how the services are to be provided.
• Addressing: Each layer provides services to entities at the next
higher layer. These entities are referenced by means of a service
access point (SAP). Thus, a network service access point (NSAP)
indicates a transport entity that is a user of the network service.
40
Traditional vs Multimedia
Applications
n traditionally Internet dominated by info
retrieval applications
q typically using text and image transfer
q eg. email, file transfer, web
n see increasing growth in multimedia
applications
q involving massive amounts of data
q such as streaming audio and video

41
Elastic and Inelastic Traffic
n elastic traffic
q can adjust to delay & throughput changes over a
wide range
q eg. traditional “data” style TCP/IP traffic
q some applications more sensitive though
n inelastic traffic
q does not adapt to such changes
q eg. “real-time” voice & video traffic
q need minimum requirements on net architecture

42
Multimedia Technologies

43
Summary

n introduced need for protocol architecture

n TCP/IP protocol architecture
n OSI Model & protocol architecture
standardization
n traditional vs multimedia application needs

44