IGCSE Biology Unit 3 (b) Inheritance

3.14 Understand that the genome is the entire DNA of an organism and that a gene is a
section of a molecule of DNA that codes for a specific protein

DNA is the basis of inheritance in nearly all organisms.

The entirety of an organism’s DNA is known as its genome/gene.

➢ Genome/Gene is a small section of DNA that determines a particular feature.

➢ Genome/Gene determines features by instructing cells to produce particular
proteins.
OR
➢ Genome/Gene codes for a particular sequence of amino acids
➔ Different types of proteins

Genome/Gene is a section of DNA that codes for a particular protein.

Genes control our characteristics as they code for proteins that play important roles in
what our cells do.

Different types of proteins:

1. Structural proteins (Collagen; found in skin cells)

2. Enzymes (Amylase; digestion)
3. Hormones (Insulin; carbohydrate metabolism)

3.15 Understand that the nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes on which genes are
located

In the nucleus of a cell, the DNA double helix supercoils to form chromosomes.

➢ Chromosomes are only visible during cell division.

Ordinary human body cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 chromosomes)

➢ Diploid number (2n)

➢ One chromosome from a pair is inherited from each parent.
➢ Each chromosome pair is called a homologous pair. Homologous – Containing
Genes are found in specific locations on the chromosomes. similar information to another
chromosome
➢ Specific locations → Human genome project

Body cells → Cell → Chromosome → DNA

3.16B * (PAPER 2) * Describe a DNA molecule as two strands coiled to form a double
helix, the strands being linked by a series of paired bases: adenine (A) with thymine
(T), and cytosine (C) with guanine (G)

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), is the genetic material found in the nucleus of the cell.

DNA is a polymer made up of two strands of nucleotides coiled around to make a double
helix. (polynucleotide)

Each nucleotide contains:

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1. Sugar molecule (Deoxyribose) Sugar-phosphate backbone

2. Phosphate group
• Nitrogenous bases
• Adenine (A) Hydrogen bonds hold the pair
• Thymine (T) of bases together.
• Guanine (G)
• Cytosine (C)

The bases are bonded together by complementary base pairing:

• Adenine and thymine

• Guanine and cytosine

“Base-pairing rule” – Complementary bases always link or “bind” with each other and
never with any other base; and amounts of complementary bases are equal.

Cell division and protein synthesis both rely on these base-pairing rules because each half
of the DNA double helix acts as a template to be copied to create a completely new double
helix.

3.17B * (PAPER 2) * Understand that an RNA molecule is single stranded and contains
uracil (U) instead of thymine (T)

Like DNA, RNA is also polynucleotide.

RNA nucleotides contain the nitrogenous bases:

1. Adenine (A)
2. Guanine (G)
3. Cytosine (C)
4. Uracil (U)

RNA molecules are only made up of ONE polynucleotide strand (single-stranded).

Each RNA polynucleotide strand is made up of alternating ribose sugar and phosphate
groups linked together, with the nitrogenous bases of each nucleotide projecting out
sideways from the single-stranded RNA molecule.

Protein synthesis takes place in the cytoplasm. For proteins to be made, the genetic code
must be copied. This is carried out by the RNA.

Examples of RNA:

1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)

• A transcript copy of the DNA code.
• A long single-stranded molecule formed into a helix. It is manufactured in the
nucleus and carries the genetic code from DNA to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

2. Transfer RNA (tRNA)

• Involved in protein synthesis.
• Carries amino acids to the ribosomes to make the protein.

3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

• Forms part of a ribosome.
• Found in the cytoplasm and is a large, complex molecule made up of both double
and single helices. rRNA is made in the nucleolus inside the nucleus. Synthesis of
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new proteins in the cell occurs on ribosomes which are made up of both rRNA and
protein.

3.18B * (PAPER 2) * Describe the stages of protein synthesis including

transcription and translation, including the role of mRNA, ribosomes, tRNA,
codons and anticodons

The process of turning a gene into a specific sequence of amino acids is split into two
stages: (Transcription & Translation)

1. Transcription
• Happens in the nucleus.
• Produce a copy of a section of DNA in the form of a strand of mRNA.

Process of transcription

• Part of the DNA double helix unwinds.

• Two strands separate.
➢ Hydrogen bonds between the complementary base pairs break.

• Exposing the bases along the template strand.

• Free mRNA nucleotide (present in nucleus) bind to complementary nucleotides
on the template strand.
• The mRNA nucleotides are joined to neighboring nucleotides
➢ A single strand of mRNA is formed.

• The mRNA molecule leaves the nucleus via a pore in the nuclear envelope.

Transcription is a process in which DNA is transcribed, and an mRNA molecule is

produced.
The new strand of mRNA is a complementary copy of the DNA code from the
original gene.

2. Translation
• Happens in the ribosomes (cytoplasm).
• Converting the code in the mRNA into a protein.
➢ The code consists of three bases (AUG, CCG, ACA) → codons
• Produce a chain of amino acids to form a protein.

Process of translation:

• After leaving the nucleus, the mRNA molecule attaches to a ribosome.

• Free tRNA has an anticodon at one end and an amino acid at the other end.
➢ An anticodon is complementary to a particular codon on the mRNA.
➢ At the other end, there is a site where an amino acid can be attached.
• The anticodon on each tRNA molecule pairs with a codon on the mRNA molecule,
bringing its specific amino acid along with it.
• A second tRNA molecule attaches to its complementary codon, and a peptide
bond is formed between the two neighboring amino acids.
• This process continues until a “stop codon” on the mRNA molecule is reached.
 IGCSE Biology Unit 3 (b) Inheritance

➢ This acts as a signal for translation to stop.

➢ At this point, the amino acid chain coded by the mRNA molecule is complete.
• The amino acid chain is then folded and modified to form the final protein
molecule.

Translation is the process in which mRNA is translated, and a protein is produced.

The interaction between mRNA and tRNA is the basis of translation.
❖ Protein synthesis is a very energy-demanding process and uses a lot of ATP.

3.19 Understand how genes exist in alternative forms called alleles which give rise
to differences in inherited characteristics

Genes are a small section/short length of DNA found in chromosomes that code for a
particular characteristic.

Genes control the production of proteins in a cell.

➢ Each protein contributes towards a particular body feature.

Alleles are variation of the same gene.

• As we have two copies of each chromosome, we have two copies of gene and two
alleles for each gene. (One from mother and one from father)
• Alleles are NOT coded for the same thing.

Having alleles give rise to differences in inherited characteristics and variation within
species.

Homologous chromosomes carry genes for the same feature in the same sequence, but
the alleles of genes MAY NOT be the same. (DNA of two chromosomes are NOT identical)

3.20 Understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous,

heterozygous, phenotype, and genotype

1. Phenotype
• The observable characteristics of an organism.

2. Genotype
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• The combination of alleles that control each characteristic.

3. Dominant allele
• A dominant allele only needs to be inherited from ONE parent for the characteristic
to show up in the phenotype.

4. Recessive allele
• A recessive allele needs to be inherited from BOTH parents for the characteristics to
show up in the phenotype.

5. Homozygous
• The two alleles of a gene are the same.

6. Heterozygous
• The two alleles of a gene are different.

3.21B * (PAPER 2) * Understand the meaning of the term codominance

“Codominance” – Both alleles are expressed in the same phenotype.

3.22 Understand that most phenotypic features are the result of polygenic inheritance
rather tha single genes

3.23 Describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagram

3.24 Understand how to interpret family pedigrees

3.25 Predict probabilities of outcomes from monohybrid crosses

Refer to Note.

3.26 Understand how the sex of a person is controlled by one pair of chromosomes, XX
in a female and XY in a male

Sex is determined by an entire chromosome pair.

➢ Females (sex chromosomes XX)

➢ Males (sex chromosomes XY)

Sex is determined by the two sex chromosomes, X and Y.

Sex is determined by the presence or absence of the Y chromosome.

It is male who determines the sex of offspring.

➢ The mother can only pass on X chromosome.

➢ The father can either pass on X or Y chromosomes.

Offspring can inherit:

X from mother and X from father → Female offspring

X from mother and Y from father → Male offspring

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3.27 Describe the determination of the sex of offspring at fertilization, using a genetic
diagram

Refer to Note.

3.28 Understand how division of a diploid cell by mitosis produces two cells that
contain identical sets of chromosomes

“Mitosis” – Nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells.

Mitosis produces two daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell.

Most of our human body cells (except for gametes) are diploid – Two copies of each
chromosome in 23 homologous pairs.

When cells divide, their chromosomes double beforehand.

➢ This ensures that when the cell splits in two, each new cell is still diploid.
➢ This involves DNA replication and more proteins being added to the structure.

Process of mitosis:

Before mitosis, each chromosome in the nucleus copies itself exactly.

Chromosomes line up along the centre of the cell where cell fibres pull them apart.

The cell divides into two; each new cell has a copy of each of the chromosomes.

3.29 Understand that mitosis occurs during growth, repair, cloning and asexual
reproduction

All the cells in our body are formed by mitosis from the zygote.

➢ All the cells contain copies of all the chromosomes and genes of that zygote.
➢ All the cells are genetically identical.

Mitosis is used for:

Importance of mitosis:
✓ Growth (Produce new cells)
• Replacing cells
✓ Repair of damaged cells
• Allowing growth
✓ Replacement of cells
✓ Asexual reproduction (Mitosis produces offspring)

3.30 Understand how division of a cell by meiosis produces four cells, each with half
the number of chromosomes, and that this results in the formation of genetically
different haploid gametes

“Meiosis” – Nuclear division that gives rise to cells that are genetically different.

Meiosis forms gametes and produces four haploid cells.

➢ Each daughter cell is genetically different from the other three and from the parent
cell.

During meiosis, the number of chromosomes must be halved to form the new cells
(gametes).
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➢ It is haploid – having half the original number of chromosomes.

Process of meiosis:

• Before meiosis, each chromosome in the nucleus copies itself exactly.

• Chromosomes line up along the centre of the cell.
• Cells divide twice so that only ONE copy of each chromosome passes to each
gamete.

There are two stages in meiosis: (Meiosis I and Meiosis II)

• Meiosis I
➢ One chromosome from each homologous pair goes into each daughter cell.

• Meiosis II
➢ The chromosome separates into two parts.
➢ One part goes into each daughter cell.

❖ A total of four haploid daughter cells (gametes) will be produced.

❖ There is genetic variation in the cells as it doesn’t have all the same combinations
of alleles.

Importance of meiosis:

• Production of gametes.
• Increasing genetic variation of offspring.

Comparison of mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
Chromosomes are divided before cell division Chromosomes are divided before cell division
ONE cell division TWO cell division
TWO daughter cells produced FOUR daughter cells produced
DIPLOID daughter cell HAPLOID daughter cell
Genetic variation ✘ Genetic variation ✔

3.31 Understand how random fertilization produces genetic variation of offspring

Offspring from sexual reproduction varies genetically.

➢ Meiosis creates genetic variation between the gametes produced by an individual.

➢ The random fusion of gametes at fertilization creates genetic variation between
zygotes.

This means that each gamete carries substantially different alleles.

Genetic variations include:

1. Blood group
2. Eye colour
3. Gender
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4. Ability to roll tongue

5. Whether eye lobes are free or fixed

3.32 Know that in human cells the diploid number of chromosomes is 46 and the
haploid number is 23

Haploid cell Diploid cell

One set of chromosomes Two sets of chromosomes
23 chromosomes 46 chromosomes
Found in gametes Found in nearly all cells
Involved in sexual reproduction Involved in protein synthesis and cell
function
Half the DNA of diploids DNA

3.33 Understand that variation within a species can be genetic, environmental, or a

combination of both

“Variation” – Differences between individual of the same species.

Variation can be caused by

1. Differences in genes (random fertilization by gametes)

2. Environmental factors
3. Combination of both

Environmental factors

• Climate
• Diet (eating too much → weight gain)
• Accidents (scarring)
• Culture (being raised in a certain country → speak a certain language & a certain
accent)
• Lifestyle

Genetic and environmental causes

➢ Discontinuous variation
➢ Caused by genetic variation only.

➢ Continuous features
➢ Combination of genetic variation and environmental factors.

Examples

➢ Tall parents will pass genes on to their children for height

➢ Children will have the genetic potential to be tall.
➢ Poor diet
➢ Grow poorly

3.34 Understand that mutation is rare, random change in genetic material that can be
inherited
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“Mutation” – A change in the DNA of the cell.

➢ Changes are rare and random.

➢ This occurs in the sequence of DNA bases in a gene or a chromosome.

Mutation can be inherited and occur continuously.

As the DNA base sequence determines the sequence of amino acids that make up a protein,
mutations in a gene can sometimes lead to a change in the protein that the gene codes for:

➢ Most mutations do not alter the protein or only after it slightly.

➢ Appearance or function remains unchanged.

3.35B * (PAPER 2) * Understand how a change in DNA can affect the phenotype by
altering the sequence of amino acids in a protein

A change in DNA can affect the phenotype (observable characteristics) of an individual by

altering the sequence of amino acids in a protein.

(Sometimes, when DNA is replicating, mistakes are made and the wrong nucleotide is
used.)

Several ways where gene mutations can occur:

1. Insertion
• A new base is randomly inserted into the DNA sequence.
➢ An insertion mutation changes the amino acids.
➢ This has a knock-on effect by changing the groups of three bases further on in
the DNA sequence.

2. Deletion
• A base is randomly deleted from the DNA sequence.
➢ A deletion mutation changes the amino acids.
➢ This has a knock-on effect by changing the groups of three bases further on in
the DNA sequence.

3. Substitution
• A base is randomly swapped for a different base in the DNA sequence.
➢ A substitution mutation only changes the amino acid for the group of three bases.

3.36B * (PAPER 2)* Understand how most genetic mutations have no effect on the
phenotype, some have a small effect and rarely do they have a significant effect

3.37B * (PAPER 2)* Understand that the incidence of mutations can be increased by
exposure to ionizing radiation (for example, gamma rays, x-rays and ultraviolet rays)
and some chemical mutagens (for example, chemicals in tobacco)

3.38 Explain Darwin’s theorh of evolution by natural selection

3.39 Understand how resistance to antibiotics can increase in bacterial populations,

and appreciate how such an increase can lead to infections being difficult to control

Refer to note.