List of Members of Expert Committee as per Committee Constituted.

Sl. No. Name Designation

1. Prof. A.K. Gosain, Ph.D. Chairman
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
2. Shri R. Sethuraman Member
Ex-Joint Adviser (PHEE), CPHEEO
3. Prof.Kapil Gupta, Ph.D. (Sheffield, U.K.) Member
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
4. Prof. Arup Kumar Sharma Member
Professor & Head, Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
5. Prof. Deepak Kashyap Member
Professor & Head, Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
6. Shri S.V.R. Srinivas I.A.S Member
AMC (ES), Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai
7. Shri Bigyan Kumar Beuria Member
Asst. Engineer, Drainage Division, Puri Sub Division
8. Shri Bharat.I.Dalal Member
Additional City Engineer(Civil),Surat Municipal Corporation
9. Shri K.C.Umesh Member
Executive Engineer, Storm Water Drainage,
Bruhut Bangalore Mahanagara Palike
10. Shri P. Rajendran Member
Executive Engineer, Storm Water Drain Department
Corporation of Chennai
11. Shri Nilangsu Bhusan Basu Member
Principal Chief Engineer(Civil) Planning & Development
Department, Kolkata
12. Dr. Pradeep Kumar Khandelwal Member
Chief Engineer ,East Delhi Municipal Corporation.
13. Shri S. K. Jain Member
Executive Engineer, Kanpur Road, Lucknow.
14. Shri Repang Longkumer Member
Sl. No. Name Designation
S.E. (M&I) O/O Chief Engineer (PHED), Kohima
15. Shri M.Raghuram Member
Director,Hydrology (DSR) Directorate,
Cental Water Commission
16. Dr. M. Dhinadhayalan, Member
Joint Adviser (PHEE), CPHEEO,
Ministry of Urban Development
17. Shri J.B.Ravinder , Member
Deputy Adviser (PHE), CPHEEO, Ministry of Urban Development
18. Shri Chandrani B.Neogi Member
National Institute of Disaster Management
19. Dr. Susanta Kumar Jena Member
Senior Research Officer
National Disaster Management Authority
20. Prof.R V Patil, Deputy Director, Member
Indian Road Congress (IRC) , New Delhi
21. Dr. Rakesh Kumar Member
Scientist ‘G’ & Head ,Surface Water Hydrology Division
National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee
22. Dr. Surinder Kaur Member
Deputy Director General of Meteorology (H)
O/O Director General of Meteorology
23. Shri Anik Roychowdhury Member
Chief Engineer (Retd.), KMW&SA
24. Shri V.K. Chaurasia, Member
Joint Adviser (PHEE), CPHEEO Secretary
Ministry of Urban Development
25. Dr. Ramakant Member
Assistant Adviser (PHE), CPHEEO Coordinator
Ministry of Urban Development
Part A: Engineering Design

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................. i
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... xi
LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................. xiv
GLOSSARY ........................................................................................................... xvii
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATION........................................................................ xxiv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 1
1.1 General ............................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Status of Urban Drainage System in India ........................................................ 2
1.3 Causes of urban flooding .................................................................................. 3
1.4 Need for Storm Water Drainage Manual ........................................................... 4
1.5 Scope of Manual ............................................................................................... 4
1.6 Use of Manual ................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER 2: PROJECT PLANNING AND INVESTIGATION ................................... 7
2.1 General ............................................................................................................. 7
2.2 Objectives of Planning & Investigation .............................................................. 7
2.3 Data Collection, Survey and Investigation ........................................................ 8
2.3.1 Data Collection........................................................................................... 9
2.3.2 Survey and Investigation .......................................................................... 11
2.4 Planning of Storm Water Drainage Systems................................................... 12
2.4.1 Demarcation of Catchment and Planning Areas ...................................... 12
2.4.2 Hydraulic Design of Storm Water Drainage Systems............................... 13
2.4.2.1 Inlet locations .................................................................................... 13
2.4.2.2 Manholes (MHs) and its locations ..................................................... 14
2.4.2.3 Pumping of storm runoff .................................................................... 14
2.4.2.4 Outfall Structures............................................................................... 15
2.5 Other Considerations ...................................................................................... 15
2.5.1 Permissions and Clearances ................................................................... 15
2.5.2 Environmental Consideration .................................................................. 15
2.6 Financing ........................................................................................................ 16
2.7 Operation & Maintenance ............................................................................... 17
2.8 Citizen Awareness .......................................................................................... 18
2.9 Institutional Arrangement and Capacity Building ............................................ 18

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Part A: Engineering Design

2.10 Service Level Benchmark ............................................................................... 18

2.11 Incorporation of storm water drainage indices in the hydraulic design of storm
water drains and its O & M.............................................................................. 18
2.12 City Drainage Master Plan .............................................................................. 19
2.13 Preparation of Reports .................................................................................... 20
2.13.1 Preparation of DPR .................................................................................. 20
2.13.1.1 Executive Summary .......................................................................... 20
2.13.1.2 Introduction ....................................................................................... 20
2.13.1.3 Project Planning Area ........................................................................ 21
2.13.1.4 Existing situation ............................................................................... 21
2.13.1.5 Proposed Project and detailed design ............................................... 21
2.13.1.6 Environmental Impact Assessment ................................................... 22
2.13.1.7 Cost Estimation ................................................................................. 22
2.13.1.8 Implementation Schedule .................................................................. 23
2.13.1.9 Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................. 23
2.13.1.10 Checklist for DPR preparation ........................................................ 23
CHAPTER 3: RAINFALL ANALYSIS ...................................................................... 24
3.1 General ........................................................................................................... 24
3.2 Rainfall ............................................................................................................ 24
3.2.1 Measurement of Rainfall .......................................................................... 24
3.2.1.1 Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge...................................................... 25
3.2.1.2 Weighing Bucket Type Rain Gauge .................................................. 25
3.2.1.3 Floating or Natural Syphon Type Rain Gauge ................................... 26
3.3 Rain Gauge Density ........................................................................................ 27
3.4 Rainfall Analysis ............................................................................................. 27
3.4.1 Steps for Analysis of Rainfall ................................................................... 28
3.4.2 Other Method of Rainfall Analysis ............................................................ 38
3.5 Probabilistic Method........................................................................................ 40
3.5.1 Normal Distribution and Log Normal Distribution ..................................... 40
3.5.2 Gumbel Extreme Value Distribution ......................................................... 40
3.5.2.1 Construction of IDF curve by Gumbel Distribution method ................ 41
3.5.3 Log Pearson Type III Distribution ............................................................. 43
3.5.3.1 Construction of IDF curve by Log Pearson type III method ............... 46
3.6 Translation of IDF curve into rainfall hyetograph ............................................ 47

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Part A: Engineering Design

CHAPTER 4: RUNOFF ESTIMATION ..................................................................... 49

4.1 General ........................................................................................................... 49
4.2 Storm Runoff ................................................................................................... 49
4.3 Factors affecting runoff ................................................................................... 50
4.4 Methods of Runoff Estimation ......................................................................... 50
4.4.1 Rational Method ....................................................................................... 50
4.4.1.1 Steps of computation for Rational Method ........................................ 50
4.4.1.2 Design flow ........................................................................................ 51
4.4.1.3 Procedure for estimation of runoff ..................................................... 51
4.4.1.4 Design Return Period ........................................................................ 52
4.4.1.5 Runoff Coefficient .............................................................................. 53
4.4.1.6 Time of Concentration in storm drainage system (tc) ........................ 54
4.4.1.6.1 Time of surface flow (t0) ................................................................. 54
4.4.1.6.2 Time of flow (tf) .............................................................................. 55
4.4.1.7 Partial Area Effect ............................................................................. 55
4.4.2 Time Area Method ................................................................................... 57
4.4.2.1 Travel Time ....................................................................................... 57
4.4.3 Unit Hydrograph Method .......................................................................... 59
4.4.3.1 Limitations of Unit Hydrograph .......................................................... 60
4.4.4 Rainfall- runoff process simulation ........................................................... 60
4.4.4.1 Kinematic Wave Equation ................................................................. 60
4.4.4.2 Non Linear reservoir method ............................................................. 62
4.5 Climate Change effects on Urban Storm Runoff ............................................. 63
CHAPTER 5: HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF STORM WATER DRAINS ...................... 65
5.1 General ........................................................................................................... 65
5.2 Storm water flows in Channels and Conduits ................................................. 65
5.3 Design consideration for storm water drains ................................................... 69
5.3.1 Permissible limit of Velocity ..................................................................... 69
5.3.2 Freeboard in open channel ...................................................................... 70
5.3.3 Curves/bends in drains ............................................................................ 71
5.3.4 Junction Sump for storm water drain intersection .................................... 71
5.3.5 Hydraulically Efficient Channel Section.................................................... 71
5.3.6 Partially Filled Circular Section ................................................................ 74
5.4 Design Sheet .................................................................................................. 77

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Part A: Engineering Design

5.5 Gutters and Inlets............................................................................................ 82

5.5.1 Gutter ....................................................................................................... 82
5.5.2 Design of Gutters ..................................................................................... 82
5.5.3 Composite Gutter Sections ...................................................................... 84
5.6 Storm water inlets ........................................................................................... 86
5.6.1 Types of inlets .......................................................................................... 86
5.6.2 Design of Inlets ........................................................................................ 88
5.6.3 Location of inlets ...................................................................................... 89
5.7 Gradually Varied Non-uniform Flow ................................................................ 91
5.7.1 Basic equation for gradually varied flow................................................... 92
5.7.2 Method of solution of the gradually varied flow equation ......................... 92
5.7.2.1 Direct Step Method............................................................................ 92
5.7.2.2 Standard Step Method ...................................................................... 96
5.8 Rapidly Varied Non – Uniform Flow ................................................................ 96
5.8.1 Energy Dissipation ................................................................................... 97
5.8.2.1 Stepped Channel............................................................................... 97
5.8.2.2 Chute................................................................................................. 97
5.8.2.3 Aprons ............................................................................................... 98
5.8.2.4 Afflux ................................................................................................. 98
5.8.2.5 Loss of Energy in Hydraulic Jump ..................................................... 98
5.9 Hydraulic routing ........................................................................................... 100
5.10 Engineered Channels ................................................................................... 102
5.10.1 Curvature and Super Elevation .............................................................. 103
5.10.2 Freeboard .............................................................................................. 103
5.10.3 Modification of Natural Channels ........................................................... 103
CHAPTER – 6: DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR SPECIAL AREAS ................ 105
6.1 General ......................................................................................................... 105
6.2 Hilly Terrain ................................................................................................... 105
6.2.1 Impact of Erosion and Sedimentation on performance of storm water
drains 105
6.2.2 Additional Design considerations for drainage systems ......................... 105
6.2.3 Temporary erosion and sedimentation control practices ........................ 107
6.3 Coastal Terrain ............................................................................................. 115
6.3.1 Design Considerations for storm water drainage in Coastal Areas ....... 115

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Part A: Engineering Design

6.3.2 Storm outfalls in coastal towns/cities ..................................................... 116

6.3.3 Sea levels in different conditions ........................................................... 116
6.3.4 Global trend in sea level variation ......................................................... 118
6.3.5 Regional trend in sea level variation ...................................................... 119
6.3.6 Design considerations for tidal outfall in ocean and bays ...................... 119
6.3.7 Design consideration for outfall in tidal rivers and streams ................... 119
6.3.8 Design tail water level for non-tidal storm outlets .................................. 120
6.3.9 Outfall Structure ..................................................................................... 120
6.3.10 Backflow control Systems ...................................................................... 121
6.3.10.1 Flap Gates and Flood Gates ........................................................... 121
6.4 River bank protection .................................................................................... 122
CHAPTER 7: STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF BURIED STORM WATER CONDUITS
...................................................................................................................... 123
7.1 General ......................................................................................................... 123
7.2 Type of Buried Pipes..................................................................................... 123
7.2.1 Design of buried rigid pipe ..................................................................... 123
7.2.2 Design method of buried flexible pipe .................................................... 123
7.2.2.1 Deflection in flexible pipe ................................................................. 123
7.2.2.2 Buckling Pressure ........................................................................... 129
CHAPTER – 8: STORM WATER PUMPING ......................................................... 133
8.1 General ......................................................................................................... 133
8.2 Planning of Pumping Station ......................................................................... 133
8.2.1 Location of the Pumping Point ............................................................... 134
8.2.2 Pump sump ............................................................................................ 134
8.2.3 Storage Reservoir .................................................................................. 134
8.2.4 Power Source ........................................................................................ 134
8.2.5 Electrical & Mechanical Equipment ........................................................ 134
8.2.6 Access to site ......................................................................................... 135
8.2.7 Aesthetics of pumping station ................................................................ 136
8.2.8 Environmental Quality ............................................................................ 136
8.2.8.1 Air Quality ........................................................................................ 136
8.2.8.2 Noise ............................................................................................... 136
8.3 Design of Pumping Station ........................................................................... 136
8.3.1 Type of pump stations............................................................................ 136

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Part A: Engineering Design

8.3.1.1 Wet pit pump station........................................................................ 137

8.3.1.2 Dry pit pump station ........................................................................ 137
8.3.1.3 Trash Screens ................................................................................. 138
8.3.2 Choice of Pump Type ............................................................................ 139
8.3.3 Design of wet pit .................................................................................... 139
8.3.4 Design Capacity of storage tank ............................................................ 140
8.3.5 Pump Characteristic Curves .................................................................. 141
8.3.5.1 System Curve .................................................................................. 141
8.3.5.2 Pump curve ..................................................................................... 142
8.3.6 Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHr) ....................................... 142
8.3.6.1 Vapour Pressure and Cavitation...................................................... 144
8.3.6.2 Calculating Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHa) ............. 144
8.3.6.3 Guidelines on NPSHr ...................................................................... 145
8.3.7 Electrical Motors (prime mover) ............................................................. 145
8.3.7.1 Motor Rating .................................................................................... 145
8.3.7.2 Voltage rating .................................................................................. 146
8.3.8 Transformer Substation ......................................................................... 147
8.3.8.1 Transformer Rating ......................................................................... 147
8.3.8.2 Improvement of Power Factor ......................................................... 148
8.3.8.3 Lighting ............................................................................................ 148
8.3.8.4 Ventilation ....................................................................................... 149
8.3.9 Pumping main ........................................................................................ 149
8.3.9.1 Friction flow formula to size Pumping Mains ................................... 150
8.4 Flow Measurement ....................................................................................... 152
8.4.1 Measurement of flow in open Channels ................................................. 152
8.4.1.1 Rectangular Notches ....................................................................... 152
8.4.2 Measurement of flow in Closed Conduits............................................... 153
8.4.2.1 Differential Pressure Devices .......................................................... 153
8.4.2.1.1 Venturi Meters .............................................................................. 154
8.5 Storm water Storage Pond/Basins ................................................................ 155
8.5.1 Detention ponds/Basin ........................................................................... 155
8.5.2 Retention ponds/Basin ........................................................................... 155
8.5.2.1 Site Selection .................................................................................. 155
8.5.2.2 Adequacy of the site size ................................................................ 155

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Part A: Engineering Design

8.5.2.3 Topographic consideration .............................................................. 155

8.5.2.4 Access to the site ............................................................................ 156
8.5.3 Design of storm water Storage Pond/Basin ........................................... 156
8.5.4 Optimization of Detention Tank/ Basin Capacity .................................... 156
8.5.5 Basin outlet ............................................................................................ 157
CHAPTER 9: INTEGRATION OF RAINWATER HARVESTING IN STORM WATER
DRAINAGE DESIGN .................................................................................... 158
9.1 General ......................................................................................................... 158
9.2 Integration of rainwater harvesting & recharge systems with storm water
drainage design ............................................................................................ 158
9.3 Rainwater harvesting techniques .................................................................. 158
9.3.1 In-situ storage / percolation .................................................................... 158
9.3.1.1 Roof top rainwater collection potential............................................. 159
9.3.1.2 Percolation of runoff into ground ..................................................... 163
9.3.1.2.1 Percolation pits ............................................................................ 163
9.3.1.2.2 Percolation trenches .................................................................... 164
9.3.1.2.3 Recharge wells ............................................................................ 165
9.3.2 Storage of runoff in nearby percolation pond / water tank ...................... 165
9.3.3 Percolation of storm water inside/outside the drains along its stretch .... 166
9.3.4 Spreading water for recharge in low lying areas and park/gardens etc. . 166
9.3.5 Disposal to water body........................................................................... 167
9.4 Precaution to be considered for harvesting of storm water ........................... 167
9.5 Pollution of Storm Water and its Treatment .................................................. 167
9.5.1 Targeted Pollutants ................................................................................ 169
9.5.2 Treatment methods for urban storm runoff ............................................ 170
9.5.2.1 Sand Filters ..................................................................................... 170
9.5.2.2 Water Quality Inlets ......................................................................... 172
9.5.2.3 Filter Strips ...................................................................................... 173
CHAPTER 10: INNOVATIVE STORM WATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES .... 174
10.1 General ......................................................................................................... 174
10.2 Innovative Storm Water Management Practices ........................................... 174
10.2.1 Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) ................................................. 174
10.2.1.1 Objective of WSUD ......................................................................... 175
10.2.1.2 Integration of WSUD in Urban planning and Implementation .......... 176
10.2.2 Low Impact Development Design .......................................................... 183
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Part A: Engineering Design

10.2.2.1 Objectives of Low Impact Development .......................................... 186

10.2.2.2 Approach for Planning & Implementation of LID.............................. 186
10.2.3 Sustainable Drainage System (SuDS) ................................................... 189
10.2.3.1 Objective of SuDS ........................................................................... 190
10.2.3.2 Steps for Design & Implementation of SuDS ................................... 190
10.2.3.3 Benefits of SuDS ............................................................................. 193
10.2.4 Storm water Management and Road Tunnel (SMART tunnel) ............... 193
10.2.5 Decentralized Innovative intervention in storm water drainage designs. 193
CHAPTER 11: CONSTRUCTION OF STORM WATER DRAINS ......................... 201
11.1 General ......................................................................................................... 201
11.2 Implementation of the project ........................................................................ 201
11.2.1 Pre-construction stage ........................................................................... 201
11.2.2 Construction stage ................................................................................. 202
11.3 Construction of Storm water conduits ........................................................... 202
11.3.1 Removal of pavement ............................................................................ 203
11.3.2 Trench Preparation ................................................................................ 203
11.3.2.1 Dimensions...................................................................................... 203
11.3.2.2 Excavation ....................................................................................... 203
11.3.2.3 Shoring/Mild steel sheet piling ......................................................... 204
11.3.2.4 Underground services ..................................................................... 204
11.3.2.5 Dewatering ...................................................................................... 204
11.3.2.6 Floatation of Flexible pipe ............................................................... 204
11.3.3 Pipe Bedding for rigid pipes ................................................................... 205
11.3.3.1 Type of Bedding .............................................................................. 205
11.3.3.2 Classes of Bedding for Trench Conditions ...................................... 206
11.3.4 Bedding of Flexible pipe ......................................................................... 208
11.3.5 Laying of Rigid Storm water conduit ...................................................... 208
11.3.6 Laying and Jointing of Flexible pipe ....................................................... 209
11.3.6.1 Laying .............................................................................................. 209
11.3.6.1.1 For shallow trenches .................................................................. 209
11.3.6.1.2 Deep trenches with shoring/mild steel sheet Piling ..................... 209
11.3.6.2 Jointing ............................................................................................ 209
11.3.6.2.1 Jointing different pipe types or sizes ........................................... 210
11.3.6.3 Manholes and Catch Pit Connections ............................................. 210

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Part A: Engineering Design

11.3.6.4 Conduit Connections ....................................................................... 210

11.3.6.5 Type of pipe material and jointing of storm conduits (rigid pipe)...... 210
11.3.6.5.1 Reinforced Cement Concrete Pipes (R.C.C Pipes) .................... 210
11.3.6.5.2 Cast –In Situ Reinforced Concrete Pipes ................................... 211
11.3.6.6 Type of pipe material and jointing of storm conduits of Flexible pipe
211
11.3.6.6.1 HDPE Pipes................................................................................ 211
11.3.6.6.2 UPVC Pipes................................................................................ 211
11.3.6.6.3 Glass fiber reinforced plastic pipes (GRP PIPES) ...................... 212
11.3.6.6.4 Structured Wall PE pipe ............................................................. 212
11.3.6.7 Backfilling of the Trenches of Rigid pipes ........................................ 212
11.3.6.8 Construction of Backfill Envelope and Backfilling of the Trenches of
Flexible pipe..................................................................................................... 213
11.3.6.9 Removal of sheeting or bracing ....................................................... 213
11.3.7 Storm water conduit appurtenant Structures .......................................... 213
11.3.7.1 Manhole .......................................................................................... 214
11.3.7.2 Construction of Manholes ................................................................ 214
11.3.7.3 Location of Manholes ...................................................................... 215
11.3.7.4 Spacing of Manholes ....................................................................... 215
11.3.7.5 Drop-in Manhole .............................................................................. 216
11.3.7.6 Shape and Size of the Manhole ...................................................... 216
11.3.7.7 Cover and Frame of Manhole .......................................................... 219
11.3.7.8 Access Steps in Manhole ................................................................ 220
11.3.7.9 Intermediate Platform ...................................................................... 220
11.3.7.10 Inverts and benching .................................................................... 220
11.3.7.11 Outfall Structure ........................................................................... 221
11.3.7.12 Inverted Syphon ........................................................................... 221
11.3.7.13 Over Flow Device ......................................................................... 222
11.3.7.14 Multi-Functional storm and Sewer Drains .................................... 223
11.4 Storm water Open Channel .......................................................................... 224
11.4.1 Construction of Storm Water Drains ...................................................... 224
11.4.1.1 RCC drains ...................................................................................... 224
11.4.1.2 Brick Drains ..................................................................................... 224
11.4.1.3 Rectangular Section ........................................................................ 225
11.4.1.4 Trapezoidal section ......................................................................... 225
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Part A: Engineering Design

11.4.2 Kerb and Gutter ..................................................................................... 225

11.4.3 Construction Procedures of Storm Water Drains ................................... 225
11.4.4 Covering of Drains ................................................................................. 226
11.4.5 Box Drains ............................................................................................. 226
11.5 Drainage standards of Flyovers .................................................................... 227
11.5.1 Drainage at Foot of Flyovers .................................................................. 227
11.6 Vehicular Subways ....................................................................................... 227
11.7 Culverts......................................................................................................... 228
11.8 Safety and Social Safeguard ........................................................................ 228
11.9 Completion of Works..................................................................................... 229
11.10 Procedures for Handing Over ....................................................................... 229
11.10.1 Procedure for handing Over in Dry Conditions ...................................... 230
11.10.2 Handing over Drainage Records ............................................................ 230
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 232
APPENDICES………………………………………………………………..…A-1 to A-92

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Part A: Engineering Design

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Performance Indicator .............................................................................. 18

Table 2. 2 Parameters / Indicators ........................................................................... 19
Table 3.1: Storm of intensities corresponding to duration ........................................ 29
Table 3. 2: Sorted storms against intensity and duration.......................................... 30
Table 3. 3: Sorted storms against intensity and duration.......................................... 31
Table 3. 4: Number of storms after horizontal addition ............................................. 32
Table 3. 5: Number of storms after vertical addition ................................................. 33
Table 3. 6: Stepped line for number of storms for 5 year storm return period .......... 34
Table 3. 7: Intensity Duration for Storm of once in 5 year ........................................ 35
Table 3. 8: Log – log graph between Intensity Duration for Storm Return Period for
once in 5 year ................................................................................................. 36
Table 3. 9: IDF for Storm of Once in a 5 Year .......................................................... 37
Table 3. 10: Rainfall Analysis of single storm ........................................................... 38
Table 3. 11: Number of storms of intensities against corresponding duration .......... 39
Table 3. 12: Number of storms of intensity or more against corresponding duration 39
Table 3. 13: Maximum rainfall depth ........................................................................ 41
Table 3. 14: Maximum annual series Rainfall Depth (mm) ....................................... 42
Table 3. 15: Computation using Gumbel distribution method ................................... 43
Table 3.16: Kz values for Pearson Type III distribution (Positive Skew)................... 44
Table 3. 17: Kz values for Pearson Type III distribution (Negative Skew) ................ 45
Table 3.18: Computation using Log Pearson type III method ................................... 46
Table 3. 19: Computation to prepare Hyetograph .................................................... 48
Table 4. 1: Recommended Design Return Period for various types of urban
catchments ..................................................................................................... 52
Table 4. 2: Runoff co-efficient of various surfaces ................................................... 53
Table 5. 1: Coefficient of roughness for channel flow for use in manning’s formula . 68
Table 5. 2: Design velocities to be ensured in gravity storm conduits/channels ....... 70
Table 5. 3: Minimum Free Board for open channels ................................................ 70
Table 5. 4: Proportions of Some Most Efficient Sections.......................................... 71
Table 5. 5: Hydraulic Properties of circular sections for manning’s formula ............. 75
Table 5. 6: Computation sheet for Storm Water Conduit .......................................... 78
Table 5.7: Computation sheet for Storm Water Open Channel ................................ 80
Table 5. 8: Manning’s n for gutter flow ..................................................................... 83
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Part A: Engineering Design

Table 5. 9: Calculation of back water curve .............................................................. 94

Table 5. 10: Calculation of draw down curve ............................................................ 96
Table 5. 11: Design Guidelines for Engineered Channels ...................................... 102
Table 5. 12: Freeboard in Engineered Channels .................................................... 103
Table 6. 1: Mulch materials, application rates and specifications ........................... 108
Table 6. 2: Design considerations for tidal out fall .................................................. 119
Table 6. 3: Design tail water level .......................................................................... 120
Table 7. 1: Recommended Design Deflection Limits .............................................. 124
Table 7. 2: Live Loads on Flexible Pipes ................................................................ 125
Table 7. 3: Average Values of Modulus of Soil Reaction E′ for Initial Flexible Pipe
Deflection ...................................................................................................... 126
Table 7. 4: Value of constant (K) ............................................................................ 127
Table 7. 5: Nominal size, Minimum Mean Inside Diameters, Thickness of inside
Layers and Socket Length ............................................................................ 128
Table 7. 6: Physical properties of PE pipe .............................................................. 129
Table 8. 1: Vapour Pressure of Water .................................................................... 144
Table 8. 2: Atmospheric Pressure in mWC at different altitudes above MSL ......... 145
Table 8. 3: Multiplying factor for motor rating ......................................................... 146
Table 8. 4: Selection of motor based on supply voltage ......................................... 146
Table 8. 5: Protective enclosure and environment type of motors .......................... 147
Table 8. 6: Illumination Levels ................................................................................ 149
Table 8. 7: Values of Roughness coefficient, C, in Hazen-Williams formula .......... 151
Table 8. 8: Friction factor for fittings in pumping mains .......................................... 152
Table 9.1: Availability of Rainwater through Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting ........ 161
Table 9. 2: Sizing Rain Water pipes for Roof Surface area drainage ..................... 162
Table 9.3: Sources of Contaminants in Urban Storm Water Runoff ....................... 168
Table 9. 4: Median Event Mean Concentrations for different Urban Land Uses..... 169
Table 9. 5: Targeted Pollutant ................................................................................ 170
Table 10. 1: WSUD Measures: Role, Focus, Site Conditions and Benefits ............ 180
Table 10. 2: Decentralized Innovative intervention in storm water drainage designs
...................................................................................................................... 194
Table 11. 1: Minimum Trench Widths ..................................................................... 203
Table 11. 2: Required minimum cover to prevent floatation ................................... 204
Table 11. 3: Type of bedding for storm water conduits........................................... 205
Table 11. 4: Selection of bedding for different depths and different diameters....... 206
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Part A: Engineering Design

Table 11. 5: Recommended Maximum spacing of Manhole................................... 215

Table 11. 6: Recommended invert Drop-in Manhole .............................................. 216

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Part A: Engineering Design

LIST OF FIGURES

S. No. Title Pg. No.

Figure 1.1: Adyar River flowing over the Saidapet Bridge in Chennai flood in 2015 .. 1
Figure 1.2: Dumping of Solid Waste in Storm Water Drains ....................................... 2
Figure 1.3: Rehabilitation of Brick Combined Sewer in Kolkata ................................. 2
Figure 1.4: Encroachment in storm water drains ........................................................ 3
Figure 1.5: Plastic in Storm Water Drain .................................................................... 4
Figure 2.1: Identify dumping of garbage points .......................................................... 9
Figure 3. 1 Tipping bucket type rain gauge .............................................................. 25
Figure 3. 2 Weighing Bucket Type Rain Gauge ....................................................... 26
Figure 3. 3: Natural Syphon or Float Type Rain Gauge ........................................... 26
Figure 3. 4: SRRG Chart for 24 hrs .......................................................................... 28
Figure 3.5: IDF curve for 5 year Return Period ........................................................ 43
Figure 3. 6: IDF curve from Log Pearson Type III .................................................... 47
Figure 3. 7: Hyetograph............................................................................................ 48
Figure 4.1: Different routes of runoff ........................................................................ 49
Figure 4. 2: Isochrones............................................................................................. 57
Figure 4. 3: Hyetograph............................................................................................ 58
Figure 4.4: Time area curve ..................................................................................... 58
Figure 4.5: 30 min Unit Hydrograph ......................................................................... 59
Figure 4.6: Nonlinear reservoir model ...................................................................... 62
Figure 5. 1: Partially Filled Circular Section.............................................................. 74
Figure 5. 2: Hydraulic – Element graph for circular storm water conduits ................ 76
Figure 5. 3: Hydraulic elements of circular storm water conduits that possess equal
self-cleansing properties at all depths ...................................................................... 76
Figure 5. 4: Gutter and Inlet ..................................................................................... 82
Figure 5. 5: Gutter section with uniform cross-slope ................................................ 82
Figure 5. 6: Typical gutter section—composite cross-slope ..................................... 82
Figure 5. 7: Section of Street Inlet ............................................................................ 86
Figure 5. 8: Plan of street inlet ................................................................................. 87
Figure 5. 9: Catch Basin ........................................................................................... 87
Figure 5. 10: Examples of Subcritical & Supercritical Flow ...................................... 91

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Part A: Engineering Design

Figure 5. 11: Depth Distance Relationship (Back Water Curve) ............................... 95

Figure 5. 12: Depth Distance Relationship (Draw Down Curve) ............................... 96
Figure 5.13: Hydraulic Jump .................................................................................... 97
Figure 5. 14: Concrete Channel ............................................................................. 102
Figure 5. 15: Natural Channel ................................................................................ 102
Figure 6. 1: Weep holes in a retaining wall ............................................................. 106
Figure 6. 2: Intercepting / Catch Water Drain on a Hill Slope ................................. 107
Figure 6. 3: Mulching .............................................................................................. 108
Figure 6. 4: Sediment Basin ................................................................................... 109
Figure 6. 5: Check Dams........................................................................................ 111
Figure 6. 6: Silt Fence ............................................................................................ 112
Figure 6. 7: Brush Barrier ....................................................................................... 113
Figure 6. 8: Diversion Dike ..................................................................................... 114
Figure 6. 9: Temporary Slope Drain ....................................................................... 114
Figure 6. 10: Trench Drain ..................................................................................... 115
Figure 6. 11: Sea levels.......................................................................................... 116
Figure 6. 12: Storm Water channel outfall .............................................................. 120
Figure 6. 13: Storm Water Conduit outfall .............................................................. 121
Figure 7. 1: Bedding Angle ..................................................................................... 127
Figure 8. 1: Wet Pit Pump Station with vertical turbine pump ................................. 137
Figure 8. 2: Dry Pit Pump Station with horizontal centrifugal pump ........................ 138
Figure 8. 3: Inflow Hydrograph ............................................................................... 141
Figure 8. 4: Operating point of the curve ................................................................ 142
Figure 8. 5: Change in Operating Point of Pump with the change in Water level in
Suction Sump ......................................................................................................... 142
Figure 8. 6: Change in operating point of the pump by operation of delivery valve 142
Figure 8. 7: Schematic Representation of NPSHr .................................................. 143
Figure 8. 8: Inflow and Outflow Hydrograph ........................................................... 157
Figure 9. 1: Typical rooftop rainwater harvesting system ....................................... 159
Figure 9. 2: Filter unit ............................................................................................. 160
Figure 9. 3: Percolation Pit ..................................................................................... 164
Figure 9. 4: Percolation Trench .............................................................................. 164
Figure 9. 5: Recharge Wells ................................................................................... 165
Figure 9. 6: rain water Collection through storm water drains ................................ 166

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Part A: Engineering Design

Figure 9. 7: Water spreading in low lying area ....................................................... 167

Figure 9. 8: Cross-section schematic of sand filter compartment ........................... 171
Figure 9. 9: Cross-section schematic of peat-sand filter......................................... 171
Figure 9. 10: Water Quality Inlet ............................................................................. 172
Figure 9. 11: Cross-section of Filter Strip ............................................................... 173
Figure 10. 1: Aspects of Water Sensitive Urban Design......................................... 175
Figure 10.2: Basic LID strategy .............................................................................. 185
Figure 10. 3: LID planning and implementation Approach...................................... 187
Figure 10.4: SuDS Design Principles ..................................................................... 189
Figure 10. 5: SuDS planning process ..................................................................... 191
Figure 10. 6: SuDS Treatment Train ...................................................................... 192
Figure 11. 1: Classes of bedding ............................................................................ 207
Figure 11. 2: Rectangular Manhole ........................................................................ 217
Figure 11. 3: Circular Manhole ............................................................................... 218
Figure 11. 4: Drop Manhole.................................................................................... 219
Figure 11. 5: Inverted siphon with minimum two barrels ........................................ 222
Figure 11. 6: Leaping weir ...................................................................................... 223
Figure 11. 7: Box drain ........................................................................................... 226
Figure 11. 8: Subway Drainage .............................................................................. 227

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Part A: Engineering Design

GLOSSARY

Axial flow pumps Pumps that lift the water up a vertical riser pipe; flow
is parallel to the pump axis and drive shaft;
commonly used for low head, high discharge
applications.
Bench The elevated bottom of an access hole to help
streamline flow through the structure.
Bypass flow Flow which bypasses an inlet on grade and is
carried in street or channel to the next inlet
downgrade.
Check valves Water tight valves used to prevent backflow.
Combination inlets Use of both a kerb opening inlet and a grate inlet.
Convolution The process of using the unit hydrograph to
determine the direct runoff hydrograph from the
excess rainfall hydrograph.
Cover Distance from the outside top of the pipe to the final
grade of the ground surface.
Critical flow Flow in an open channel that is at minimum specific
energy and has a Froude number equal to 1.0
Critical depth Depth of flow during critical flow.
Cross slope The rate of change of roadway elevation with
respect to distance perpendicular to the direction of
travel. Also known as transverse slope.
Crown The inside top elevation of a conduit.
Kerb - opening inlet A discontinuity in the kerb structure which is
covered by a top slab.
Detention time The time required for a drop water to pass through
a detention facility when the facility is filled to design
capacity.
Direct runoff The stream flow produced in response to a rainfall
event and is equal to total stream flow minus base
flow.

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Part A: Engineering Design

Drainage inlets The receptors for surface water collected in ditches

and gutters, which serve as the mechanism
whereby surface water enters storm drains; refers
to all types of inlets such as grate inlets, kerb inlets,
slotted inlets, etc.
Dry-pit stations Pump stations that use both a wet well and a dry
well. Storm water is stored in the wet well which is
connected to the dry well by horizontal suction
piping. The storm water pumps are located on the
floor of the dry well.
Energy grade line (EGL) The line that represents the total energy of flow at a
given location. It is the sum of the elevation head,
the pressure head, and the velocity head.
Extended Detention Dry Depressed basins that temporarily store a portion
ponds of the storm water runoff following a storm event.
The extended detention time of the storm water
provides an opportunity for urban pollutants carried
by the flow to settle out.
Flap gates A gate which restricts water from flowing back into
the discharge pipe and discourages entry into the
outfall line.
Flow line The bottom elevation of an open channel or closed
conduit.
Gate valves Shut-off devices used on pipe lines to control flow.
These valves should not be used to throttle flow.
They should be either totally open or totally closed.
Grate inlets Parallel and/or transverse bars arranged to form an
inlet structure.
Gutters Portion of the roadway structure used to intercept
pavement runoff and carry it along the roadway
shoulder.
Hydraulic grade line (HGL) A line coinciding with the level of flowing water in an
open channel. In a closed conduit flowing under
pressure, the HGL is the level to which water would

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Part A: Engineering Design

rise in a vertical tube at any point along the pipe. It

is equal to the energy grade line elevation minus the
velocity head, V2/2g.
Hydraulic jump A flow discontinuity which occurs at an abrupt
transition from to supercritical to subcritical flow.
Hydraulic radius The hydraulic radius is the cross sectional area of
the flow divided by the wetted perimeter. For a
circular pipe flowing full, the hydraulic radius is one-
fourth of the diameter. For a wide rectangular
channel, the hydraulic radius is approximately
equal to the depth.
Hydrograph A plot of flow versus time.
Hydrologic abstractions Losses of rainfall that do not contribute to direct
runoff. These losses include water retained in
surface depressions, water intercepted by
vegetation, evaporation, and infiltration.
Hyetographs A plot of rainfall intensity vs. time for a specific
rainfall event. It is typically plotted in the form of a
bar graph.
Infiltration trenches Shallow excavations which have been backfilled
with a coarse stone media. The trench forms an
underground reservoir which collects runoff and
exfiltrates it to the subsoil.
Intensity The rate of rainfall typically given in units of
millimeters per hour (inches per hour).
Invert The inside bottom elevation of a closed conduit.
Intensity-Duration IDF curves provide a summary of a site's rainfall
Frequency Curves characteristics by relating storm duration and
expedience probability (frequency) to rainfall
intensity (assumed constant over the duration).
Infiltration basins An excavated area which impounds storm water
flow and gradually exfiltrates it through the basin
floor.

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Part A: Engineering Design

Junction boxes Formed control structures used to join sections of

storm drains.
Longitudinal slope The rate of change of elevation with respect to
distance in the direction of travel or flow.
Major system This system provides overland relief for storm water
flows exceeding the capacity of the minor system
and is composed of pathways that are provided,
knowingly or unknowingly, for the runoff to flow to
natural or manmade receiving channels such as
streams, creeks, or rivers.
Mass rainfall curve The cumulative precipitation plotted over time.
Minor system This system consists of the components of the
storm drainage system that are normally designed
to carry runoff from the more frequent storm events.
These components include: kerbs, gutters, ditches,
inlets, manholes, pipes and other conduits, open
channels, pumps, detention basins, water quality
control facilities, etc.
Mixed flow pumps Mixed flow pumps are very similar to axial flow
except they create head by a combination of lift and
centrifugal action. An obvious physical difference is
the presence of the impeller "bowl" just above the
pump inlet.
Open channel A natural or manmade structure that conveys water
with the top surface in contact with the atmosphere.
Open channel flow Flow in an open conduit or channel that is driven by
gravitational forces.
Pressure flow Flow in a conduit that has no surface exposed to the
atmosphere. The flow is driven by pressure forces.
Radial flow pumps Pumps that utilize centrifugal force to move water
up the riser pipe. They will handle any range of
head and discharge, but are the best choice for high
head applications. Radial flow pumps generally
handle debris quite well.

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Part A: Engineering Design

Retention/detention Facilities used to control the quantity, quality, and

facilities rate of runoff facilities discharged to receiving
waters. Detention facilities control the rate of
outflow from the watershed and typically produce a
lower peak runoff rate than would occur without the
facility. Retention facilities capture all of the runoff
from the watershed and use infiltration and
evaporation to release the water from the facility.
Routing The process of transposing an inflow hydrograph
through a structure and determining the outflow
hydrograph from the structure.
Sand filters Filters that provide stormwater treatment when
runoff is strained through a sand bed before being
returned to a stream or channel.
Shallow concentrated flow Flow that has concentrated in rills or small gullies.
Shear stress Stress on the channel bottom caused by the
hydrodynamic forces of the flowing water.
Sheet flow A shallow mass of runoff on a planar surface or land
area in the upper reaches of a drainage area.
Slotted inlets A section of pipe cut along the longitudinal axis with
transverse bars spaced to form slots.
Specific energy The energy head relative to the channel bottom.
Spread A measure of the transverse lateral distance from
the kerb face to the limit of the water flowing on the
roadway.
Steady flow Flow that remains constant with respect to time.
Stochastic / Probabilistic Frequency analysis used to evaluate peak flows
methods where adequate gaged stream flow data exist.
Frequency distributions are used in the analysis of
hydrologic data and include the normal distribution,
the log-normal distribution, the Gumbel extreme
value distribution, and the log-Pearson Type III
distribution.

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Part A: Engineering Design

Storm water drain A particular storm drainage system component that

receives runoff from inlets and conveys the runoff
to some point. Storm drains are closed conduits or
open channels connecting two or more inlets.
Storm drainage systems Systems which collect, convey, and discharge
storm water flowing systems within and along the
highway right-of-way.
Subcritical flow Flow characterized by low velocities, large depths,
mild slopes, and a Froude number less than 1.0.
Supercritical flow Flow characterized by high velocities, shallow
depths, steep slopes, and a Froude number greater
than 1.0.
Synthetic rainfall events Artificially developed rainfall distribution events
Time of concentration The time for runoff to travel from the hydraulically
most distant point in concentration the watershed to
a point of interest within the watershed. This time
is calculated by summing the individual travel times
for consecutive components of the drainage
system.
Total dynamic head The combination of static head, velocity head, and
various head losses in the discharge system
caused by friction, bends, obstructions, etc.
Tractive force Force developed by the channel bottom to resist the
shear stress caused by the flowing water.
Unit hydrograph The direct runoff hydrograph produced by a storm
of given duration such that the volume of excess
rainfall and direct runoff is 1 cm (1 inch).
Uniform flow Flow in an open channel with a constant depth and
velocity along the length of the channel.
Unsteady flow Flow that changes with respect to time.
Varied flow Flow in an open channel where the flow rate and
depth change along the length of the channel.
Water quality inlets Pre-cast storm drain inlets (oil and grit separators)
that remove sediment, oil and grease, and large

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Part A: Engineering Design

particulates from paved area runoff before it

reaches storm drainage systems or infiltration
BMPs.
Weir flow Flow over a horizontal obstruction controlled by
gravity.
Wet-pit stations Pump stations designed so that the pumps are
submerged in a wet well or sump with the motors
and the controls located overhead.
Wet ponds A pond designed to store a permanent pool during
dry weather.
Wetted perimeter The wetted perimeter is the length of contact
between the flowing water and the channel at a
specific cross section.

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Part A: Engineering Design

SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATION

1. A Catchment Area
2. a Cross-section of the partially filled circular section
Smaller impervious tributary area to the larger drainage
3. Ac
area
4. ARG Automatic Rain Gauge
5. B Width of water surface in the channel
6. (B/C) Benefit/ Cost Ratio
7. BMP Best Management Practices
8. C Runoff Coefficient
9. C&D Construction and Demolition Waste
10. CCTV Closed-circuit television
11. CGWB Central Ground Water Board
12. CMP City Master Plan
13. CPCB Central Pollution Control Board
Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering
14. CPHEEO
Organisation
15. CPWD Central Public Works Department
16. Cs Coefficient of Skewness
17. CWA Chester Water Authority
18. D Diameter of pipe
19. DL Deflection lag factor
20. DM Mean Diameter
21. Dm Hydraulic mean depth
22. dp Particle size in mm
23. DPR Detailed Project Report
24. E Modulus of Elasticity
25. E’ Modulus of Soil Reaction
26. EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
27. EMCs Event Mean Concentrations
28. EPA Environmental Protection Agency
29. Es Specific energy
30. ESRI Environment System Research Institute

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Part A: Engineering Design

31. f Darcy Weisbach friction factor

32. Fr Froude number
33. g Acceleration due to gravity
34. GOD Gang operated disconnectors
35. HAT Highest Astronomical Tide
36. HFL High Flood water level
37. Hfs Friction losses
38. HUDCO Housing and Urban Development Corporation Limited
39. HS Static head
40. Hf Frictional head
41. Hv Velocity head
42. Hl Head loss in fittings and valves (m)
43. Hw Height of groundwater over top of pipe
44. I Intensity of Rainfall
45. IDF Intensity Duration Frequency
46. IEC Information, Education And Communication
47. IMD India Meteorological Department
48. INCOIS Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Service
49. IoF Inspectorate of Factories
50. IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
51. KZ Frequency factor
52. L Length
53. LAT Lowest Astronomical Tide
54. LIC Life Insurance Corporation
55. LID Low Impact Development
56. MHs Manholes
57. MHWN Mean High Water Neaps
58. MHWS Mean High Water Springs
59. MLWN Mean Low Water Neaps
60. MLWS Mean Low Water Springs
61. MSL Mean Sea Level
62. mWC Meters of Water Column
63. N Manning’s roughness coefficient for Overland flow
64. n Manning’s roughness coefficient of surfaces

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Part A: Engineering Design

65. NDMA National Disaster Management Authority

66. NDRF National Disaster Response Force
67. NIDM National Institute of Disaster Management
68. NODC National Oceanographic Data Centre
69. NPSHa Net Positive Suction Head Available
70. NPSHr Net Positive Suction Head Required
71. NURP Nationwide Urban Runoff Program
72. O & M Operation and Maintenance
73. OD Outside diameter
74. OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration
75. P Wetted perimeter
76. Pcr Critical Buckling Pressure
77. PPP Public-Private Partnership
78. PS Suction Pressure
79. PS Pipe Stiffness
80. PSMSL Permanent Service for Mean sea level
81. Pv Actual buckling pressure
82. Q Discharge
83. Qp Peak flow
84. q Discharge from partially filled section
85. R Hydraulic Radius
86. RCC Reinforced Cement Concrete
87. Re Reynold’s Number
88. RRHS Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting System
89. RWH Rain Water Harvesting
90. Rw Water buoyancy factor
91. S Surface Slope
92. SL Longitudinal slope
93. SMART Stormwater Management and Road Tunnel
94. SOR Schedule of Rates
95. SRRG Self-recording Rain Gauge
96. Ss Specific gravity of particles
97. SUDS Sustainable Urban Drainage System
98. SuDS Sustainable Urban Drainage System

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Part A: Engineering Design

99. SWD Storm Water Drainage

100. SWMM Storm water Management Model
101. Sx Cross slope, m/m
102. T Storm Return Period
103. t Rainfall Duration
104. tc Time of Concentration
105. tf Time of Flow
106. to Time of surface flow
107. u Mode of Distribution
108. ULB Urban Local Body
109. UT Union Territory
110. V Velocity of Flow
111. VP Vapour pressure
112. WMO World Meteorological Organization
113. WOCE Water Ocean Circulation Experiment
114. WSUD Water Sensitive Urban Design
115. Wc Soil Column load
116. WL Live load
117. X Rainfall Event
118. XT T Year Return Period Value
119. y Depth of Flow
120. yT Reduced Variate
121. Z Logarithmic Variates of X
122. Zs Potential energy
123. α Sample Moments
124. ν Kinematic Viscosity
125. π Pi
126. σ Standard Deviation
127. Duration of n time Intervals
128. Mean of Z values
129. Mean of X values
130. Unit weight of water
131. Soil density

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 1
Introduction

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

Urbanization is taking place at a brisk pace in India. In the first decade of the 21st
century, the number of towns increased from 5161 (2001) to 7935 (2011). Similarly,
the urban agglomerations are not only increasing in number, it is also getting larger in
population and sprawling. The number of cities with a population of 1 million or more
has increased from 35 in the year 2001 to 53 in year 2011. Majority of urban areas, be
it large metropolis or small municipal town, severely lack effective storm water
drainage facilities. Unplanned development coupled with encroachment of existing
natural drainage corridors, waterways etc. exacerbates the problem of urban drainage.
In the quest for extreme development, important environmental benefits from natural
functionaries like waterways/water bodies are often ignored, overlooked, and
compromised. This aspect, along with recent trends in climate change is also causing
the rise in incidences of acute waterlogging, urban flooding, and related adverse
economic and health impacts. Storm flows, if not regulated or routed to its
convergence of safe disposal, may cause unprecedented degradation of urban
infrastructure causing severe damage to life and property, depending on the degree
of severity of storm event.

In recent years, frequency of urban flooding

has increased, and the issue is getting more
pronounced day-by-day due to its enormous
socio-environmental hazards leading to
traffic snarls and disruption in urban life.
Some of the notable cases of flooding which
caused devastating impact on economic
loss as well as the loss of lives are urban
flooding in Hyderabad (2001 and 2012),
Delhi (2002, 2003, 2009, 2010 and 2011),
Chennai (2004 and 2015), Mumbai (2005,
2008 and 2009), Kolkata (1978 and 2007),
Surat (2006), Jamshedpur (2008), Guwahati Figure 1.1: Adyar River flowing over the
Saidapet Bridge in Chennai flood in 2015
(2010), Jaipur (2012), Jammu & Kashmir
(2014) and recent devastation in Kerala
(2018).

To protect the urban areas against flooding in a phased manner, consistent with
availability of resources, storm water drainage systems need to be planned and
implemented in structured manner considering various aspects of design, operation &
maintenance and economics. This essentially spells out the need for the formulation
of this National Manual containing aspects of planning, rainfall analysis, designing,
detailed engineering of facilities, construction, as well as, operation & maintenance of

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 1
Introduction

urban storm water drainage systems including rehabilitation and refurbishing of

prevailing under-performing drainage systems.

1.2 Status of Urban Drainage System in India

Urban storm water drainage systems have got priority in India only after drinking water
supply and sewerage projects in the majority of the cases. Due to fast pace of
urbanization and migration of people from rural areas to urban areas in quest of
livelihood and better education, there has been immense pressure on urban
infrastructure, worsening the problem of urban drainage systems in India. Some of the
important factors responsible for present status of poor urban drainage system in India
are as under:

1. The natural drainage systems in most of

the cities are in jeopardy, and the problem
of flooding is worsening with time due to
non-availability of properly engineered
storm water drainage infrastructures. The
problems are exacerbated due to
encroachment and rampant dumping of
garbage & solid waste in the drains on one
hand and absence of preventive Figure 1.2: Dumping of Solid Waste in
maintenance on the other. Storm Water Drains

2. The megalopolises (megacities) have a long history of municipal drainage

perceptions since the British era. Most of the underground drainage facilities within
core clusters of these megacities are
usually century-old antiquated brick
masonry conduits. The existing storm
water collection network in these cities is
mainly designed to serve as a combined
system for sewage as well as storm water
runoff. Augmentation and rehabilitation,
including separation of storm water from
sewage in such facilities, invite highest
level of challenges for municipal Figure 1.3: Rehabilitation of Brick
Combined Sewer in Kolkata
engineers and financial resources.

3. The coverage of storm water drainage network stands about 20% of road network
and its allied catchments as per the report on Indian Urban Infrastructure and
Services (March 2011), published by the erstwhile Ministry of Urban Development
(MoUD) which is too inadequate to cater to the storm water disposal in the present
city scenario.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 1
Introduction

1.3 Causes of urban flooding

Some of the major causes leading to frequent flooding even in light rainfall in urban
areas of India are as under:

1. Many important cities in the country receive high average annual rainfall during
four months of monsoon. The cities like Mumbai receive annual average rainfall of
order of the 2,932 mm. High intensity rainfall in such cities is responsible for
frequent flooding.

2. Storm drainage systems are currently

designed in India for rainfall intensities of
once in one year to once in two years return
periods. In case, rainfall records are not
available; rainfall intensity is usually
adopted in the range of 12 mm/hr – 20
mm/hr. Therefore, ‘Accommodation &
Transportation’ capacities of such
hydraulically configured drainage facilities
are easily overwhelmed, whenever
rainstorms of higher frequencies are
experienced.

3. Unplanned urbanization causes a

considerable increase in impervious areas, Figure 1.4: Encroachment in storm
thereby leading to enhanced surface runoff water drains

and frequent flooding.

4. The problem of disposal of storm runoff is compounded in the cities having flat
terrain, tidal fluctuations in coastal areas and blockage of streams/drains due to
landslides in hilly areas.

5. Global climate change resulting in the changed weather pattern and increased
occurrence of high intensity rainfall events further aggravate the risk of flooding in
towns and cities.

6. The absence of systematic approach to formulating and implement a holistic storm

water drainage scheme within specified planning horizon has turned urban areas
and cities so vulnerable now that even rain of light and medium intensity causes
urban flooding.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 1
Introduction

7. The problem of illegal disposal of

Construction and Demolition waste /
municipal solid waste / plastic waste
coupled with poor maintenance of
existing drainage system often obstructs
the storm runoff causing localized
flooding in the areas.

Figure 1.5: Plastic in Storm Water Drain

1.4 Need for Storm Water Drainage Manual

In view of the existing status of drainage systems in urban areas, that causes frequent
flooding leading to loss of property and life, it necessitates looking into the problem
more closely and coming out with planning, designing, implementation and operation
& maintenance guidelines to overcome the issues in urban areas.

It is worth mentioning that there is no dedicated reference document/ manual available

on storm water drainage systems in India like the ones on Water Supply & Treatment
Systems, 1999; Sewerage and Sewage Treatment Systems, 2013 and Municipal Solid
Waste Management, 2016, all published by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs,
Govt. of India. Majority of the countries across the globe like Singapore, Hong Kong,
Australia, United States of America, Malaysia, and many others have their manual on
storm water drainage systems. The existing “Manual on Sewerage and Sewage
Treatment Systems, 2013”, published by Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs,
Government of India, incorporates very few aspects of urban storm water
management under its Section 3.9, but the same is grossly inadequate to address the
issues related to storm water drainage.

Therefore, a comprehensive and exclusive manual on storm water drainage systems

has become imperative to guide the public health engineers / municipal engineers/city
planners and consultants across the country. Accordingly, this National Manual is
formulated to provide necessary guidance towards all aspects of sustainable design,
planning, and management of storm water drainage systems of towns and cities of the
country.

1.5 Scope of Manual

This Manual is a guide book for hydrologic & hydraulic design of storm water drainage
systems and includes, inter alia, planning, designing, detailed engineering, operation
and maintenance of various components of urban storm water drainage systems. The
appurtenant socio-environmental aspects are also an embedded component of the
scope. The manual is contained in three distinct Parts over two volumes. Volume 1

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 1
Introduction

contains Part A: Engineering Design, whereas Volume 2 contains Part B: Operation,

Maintenance, and Part C: Management. A brief outline of these volumes is as follows:

Volume 1 - Part A: Engineering Design

The Volume 1 of Manual contains the planning and Engineering Design of various
elements of storm water drainage systems and is organized in the following Chapters:

 Chapter 1 deals with the issues of the urban drainage system in India and
requirement of an exclusive Manual on Storm Water drainage Systems.

 Chapter 2 covers the planning aspects of urban storm water drainage projects,
related Investigation, data collection, survey inputs, and environmental as well as
financial aspects.

 Chapter 3 contains rainfall analysis and development of IDF curves using empirical
and probabilistic methods.

 Chapter 4 deals with runoff estimation resulting from urban catchments by various
methods viz. rational method, time area method, unit hydrograph method, and
rainfall-runoff simulation method.

 Chapter 5 covers the hydraulic design of storm water drains with applicable flow
equations.

 Chapter 6 covers additional design considerations for special areas to be

considered while designing storm water drains in hilly and coastal areas.

 Chapter 7 deals with the structural design of storm water drains covering process
design of underground rigid and flexible conduits for carrying storm water.

 Chapter 8 covers the handling of storm water through pumping and deals with
planning and design of pumping station for pumping of storm water.

 Chapter 9 covers planning and design of rain water harvesting to be used for
multiple purposes like artificial recharge of ground water and attenuation of flash
floods.

 Chapter 10 elaborates the methodology for using existing drains to allow excess
runoff to percolate in the ground water. It also deals with various emerging practices
adopted across the world for storm water drainage design such as Water Sensitive
Urban Design (WSUD), Low Impact Development (LID) and Sustainable Urban

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 1
Introduction

Drainage System (SUDS). Best Management Practices (BMPs) of storm water

drainage system are also discussed briefly.

 Chapter 11 covers construction aspects of storm water drains, and its appurtenant
structures.

Volume 2: Operation, Maintenance and Management

The Volume 2 of the Manual is divided into two parts as briefly described below:

Part B: Operation and Maintenance, deals with operation & maintenance,

inspection and replacement & rehabilitation of storm water drains.

Part C: Management deals with public awareness, capacity building, institutional

arrangement and financial sustainability.

1.6 Use of Manual

This manual has been prepared for the purpose of assisting engineers, planners,
designers, architects, geographers and hydrologists working in government / private
institutions, urban local bodies, industrial and business concerns, consultancy
services, etc., in planning and design of urban storm water drainage system in the
country.

The manual aims to provide details of essential technical and engineering aspects
considered during planning, design, and management of urban storm water drainage
system and to provide details of appropriate design and computational procedures.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 2
Project Planning and Investigation

CHAPTER 2: PROJECT PLANNING AND INVESTIGATION

2.1 General

The project planning and investigation is the backbone of project development and
lays the foundation for its successful implementation and economical operation and
maintenance. This chapter covers various aspects of project planning and
investigation, data collection, survey, design considerations, environmental
considerations, permission and clearances, guidelines for the preparation of DPR,
provision for O & M, financial sustainability, etc. A checklist for preparation of DPR is
also developed for objectively guiding DPR preparation and its vetting by the
concerned authorities.

2.2 Objectives of Planning & Investigation

The objective of planning and investigation is to provide detailed information about the
type and topography of the land, details of existing drains, land use pattern, networks
of roads, culverts and railway lines, etc. which require due consideration in master
planning / zonal planning/augmentation of the drainage system in the city. The
following aspects need to be considered while planning & investigating for
development of a drainage system:

i. Identification and marking of Catchment areas

ii. Identification and marking of probable drainage zones, the direction of gradients
and selection of disposal points
iii. Preparation of topographical layout of collection and conveyance
iv. Storm water drainage plan should be separate from the sewerage system for all
stages of planning and designing
v. Identification of locations for pumping stations
vi. Strategy for rainwater storage and its recharge to groundwater and disposal of
excess storm water
vii. Identification of stretches of drains / vulnerable points susceptible to the dumping
of solid waste / C & D waste/encroachment/ choking point
viii. Strategy for prevention of solid waste and C & D waste into storm waterways
ix. Strategy for arresting pollutants with urban runoff from entering into water bodies
x. Conserving the aesthetics, public safety and other social concerns of recreational
open space and landscape to preserve the ecological nature of waterways
xi. Identification of existing storm water drains / drainage corridors including age-
old drainage conduits for rehabilitation

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 2
Project Planning and Investigation

xii. Non-structural and structural measures should be studied and components

designed accordingly to provide relief during the occurrence of disasters due to
flooding
xiii. Frame a Road Map for Urban Storm Water Best Management Practices (BMP)
xiv. Preparation of a strategy for protection of urban areas from flooding. This need
to include any excess runoff likely to come to the city area from upper reaches.
To attenuate flooding, the water storage ponds should be rejuvenated within city
and also created outside city if feasible.
xv. Strategy for sustainable operation & maintenance of storm water systems
xvi. A holistic approach to local area planning including aspects of sustainability,
consistency, and responsiveness to community values
xvii. In integrated water use planning, as outlined in Chapter 10, the plan preparation
should consider the integration of storm water, recycle and reuse of treated
wastewater and freshwater resources to address the urban flooding issue and
water security issue of the city simultaneously

Note:
a. It is emphasized that the earlier method of combined sewerage system collecting
storm water and sewage in the same pipe network is resulting in several adverse
effects in the process of treatment, operation, maintenance and also on the
environment. Therefore, it is recommended that for collection and treatment,
sewage should be separated from the storm water drainage system as it is
currently in practice all over the world.
b. Storm water open channels if not covered are prone to the dumping of garbage
and other waste, encroachment, etc. that may cause choking and disruption of
flow causing street flooding and inconvenience to the residents of the area. It
would be advisable in such circumstances to construct underground storm water
conduits that shall remain immune to such practices and shall provide extra
space on the surface.

2.3 Data Collection, Survey and Investigation

Before the start of field survey, sufficient desk work should be carried out using the
existing details and that should be corroborated by field visits and discussions with
local community and municipal officials. This iterative process should be followed to
prepare a comprehensive workable plan. The data/information to be collected and the
elements to be surveyed for preparation of the project plan are given below:

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 2
Project Planning and Investigation

2.3.1 Data Collection

The data collection shall comprise of the following but not limited to:

I. Physical Characteristics

a) Topographical details including the slope of catchment / contributing area and

outfall point
b) Identification of existing and expected future land uses
c) Identify a list of open spaces
d) Details of Bridges, culverts, railway crossings, etc.
e) Areas of the urban forest, wetlands, marshy lands, flood plains, water bodies, etc.
f) Data on inflows from contiguous upper regions
g) Soil characteristics including its permeability
h) Groundwater table and its seasonal variations
i) Location and capacity of Existing water retention structures
j) Details of Wastewater treatment plants along with their capacities
k) Treated wastewater available for recycle and reuse out of decentralized
wastewater plants in city/housing complexes
l) Potential of use of storm water in the project area or adjoining area
m) Identification of storm drainage related problems within urban areas that may
warrant further detailed investigations and planning such as:

 Littering, garbage, domestic wastes,

plastic waste, etc.
 Solid waste / C & D waste points nearer to
the drainage system
 Nearby dump site status
 Natural pollution, such as leaves, etc.
 Chemical pollution, such as detergents, oil
or fertilizers

Figure 2.1: Identify dumping of garbage

points

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 2
Project Planning and Investigation

II. Rainfall Characteristics

a) Rainfall data for the last 30 years or more depending upon the availability from
digitized / Automatic Rain gauge station needs to be obtained / collected from IMD
in the specified format
b) Rainfall data collection comprising of annual average daily and monthly rainfall and
no of rainy days
c) Data on historical flood events

III. Waterway Characteristics

a) The capacity of water receiving the body and its HFL and other relevant details
b) Physical condition and characteristics of the existing (size, slope, and material)
storm water conveyance system
c) Existing natural, as well as, engineered drainage channels
d) Details of existing water bodies
e) Location of existing and prospective rainwater harvesting structures;
f) Water quality & quantity in existing storm water conveyance systems / natural
drains and in receiving water bodies under wet and dry conditions
g) Tidal influence on receiving water bodies for the catchment

IV. Collection of topographical survey details/maps

Following documents/maps are needed to be collected for proper planning:

a) Survey of India topographical maps (1:50,000) of the catchment/planning area for

comprehension of topography, watercourses and other physical features like major
roads, railway lines, location and levels on benchmarks, etc.
b) Details of benchmarks established by Survey of India in the planning area or its
neighborhood
c) Existing aerial survey of the planning area
d) Digital data/satellite data
e) Local planning area maps and scheme maps of various scales prepared by various
agencies such as Department of Town and Country Planning, Water & Sewerage
Boards, Municipal Corporations, etc. for comprehension of watercourses, irrigation
channels, storm water drains, tanks, temple, ponds, etc.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 2
Project Planning and Investigation

f) Reconnaissance survey for verification and updation of the complete inventory of

drainage system of the planning area consisting of watercourses, irrigation
channels, storm water drains, tanks, temple ponds, etc.
g) Reports on existing drainage system and its study/evaluation, if any.
h) Location of underground electric cables, telephone lines, water supply, and sewer
lines, etc.
i) Watershed maps including topographic features, watershed boundaries, existing
drainage patterns, and ground cover

2.3.2 Survey and Investigation

After analyzing the collected data including the existing survey maps and existing
drainage details, broad alignment for drainage network should be firmed up and the
survey should be commenced to collect the requisite data/field details for the
preparation of alignment of drains/maps with suitable ground levels.

For carrying out the survey, the latest survey instruments like Total Station Survey /
Mobile LiDAR/ Drone / aerial survey techniques, etc. should be used. Based on the
survey, the coordinates and levels of various important locations/benchmarks should
be collected. Further, field survey for the project should include overall infrastructure
mapping, strip survey and site survey. During the topographical survey, traversing
should be done along the centre line of the corridor. Longitudinal cross-sections should
be taken at intervals as required for clarity. Also, the final data should be converted in
Environment System Research Institute (ESRI) (Shapefile) format with its defining
projection and survey collected attributes in the requisite database format.

The layout plan should be prepared and integrated on the GIS base with a selected
computer model. Layers and attributes to be shown on the map should be flexible to
control and give appropriate information for different requirements. The city should
prepare GIS maps of storm water drainage system and upload in public domain
(Respective ULB website). This would help in regular monitoring of the drainage
system to ensure that there is no encroachment. This will also facilitate ease in
operation & maintenance.

Based on the above survey, following plans should be prepared:

a) Topographical maps (1:1000) bringing out existing storm water drainage system,
the crossing of main watercourses eg. rivers, irrigation channels, and drains, tanks,
ponds, roads, railway lines, built-up areas, open fields, and playgrounds, flood-
prone areas, etc.
b) Contour maps

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 2
Project Planning and Investigation

c) Demarcation of the urban catchment in sectors, zones and subzones to plan layout
of Primary, Secondary & Tertiary drains
d) Alignment of watercourses showing locations of temporary/ permanent structures
within 15 m on either side of the bank location of electric cables, telephone lines,
water supply, and sewer lines in the vicinity of the drains
e) Storm water drains with a longitudinal section at 30-50 m interval and cross-section
at every 1 m interval within the drain and 2 - 5 m outside the drain
f) Mapping of storm water drainage layout on GIS platform
g) Water harvesting structures, Water detention tanks, Pumping points, water usage
points, parks, disposal point should also be shown on the map
h) Details in and around the drain for recharge should also be identified particularly
at the places along the stretch of the drain where soil strata/log is changing
indicating Type of soil, Permeability, Ground Water Table, Rock strata
i) Identification of Vulnerable silting / landslide points, Low lying points Coastal area
problem, Hilly area features / vulnerable stretches
j) The above details collected can be used for planning of drainage system including
its integration with existing drains and rehabilitation of other existing drains

2.4 Planning of Storm Water Drainage Systems

2.4.1 Demarcation of Catchment and Planning Areas

While planning storm water drainage system for the city, the catchment area should
be demarcated based on natural watershed boundaries (Ridges / Valleys/ Waterways)
to take into account storm water runoff. Wherever, Storm water runoff enters from the
adjacent catchment, in such cases, the city should take necessary efforts to minimize
the runoff entering into the city by proposing various measures such as diverting the
flow to the exiting reservoirs, lakes, water bodies and by construction of check dams,
reservoirs, etc. Demarcation of planning area into sectors, zones, and subzones in
order to plan layout of Primary, Secondary & Tertiary drains based on topography,
road alignment, railway lines, culverts, bridges, etc. need to be carried out consistent
with contour plans of the planning area.

If topographical and contour maps are available then these shall be meticulously used
to identify the prevailing Storm Drainage corridors otherwise fresh topographical
survey, contour maps of the existing catchment including proposed extended Project
areas (if any) need to be configured by a detailed survey. Thus, the comprehensive
mapping shall facilitate the entire planning process of design and the imperative ‘Detail
Engineering’ components of the catchment.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 2
Project Planning and Investigation

Existing drainage facilities also need to be examined with respect to shape, size,
material, invert information, outfall location(s), age, condition, etc., consistent with the
volume of storm water flow and suitably integrated with new drains including
augmentation/rehabilitation of existing drains to convey the designed runoff efficiently.

2.4.2 Hydraulic Design of Storm Water Drainage Systems

Using the data collected above and a topographical survey carried out, the route of
drains should be marked on the map along with ground levels and showing existing
infrastructure, including various other salient features as mentioned above. Also, the
rainfall data should be collected and analyzed as mentioned in Chapter 3, and runoff
estimation to be carried out for different zones/subzones for corresponding stretches
of drain alignment as given in Chapter 4. The runoff from the adjacent catchment area
as said above should also be taken into account while designing the storm water
drains. Using this runoff data, the storm water drains should be designed following the
aspects of design as mentioned in Chapters 5, 6 & 7. Reduction in storm runoff by
constructing retention/detention ponds / Rooftop rainwater harvesting etc. as given in
Chapter 9 and Chapter 10 should also be accounted for while designing the drainage
system.
However, it may be mentioned that internal drainage of urban catchments may not be
designed for peak flow for rare storm events such as 1 in 25 or 50 years or so, but it
is necessary to provide sufficient protection against excessively frequent flooding of
the drainage area. The Design Return period is presented in Chapter 4.

There shall be considerable flooding when the precipitation exceeds the ‘Design
Return Storm’. However, such flooding may have to be accepted in spite of once in a
while inconvenience considering its occasional utilization in few instances in a year
and the nature of cost-intensive projects and its feasibility on the ground due to various
other utilities available along the road. However, in such situations, the preparatory
measures to deal with such scenarios as specified by ‘National Disaster Management
Guidelines, published in September 2010’ (Chapter 3 and related sections). In case of
frequent flooding, special structures like underground conduits/tunnels may be
proposed as specified in section 10.2.4 of Chapter 10.

2.4.2.1 Inlet locations

The storm water inlets (Catch pits / Catch-Basins) are mainly provided to
accommodate the storm water from paved surfaces ( Kerb & channels for large
metropolis), parks, open space areas and transfer it to subsurface drains for
conveyance to the ultimate ‘receiving body’. The inlets are connected to open drains
by means of interconnection pipes. The inlets need to be hydraulically designed and
suitably spaced. The detailed norms for design are in Chapter 5. Inlets should be
adequately designed and placed to efficiently drain storm water runoff into main
drainage system.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 2
Project Planning and Investigation

2.4.2.2 Manholes (MHs) and its locations

Manholes (MHs) in the sub-surface drainage system are provided at the following
locations:

a. Major change in flow quantum due to the addition of flows (junctions)

b. Bends because of change in the direction of alignment
c. Large drops in inverts because of topographical configuration
d. Routine MHs at regular intervals even when there is no hydraulic or geographic
transition. These MHs is necessary for regular maintenance purpose

The detailed norms for design are in Chapter 11.

2.4.2.3 Pumping of storm runoff

Storm runoff follows the gradient of the terrain in the drainage catchment. In many low
lying stretches with flatter slope as well as near coastal areas or wherever collection
tank/storage reservoirs/ detention tanks are proposed, the pumping arrangement
becomes necessary for efficient functioning of storm water drainage systems and
designing of storm water runoff to prevent inundation in the city. While designing
pumping system, the following basic aspects should be considered:

In the case of permanent pumping stations the following need to be considered

a. Identification of pumping points
b. Details of space availability
c. Distance/route of the rising main alignment
d. Estimation of design runoff at the pumping station
e. The capacity of the wet well, i.e. the detention time in minutes pertaining to the
peak of the Routed Hydrograph at the Drainage Pumping Node
f. Additional storage capacity if required
g. Number of pumps including standby and operating point (Q vs. H) of pumps,
determined from synchronization of pump characteristics (single or in parallel) &
system head curve and authenticated through NPSH, as well as, discharge vs
power input curves and other typical elements related to the pumping system
h. Electric motors or fuel engine driven pumps
i. Operation and maintenance requirement

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 2
Project Planning and Investigation

j. Generator sets of appropriate capacity as standby for emergency operation during

failure of electricity

The detailed norms relating to pumping are mentioned in Chapter 8.

2.4.2.4 Outfall Structures

Location of outfall point should be selected considering the level of the surface water
of receiving water bodies such as low water level, high water level, and normal water
level. Care should be taken that the outfall level should be adequately high above the
High Flood Level. Wherever it is not feasible due to the level of terrain adequate
protection mechanism should be provided to check backflow of water in the outfall
drain. Cascading and apron structure if necessary may be incorporated in the Outfall
Structure System. The accessible location of outfall structures should be clearly shown
on the plan. The detailed norms for design are mentioned in Chapter 6.

In cases of probable flooding of the catchment due to flooding of natural

streams/rivers, flood protection measures should be employed.

2.5 Other Considerations

2.5.1 Permissions and Clearances

The necessary permissions and clearances may be obtained in advance along the
drainage alignment for the smooth implementation of the project. Further, the
permission for removal /relocation / or diversion of existing services should be taken
up with concerned department at an adequate earlier stage within the ambit of project
planning and implementation procedure because the process is normally lengthy.
Town planners and engineers, therefore, should start the process to obtain necessary
government sanction at a very early stage to avoid delay in project implementation.

2.5.2 Environmental Consideration

It pertains to the aspects to be considered in relation to the environment such as

aesthetics, landscape, groundwater recharge, etc.

i. Environmental Assessment

The environmental impact assessment should be carried out in accordance with the
procedures prescribed by Government of India under Environment (Protection) Rule
2006 and 2009 wherever applicable.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 2
Project Planning and Investigation

ii. Aesthetics/Landscape

Urban Drainage infrastructure shall be so planned and designed that the same should
holistically blend with the surrounding environment. Aesthetic aspects should be
stressed in structural designing and landscaping to create a symmetrical and
perspective vision with the spatial environmental backdrop.

iii. Surface Water

Considerable quantities of trash and other debris are washed through storm water
drainage system into receiving water bodies of water resulting as a primary impact in
the creation of an aesthetic eyesore in waterways causing reduction in recreational
value, whereas, in smaller streams debris may generate blockage of the channel
which may result in localized flooding and erosion. This shall be meticulously studied,
and remedial measures need to be proposed.

iv. Ground Water

Increased urbanisation has resulted in the increase in percentage imperviousness and

in turn precluding the natural infiltration process of storm runoff. Such phenomenon
reduces groundwater recharge rate and consequently lowering the groundwater table.
This aspect shall be taken into consideration while designing recharge structures and
suitable treatment measures to be proposed if such recharge is contemplated to be
carried out.

v. Coastal Water

Sediments, silts, debris, etc. discharged through storm drainage system into coastal
waters, and recreational sea beaches may cause physical damage, including
degradation of water quality and smothering benthos. Nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus in excess in storm water may cause eutrophication resulting in excessive
algal growth. This should be adequately taken care of.

2.6 Financing

Project implementation involves Capital as well as O & M cost.

Capital cost includes all initial costs such as civil construction, cost of drains
appurtenances, pumping machineries installation and erection costs, opportunity cost
(land cost in case of government land), engineering design and supervision charges,
interest charges on loan if taken during the construction period.

Financial viability of any project is as important as its technical viability and it can also
be said that operating cost is more important than the capital cost to ensure the

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 2
Project Planning and Investigation

sustainability of the project. The benefits from storm drainage project may not be
quantifiable in cash inflow terms, but its social, health, and other benefits can be
assessed more than revenue accrual.

For efficient functioning of storm water drainage system, proper operation &
maintenance is essential, which is possible only when O & M funds are available to
take up maintenance activities. The fund may be earmarked from drainage activities
from municipal budget and may be collected in the form of storm water drainage cess
based on area of premises and level of construction done.

Annual Operating costs after the project is commissioned shall include the
summation of the direct operating cost and fixed costs like amortization and interest
on capital borrowings, direct operation and maintenance costs on the following:
a. Staff
b. Chemicals (if any)
c. Fuel and electricity
d. Transport
e. Maintenance and repair
f. Insurance
g. Overheads etc.

On the other hand, the annual benefits arrived from such social engineering projects
are multifarious in terms of:
i. Direct revenue earning from the beneficiaries through development and
betterment taxes with multilevel taxation putting the minimum burden to the
economically weaker section of the community
ii. The indirect benefits in terms of improvement of general public health which can
be termed as socio-environmental benefits

If one can assess and quantify the summation of all such benefits, the Benefit/ Cost
Ratio (B/C) for such social engineering projects are always expected to be more than
unity.

2.7 Operation & Maintenance

For any system to operate in a proper and efficient manner, the key is its appropriate
and planned regular and preventive operation and maintenance. These aspects of
O & M have been addressed in Part B of the manual.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 2
Project Planning and Investigation

2.8 Citizen Awareness

Citizen awareness is the growing recognized mechanism to dissuade people from the
habit of indiscriminate littering and dumping of debris and solid waste either on open
ground or nearby rivers/ streams/lakes/drains. This is dealt in detail in Part C of this
manual.

2.9 Institutional Arrangement and Capacity Building

Creation of storm water drain infrastructure is one aspect, but its periodic
maintenance is the key to provide the desired level of services on a sustainable basis.
An efficient organization is very important for planning, design, and sustainable
operation and maintenance of SWD infrastructure. Therefore, measures must be
taken for institutional strengthening and internal capacity building so that the efforts
made can be sustained over a period of time and the system put in place can be well
managed. Institutional strengthening can be done by adequately decentralizing the
administration, delegating adequate powers at the decentralized level, inducting
professionals into the administration, and providing adequate training to the existing
staff. These are dealt with in detail in Part C of this Manual.

2.10 Service Level Benchmark

While planning a project, efforts should be made to perform as per Service Level
Benchmark notified by Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, (MoHUA) Govt. of India,
as shown in Table 2.1 below:

Table 2.1 Performance Indicator

Indicator Value

Coverage of storm water drainage network 100 %

Aggregate number of incidents of waterlogging 0 per year

reported in a year

2.11 Incorporation of storm water drainage indices in the hydraulic design of

storm water drains and its O & M

To assess and monitor the progress of implementing sustainable storm water

management, the following 20 parameters/indicators need to be integrated at its
various stages of design and operation & maintenance. These parameters are
generally in the form of indices for systematic and scientific assessment of the
situation, progress, and deficit which need to be considered at all stages of
development namely, Planning, Design, Implementation, and Operation &

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Project Planning and Investigation

Maintenance subject to its appropriateness and significance to the specific stage.

These 20 parameters are as given in the table 2.2.

Table 2. 2 Parameters / Indicators

1 Master Plan 2 Natural Drainage 3 Drainage Coverage

Index System Index (Constructed) Index
4 Permeability 5 Water bodies 6 Waterbody
Index Rejuvenation Index Vulnerability Index
7 Waterlogging 8 Area Vulnerability Index 9 People Vulnerability
Index Index
10 Flood 11 Drainage Cleaning 12 Complaint Redressal
Moderation Index index
Index
13 Climate Change 14 Storm water discharge 15 Sewage Mixing Index
Stress Index quality Index
16 Preparedness 17 Rainfall Intensity Index 18 System Robustness
Index/ Early Index
Warning Index

19 Tidal Index 20 Rainwater

Harvesting/Artificial
Groundwater Recharge
Index

Further details may be referred to the Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs website
under the National Mission on Sustainable Habitat (http://mohua.gov.in/cms/National-
Mission-on-Sustainable-Habitat.php)

2.12 City Drainage Master Plan

Drainage Master Plan is usually prepared for big cities as their coverage at one time
may not be financially feasible due to huge cost investment. The master plan provides
a broader framework of the system such as broad layout plan and other system
components, outfall locations, rainfall characteristics enunciating the design criteria,
outline and brief description of system components. The drainage master plan should
be prepared in consonance with the City Master Plan, keeping in view the land use
plan of the city. Broad cost estimates are also framed for clearance and approval of
master plan by competent authorities. Its main objective is to direct and control DPR
formulation consistent and conducive with the master plan framework and provision
so that future sectorial development of storm drainage infrastructure should function
as whole system of master plan rather than separate part.

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2.13 Preparation of Reports

Identification and Pre-Feasibility Reports are prepared before framing of detailed

project report which is oriented to get initial approvals to proceed on preparation of
DPRs. The approach for preparation of Identification and Pre-Feasibility report are
adequately explained in Chapter 3 of Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment,
2013 of Part A: Engineering, and can be referred.

2.13.1 Preparation of DPR

DPR preparation is an important stage to capture all existing relevant details and also
the proposal along with cost estimate, layout maps and other relevant documents as
explained in following paras. DPR should contain the following:

i. Executive Summary
ii. Introduction
iii. Project Planning Area
iv. Existing situation
v. Proposed project planning and detailed design
vi. Environmental Impact Assessment
vii. Cost estimation
viii. Key Plan/Map/Longitudinal Section
ix. Annexures

2.13.1.1 Executive Summary

An Executive summary should be briefly describing the needs, objectives, project proposals,
cost, the life of project, beneficiaries, implementation schedule, results of Social,
Environmental Studies/Analysis, funding sources, institutional arrangement, annual O & M,
economical & financial analysis, etc. It should be provided at the beginning of the project
report which is just like project at a glance for the project authorities to understand the project
and its benefits, its financial and technical viability so that the authorities may take decisions
for funding and implementing the project.

2.13.1.2 Introduction

The section should provide a brief history of project, existing situation, its needs, project area
and location, topography, contour plans, rainfall pattern, which are essentially required for
storm drainage plans, rivers and streams either fringing or crossing the project area, findings

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 2
Project Planning and Investigation

of earlier studies, whether data/ information collected is adequate and sufficient to formulate
the comprehensive project. Whether earlier studies have suggested an appropriate design
storm that could cope with frequent flooding and congestion. Whether history of specific
storm tracks that led to heavy flooding have been recorded. The summary of aforesaid
elements shall be provided with map showing the topography and landscape of the project
area.

2.13.1.3 Project Planning Area

The factors that influence the determination of the project area include natural topography,
layout of buildings, political boundaries, economic factors, CMP, etc. For larger drainage
areas, though it is desirable that the drain capacities are designed for the total project area,
sometimes the political boundaries and legal restrictions prevent construction of drains
beyond the limits of the local authority. However, when designing drains for larger areas,
there is usually an economic advantage in providing adequate capacity initially for a certain
period of time and constructing additional drains, when the pattern of growth becomes
established. The need to finance projects within the available resources necessitates the
design to be restricted to political boundaries. The project area under consideration should
be marked on a key plan so that the area can be measured from the map.

2.13.1.4 Existing situation

Existing storm drainage facilities if available in the planning area, essential relevant
data of the system shall be gathered from town/city authorities and examined its
viability to function and accommodate the current design storm runoff. The condition
and age of the drainage infrastructure shall be determined to assess its further life.
This evaluation and assessment of the existing system if found satisfactory and fit for
integration with proposed system then the existing system should be dovetailed with
the proposed system.

2.13.1.5 Proposed Project and detailed design

This section shall deal with the following aspects:

i. Topographical survey of the project area and types & area of different surfaces
in the project area.
ii. Contour plans, Location of outfall structures.
iii. GIS map for storm water drainage system

iv. Rainfall data (intensity duration) for a long period not less than 25 years,
preferably more years.
v. Frequency analysis for design storms as recommended for the project area.

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Project Planning and Investigation

vi. The proposed network of surface drains or subsurface drains drawn on the map
showing location of manholes and street inlets, catchment/ basin, etc. The
network of surface drains is proposed considering Service level benchmarking.
vii. Design of proposed drain either manually or by aid of computer software.

viii. A brief description of each component of project should be given with relevant
maps and drawings
ix. Function, location, design criteria, and capacity of each component should be
provided.

x. Description of the technical integration of the existing drainage system, if any,

with the proposed project. In case the existing system is unworkable, suggest
means either to improve or rehabilitate, if feasible.

xi. Technical specification and performance specifications should be clearly defined

and recorded.

xii. Phasing out year-wise work schedule to achieve required service levels with
respect to coverage and nil incidence of flooding and correlate its improvement.

2.13.1.6 Environmental Impact Assessment

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Study and Social Study should be done for
the construction and post-construction period. Adverse effect shall be examined and
suggestion for remedial measures will be provided if any.

2.13.1.7 Cost Estimation

Detailed cost estimates based on SOR effective in the project area or analysed rates
of items not covered under SOR at current market rate should be prepared. Total
capital investment thus estimated should be broken into annual cash flow required
considering the time of completion as stipulated under the project objective. Method
of financing of project may also be dealt by identifying all sources of funding to
implement the project, indicating year-wise requirement from these sources and to
meet expenditure as planned for completing the project as per schedule. Estimated
cost of operation and maintenance of the facility for a period of 5 to 10 years from the
probable year of commissioning should be worked out including annual operating cost
considering salary of staff and other allied service benefits, cost of chemicals, energy,
transport, routine maintenance of civil works, maintenance of electrical/mechanical
equipment including normal cost or replacement of spares and supervision charges

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 2
Project Planning and Investigation

2.13.1.8 Implementation Schedule

Detailed and realistic implementation schedule for all project components taking into
consideration, stage of preparation of detailed design and drawings, additional field
investigations required, if any, time required for preparing tender documents, notice
period, processing of tenders, award of work/supply contract, actual construction
period, time required for procurement of materials and equipment, testing, trials of
individual components and systems and commissioning of facilities etc.
Implementation schedule for support activities such as staff training, improving billing
and accounting, consumer involvement, etc. should also be prepared as well as timing
of undertaking these components and agencies involved.

2.13.1.9 Conclusions and Recommendations

This section should discuss the justification of the project in terms of objectives to be
achieved, cost-effectiveness, affordability, tariffs, and willingness to pay user charges
from beneficiaries to accept the services. To establish financial viability cost-benefit
analysis and internal rate of return for entire project cycle may be worked out and
provided in the report. Phasing of works, in view of construction of all types of drains -
primary, secondary and tertiary in a catchment area should be done during the project
execution period, considering priority areas in the city. It should also be provided in
the project report.

2.13.1.10 Checklist for DPR preparation

A checklist has been prepared and placed in Appendix 2.1, which can be referred to
by the users of this manual towards preparation/scrutiny of DPRs of storm water
drainage.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

CHAPTER 3: RAINFALL ANALYSIS

3.1 General

In storm water drainage system design, estimation of runoff from the tributary
catchment reaching various inlets of the drain is important. This can be estimated if
Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF) curves are available. The IDF curve is drawn based
on rainfall data analysis of the project area obtained from the daily rainfall charts of
Self-recording Rain Gauge (SRRG) stations of Indian Meteorological Department
(IMD).

In this Chapter, the rainfall data obtained from SRRG station of IMD has been
analysed, and the procedure for construction of IDF curve using Empirical method is
explained. Once IDF curve for required return period are constructed, the same can
be used for estimation of runoff using rational method. Probabilistic methods for
constructing IDF curves have also been explained in brief.

3.2 Rainfall

Rainfall is a form of precipitation. The term precipitation is a generic term used to

denote all types of precipitation that reaches surface of the earth from the atmosphere
such as rainfall, snowfall, frost, hail, sleet, drizzle, glaze, and dew. Rainfall (water
drops of size 0.5 mm – 6 mm) is the major form of precipitation that causes stream
flow as well as flood flow in rivers. Variation in magnitude and duration of rainfall in
different parts of the country leads to potential of flooding of urban areas where the
drainage systems are inadequate. Based on the magnitude, the rainfall is classified as
Very light Rain (0.1- 2.4 mm/day), Light Rain (2.5 – 15.5 mm/day), Moderate Rain
(15.6 – 64.4 mm/day), Heavy Rain (64.5 – 115.5 mm/day), Very Heavy Rain (115.6 –
204.4 mm/day) and Extremely Heavy Rain (>204.5 mm/day).

3.2.1 Measurement of Rainfall

Rainfall is measured by two types of gauges:

i. Self-recording type
ii. Non-recording type

Self-recording type rain gauges automatically record daily a continuous plot of rainfall
depth against time down to 15 minutes interval or even less, whereas, non–recording
rain gauges can only record cumulative rainfall for a day that is measured daily at site.
The data collected using non-recording gauges are of limited use for design purpose.
Hence, non-recording gauges are being gradually replaced in Indian subcontinent.

24
Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

Therefore, the mechanism of types of self – recording gauges that are in current use
has been discussed as follows:

3.2.1.1 Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge

Tipping bucket type rain gauge is a 30 cm sized circular rain gauge adopted for use.
It has 30 cm diameter sharp-edged receiver, and at the end of the receiver, a funnel
is provided.
Pair of buckets is pivoted under this funnel in such a manner that when one bucket
receives 0.25 mm of precipitation (rainfall), it tips discharging its rainfall into the
container, bringing the other bucket under the funnel as shown in Fig 3.1.

Figure 3. 1 Tipping bucket type rain gauge

Tipping of bucket completes an electric circuit causing the movement of the pen to
mark on a clock driven receiving drum which carries a recorded sheet. These electric
pulses generated are recorded at the control room far away from the rain gauge
station. This instrument is further suited for digitalizing the output signal.

3.2.1.2 Weighing Bucket Type Rain Gauge

Weighing bucket type rain gauge is the most common self-recording rain gauge. It
consists of a receiver bucket supported by a spring or lever balance or some other
weighing mechanism. The movement of bucket due to its increased weight is
transmitted to a pen which traces record or some marking on a clock-driven chart as
shown in Fig 3.2.

Weighing bucket type rain gauge instrument gives a plot of the accumulated
(increased) rainfall values against the elapsed time and the curve so formed is called
the mass curve.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

Figure 3. 2 Weighing Bucket Type Rain Gauge

3.2.1.3 Floating or Natural Syphon Type Rain Gauge

The working of this type of rain gauge is similar to weighing bucket rain gauge. A funnel
receives the water which is collected in a rectangular container. A float is provided at
the bottom of container, and this float rises as the water level rises in the container as
shown in Figure 3.3. Its movement is recorded by a pen moving on a recording drum
actuated by a clockwork.

Figure 3. 3: Natural Syphon or Float Type Rain Gauge

When the water rises, this float reaches to the top, and then syphon comes into
operation and releases the water outwards through the connecting pipe, thus all water
in box is drained out. This rain gauge is adopted as the standard recording rain gauge
in India.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

Note: In most of the cases, IMD has installed Self – Recoding Rain Gauge (SRRG) in
various cities and towns and the necessary desired/required data may be collected by
the Project Implementing Agency. In case, SRRGs are installed by the States/Cities
or any Agencies on their own, the necessary desired/required data may be facilitated
to the Project Implementing Agencies, as per State Rules.

3.3 Rain Gauge Density

The rain gauge density in a catchment is defined as the ratio of the total area of the
catchment to the total number of rain gauge stations in the catchment. The term gives
the average area served by each gauge. World Meteorological Organization, WMO
(2008) has given guidelines regarding the minimum network density for urban areas
as one rain gauge per 10 - 20 Sq.km. As per disaster management point of view,
NDMA (National Disaster Management Authority) has recommended ARGs
(Automatic Rain Gauge Stations) should be installed in all urban cities (Class I, II and
III) with a density of 1 per 4 sq km.

Accordingly, following rain gauge density is recommended in urban areas:

i. Population more than 10 Lakh : 1 rain gauge per 5 - 10 Sq.km.

ii. Population between 1 Lakh to 10 Lakh : 1 rain gauge per 10 - 20 Sq.km.
iii. Population less than 1 Lakh : 1 rain gauge per town.

3.4 Rainfall Analysis

Rainfall analysis is carried out to identify and sort out various magnitudes (intensities)
of rainfall events and their corresponding durations occurring at a station from a
continuous series of historical rainfall records taken for a fairly long period viz. last
25 - 30 years or more. IDF curves are not static as they are influenced by change in
pattern of rainfall and therefore IDF curve should be prepared at an interval of 5 – 10
years for accurate results. The rainfall analysis helps to establish intensity-duration-
frequency relationship for various frequencies which are used in estimation of runoff
for design of storm water drains. The frequency or return period of a storm event may
be defined as the average recurrence interval between events equal to or exceeding
a specified magnitude. Thus, if it is stated that the return period of rainfall of 20 cm in
24 hours is 10 years at a certain station A, it implies that on an average rainfall
magnitudes equal to or greater than 20 cm in 24 hours occur once in 10 years.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

3.4.1 Steps for Analysis of Rainfall

To illustrate the procedure of rainfall analysis, a continuous series of rainfall intensity and corresponding durations of historical storms
of 29 years of Bhubaneshwar town is obtained from SRRG charts of each day from IMD rain gauge station at Bhubaneshwar. The
data has been analysed for various return periods. Procedure is explained by the following steps:

STEP 1: The SRRG tabulated data may be obtained from IMD. In case, the tabulated data is not readily available then the SRRG
Charts may be analysed to tabulate the data as explained with the help of a one day chart in the following Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4: SRRG Chart for 24 hrs

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

From the sample SRRG chart given in Figure 3.4, tabulate rainfall of individual storm, its duration and find out intensity as given in
the Table 3.1:
Table 3.1: Storm of intensities corresponding to duration
Year Month Date Sr. No of No of Time in Time No of Rainfall in Rainfall
Storms in Horizontal (minutes) (Hours) Vertical, mm Intensity 'I'
Particular Divisions Divisions mm/hr
Day
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)= (f)/60 (h) (i)=(h)x0.5 (j)= (i)/(g)
2006 July 25 1 1 15 0.25 5 2.50 10
2 3 45 0.75 4.75 2.375 3.17
3 7 105 1.75 4.75 2.375 1.36
4 1 15 0.25 5.5 2.75 11.0
5 1 15 0.25 20 10.0 40.0
6 1 15 0.25 2 1.0 4.0
7 2 30 0.5 1 0.5 1.0
8 0.5 7.5 0.125 4.5 2.25 18.0
9 1 15 0.25 12.5 6.25 25.0
10 1 15 0.25 8.25 4.125 16.5
11 3.5 52.5 0.875 2.75 1.375 1.57

Sort out the storms in various group of intensities corresponding to the duration of occurrence of storms. The number of storms are
calculated and grouped in intensities of 5 – 10 mm/hr, 10-15 m/hr and so on corresponding to each group of duration of occurrence
as shown in the Table 3.2. Rainfall intensity below 5 mm/hr has not been taken for analysis.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

Table 3. 2: Sorted storms against intensity and duration

Duration Intensity (mm/Hr.)

in Mins 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60 60-75 75-90 90-120 120-150 >50
Upto 5 5
5 to 10 10 1
10 to 15 15 1 1 1 1 1
15 to 20 20
20 to 25 25
25 to 30 30
30 to 40 40
40 to 50 50
50 to 60 60
60 to 75 75
75 to 90 90
90 to 105 105
105 to 120 120

STEP 2: Similarly, sort no of occurrences of rainfall intensities against corresponding duration for entire sample size of rainfall data
obtained using MS Excel as shown in the Table 3.3.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

Table 3. 3: Sorted storms against intensity and duration

Duration Intensity (mm/Hr.)

in min 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60 60-75 75-90 90-120 120-150 >150
Upto 5 35 13 22 4 11 1 2 3 5 2 4 3 3 1 1 1
5 to 10 149 40 57 23 14 4 7 6 7 2 7 4 4 1 1
10 to 15 151 69 45 23 21 17 18 4 5 2 1 5 3 1 2
15 to 20 4 2 6 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
20 to 25 53 30 16 8 8 3 9 2 3 0 0 2 0
25 to 30 89 53 37 32 22 5 11 5 5 3 0 0 0
30 to 40 41 13 10 9 1 1 5 2 0 0 1 0 0
40 to 50 81 41 23 9 11 6 9 2 2 3 0 0 1
50 to 60 55 37 29 20 5 5 9 1 3 1 1 1 1
60 to 75 32 21 16 10 14 5 3 2 1 1 1
75 to 90 46 19 11 11 3 3 1 2 1
90 to 105 30 13 4 4 5 2 0 2
105 to
19 15 8 5 0 3 1
120

STEP 3: Add number of storms of all exceeding intensities to the preceding /lesser intensities storms. For instance, in Table 3.3,
number of storms corresponding to 5 min duration and various intensity groups i.e. 5 - 10 are added as 35 + 13 + 22 + 4+ 11 + 1 + 2
+ 3 + 5 + 2 + 4 + 3 + 3 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 111. Similarly, number of storms are added horizontally for each duration of storms and tabulated
in Table 3.4.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

Table 3. 4: Number of storms after horizontal addition

Duration in No. of Storms of Intensity(mm/Hr) or more
minutes ≥5 ≥10 ≥15 ≥20 ≥25 ≥30 ≥35 ≥40 ≥45 ≥50 ≥55 ≥60 ≥75 ≥90 ≥120 ≥150
Up to 5 111 76 63 41 37 26 25 23 20 15 13 9 6 3 2 1
5 to 10 326 177 137 80 57 43 39 32 26 19 17 10 6 2 1 0
10 to 15 367 216 147 102 79 58 41 23 19 14 12 11 6 3 2 0
15 to 20 12 8 6 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
20 to 25 134 81 51 35 27 19 16 7 5 2 2 2 0 0 0 0
25 to 30 262 173 120 83 51 29 24 13 8 3 0 0 0 0 0 0
30 to 40 83 42 29 19 10 9 8 3 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
40 to 50 188 107 66 43 34 23 17 8 6 4 1 1 1 0 0 0
50 to 60 168 113 76 47 27 22 17 8 7 4 3 2 1 0 0 0
60 to 75 106 74 53 37 27 13 8 5 3 2 2 1 0 0 0 0
75 to 90 97 51 32 21 10 7 4 3 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
90 to 105 60 30 17 13 9 4 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
105 to 120 51 32 17 9 4 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

STEP 4: Add number of storms of all exceeding durations to the preceding / lesser duration storms. For instance in Table 3.4, number
of storms corresponding to ≥ 5 mm/hr intensity are added as 111+ 326+ 367+ 12+ 134+ 262+ 83+ 188+ 168+ 106+ 97+ 60+ 51=1965.
Similarly, number of storms are added vertically for each Intensity and tabulated in Table 3.5.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

Table 3. 5: Number of storms after vertical addition

Duration in No. of Storms of Intensity(mm/Hr) or more

minutes ≥5 ≥10 ≥15 ≥20 ≥25 ≥30 ≥35 ≥40 ≥45 ≥50 ≥55 ≥60 ≥75 ≥90 ≥120 ≥150
5 1965 1180 814 533 375 259 204 128 99 66 53 37 20 8 5 1
10 1854 1104 751 492 338 233 179 105 79 51 40 28 14 5 3 0
15 1528 927 614 412 281 190 140 73 53 32 23 18 8 3 2 0
20 1161 711 467 310 202 132 99 50 34 18 11 7 2 0 0 0
25 1149 703 461 307 199 130 97 49 33 17 10 6 2 0 0 0
30 1015 622 410 272 172 111 81 42 28 15 8 4 2 0 0 0
40 753 449 290 189 121 82 57 29 20 12 8 4 2 0 0 0
50 670 407 261 170 111 73 49 26 19 11 7 4 2 0 0 0
60 482 300 195 127 77 50 32 18 13 7 6 3 1 0 0 0
75 314 187 119 80 50 28 15 10 6 3 3 1 0 0 0 0
90 208 113 66 43 23 15 7 5 3 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
105 111 62 34 22 13 8 3 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
120 51 32 17 9 4 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

STEP 5: As given in Chapter 4, choose Design Return Period for the project area. Accordingly, determine number of storms allowed
to exceed the design rainfall intensity (mm/hr). For example, the required numbers of storm events having intensity equal to or more
than design intensity for once in 5 year occurrence for 29 years rainfall data will be 29/5 i.e. 5.8 times on an average may exceed
over a period of 29 years.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

STEP 6: Draw a stepped line say for once in 5 year recurrence (5.8 no.) of occurrences occurring in intensity column and interpolate
the corresponding duration (min) as shown in Table 3.6. Similarly, draw stepped lines for other return periods if required.

Table 3. 6: Stepped line for number of storms for 5 year storm return period
Duration in No. of Storms of Intensity(mm/Hr) or more
minutes ≥5 ≥10 ≥15 ≥20 ≥25 ≥30 ≥35 ≥40 ≥45 ≥50 ≥55 ≥60 ≥75 ≥90 ≥120 ≥150
5 1965 1180 814 533 375 259 204 128 99 66 53 37 20 8 5 1
10 1854 1104 751 492 338 233 179 105 79 51 40 28 14 5 3 0
15 1528 927 614 412 281 190 140 73 53 32 23 18 8 3 2 0
20 1161 711 467 310 202 132 99 50 34 18 11 7 2 0 0 0
25 1149 703 461 307 199 130 97 49 33 17 10 6 2 0 0 0
30 1015 622 410 272 172 111 81 42 28 15 8 4 2 0 0 0
40 753 449 290 189 121 82 57 29 20 12 8 4 2 0 0 0
50 670 407 261 170 111 73 49 26 19 11 7 4 2 0 0 0
60 482 300 195 127 77 50 32 18 13 7 6 3 1 0 0 0
75 314 187 119 80 50 28 15 10 6 3 3 1 0 0 0 0
90 208 113 66 43 23 15 7 5 3 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
105 111 62 34 22 13 8 3 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
120 51 32 17 9 4 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

STEP 7: Intensity duration as interpolated in Step 6 is given in the Table 3.7.

Table 3. 7: Intensity Duration for Storm of once in 5 year

Duration Intensity
(min) (mm/hr)

116.83 25
112.87 30
94.12 35
87.3 40
75.5 45
64.12 50
60.5 55
25.25 60
16.75 75
8.5 90

STEP 8: Establish Intensity Duration Frequency relationship

IDF relationship formulae are empirical ones that were developed based on the
observation that as the time duration of storm increases the intensity of storm
𝑎
decreases. Bernard equation is commonly adopted i.e. 𝐼 = 𝑡 𝑛 for Indian conditions.
The constants of the equation are found out by the curve fitting technique, which is
described as follows:

𝑎
The equation I = 𝑡 𝑛 on logarithmic scale turns into the following form which is a straight
line equation,

log 𝐼 = log 𝑎 − 𝑛 log 𝑡 (3.1)

Where,

I : Intensity of rainfall (mm/hr)

T : Rainfall duration (min)
a and n : Constant

Thus by plotting I and t on log-log graph paper, the trend line can be approximated to
a straight line of best fit. The slope of this line will give the value of ‘n’ and its intercept
on Y-axis will give the value of ‘a’.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

For example, Intensities durations analysed for 5 year return period for Bhubaneswar
town as tabulated and given in the Table 3.7 is plotted on log – log paper. Constants
‘a’ and ‘n’ are determined.

Table 3. 8: Log – log graph between Intensity Duration for Storm Return Period
for once in 5 year

Intensity 100 y = 240.81x-0.416

Duration
(I) R² = 0.8586
(min)
(mm/hr) Intensity (mm/hr)
116.83 25
112.87 30
94.12 35 10
87.3 40
75.5 45
64.12 50
60.5 55 1
25.25 60 1 10 100 1000
16.75 75 Duration (min)
8.5 90

From the log – log graph, a and n values can be read as 240.81 and 0.416
respectively.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

STEP 9: After the constants are determined, the intensities for various durations such as 5, 10, 15, 20, minutes and so on can be
𝑎
determined by Bernald Equation i.e. I = 𝑡 𝑛 . Intensities and durations so computed are plotted on arithmetic graph paper and
joined with smooth curve to trace the IDF curve of given frequency as carried out in Table 3.9.

Table 3.9: IDF for Storm of Once in a 5 Year

Duration Intensity
(min) (mm/hr)
5 123.28
140.00
10 92.40
15 78.06
120.00
20 69.25
25 63.11
100.00
30 58.50
Intensity (mm/hr)

35 54.87 80.00
40 51.91
45 49.42 60.00
50 47.30
60 43.85 40.00
70 41.13
80 38.90
20.00

90 37.04
0.00
100 35.45
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135
110 34.08
Duration (min)
120 32.87

Similarly, IDF curves for other return periods can be prepared.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

3.4.2 Other Method of Rainfall Analysis

IMD provides SRRG Chart or Table for 15 min interval Depth – Duration point rainfall data. The following method may also be
employed for rainfall analysis to get more accurate results:

1. Collect continuous observed rainfall data in successive 15 min intervals from IMD for a fairly long period (minimum 25-30 years)
or more.
2. Analyse one rainfall event into depth and duration for 15 min, 30 min, 45 min and so on as analysed in the following example given
in Table 3.10 for 90 min rainfall event.

Table 3. 10: Rainfall Analysis of single storm

Time Rainfall in Successive Successive Successive Successive Successive

interval – mm – 15 interval rainfall interval rainfall interval rainfall interval rainfall interval rainfall
15 min mm Depth – 30 min Depth – 45 min Depth – 60 min Depth – 75 min Depth – 90 min
(min)
0 0
15 4
15 8 12
15 16.5 24.5 28.5
15 11.5 28 36 40
15 7 18.5 35 43 47
15 10.5 17.5 29 45.5 53.5 57.5

Similarly, analyse all rainfall events into depths and corresponding duration occurring during the entire sample size and convert
the depths into intensity.

3. Sort out and tabulate numbers of storms of various intensities as analysed above for corresponding durations and from the
observed storm events of the entire sample size as shown in table 3.11.

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 Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

Table 3. 11: Number of storms of intensities against corresponding duration

10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 90-100 100-110 110-120 120-130 I > 130
Duration
mm/hr mm/hr mm/hr mm/hr mm/hr mm/hr mm/hr mm/hr mm/hr mm/hr mm/hr mm/hr mm/hr
(min)
No. of storms of intensity for 25 Year
15 419 263 165 76 44 24 33 8 2 2 2 1 1
30 126 130 87 49 30 16 10 3 3 1 2
45 48 54 54 24 14 11 1 2 3
60 31 26 25 19 7 4 1 2
75 18 6 15 11 5 1 1
90 8 3 8 9 4 1

4. Add the number of occurrences of Rainfall Intensities equal or exceeded against corresponding duration. For instance in
Table 3.11, number of storms corresponding to 15 min duration is added as 419 + 263+ 165+ 76+ 44+ 24+ 33+ 8+2+ 2+ 2+
1+ 1=1040.

Table 3. 12: Number of storms of intensity or more against corresponding duration

Duration 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
(min) No. of storms of intensity or more for a period 25 Year
15 1040 621 358 193 117 73 49 16 8 6 4 2 1
30 457 331 201 114 65 35 19 9 6 3 2
45 211 163 109 55 31 17 6 5 3
60 115 84 58 33 14 7 3 2
75 57 39 33 18 7 2 1
90 33 25 22 14 5 1

5. Subsequently, the procedure for IDF curve preparation is same as given in Step 5 to Step 9 of section 3.4.1

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

3.5 Probabilistic Method

The variability of hydrologic data is partly deterministic and partly random. Such
random variables can be well predicted by Probabilistic methods such as Gumbel
Distribution or Log Pearson Type III Distribution Method. Therefore method of
frequency analysis by Gumbel method which is widely used in India has been applied
for construction of IDF Curve as described below:

a) Normal Distribution
b) Log-Normal Distribution
c) Gumbel Extreme Value Distribution
d) Log Pearson Type III Distribution

3.5.1 Normal Distribution and Log Normal Distribution

The normal and log-normal distribution can only give good results if the skewness
coefficient of data series is equal to zero. As rainfall data can hardly comply with
these conditions, hence it is commonly not applied for frequency analysis of such
data.

3.5.2 Gumbel Extreme Value Distribution

The extreme value distribution introduced by Gumbel is commonly known as Gumbel

distribution. It is widely used probability distribution function for extreme values in
hydrologic and meteorological studies for prediction of flood peak and maximum
rainfall etc. Gumbel distribution is widely used in Indian sub-continent. Therefore, the
process of the analysis is described below:

The equation is given as

𝑋𝑇 = 𝑢 +  𝑦𝑇 (3.2)

Where u and  are the mode of distribution and sample moments respectively which
is given by the following equation.

𝑢 = 𝑋̅ − 0.5772𝛼 (3.3)

√6
𝛼 = (𝜋 )𝜎 (3.4)

A reduced variate 𝑦𝑇 for a return period can be defined as

𝑇
𝑦𝑇 = −𝑙𝑛 [𝑙𝑛 (𝑇−1)] (3.5)

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

Where,

XT : T year return period value

𝑋̅ : Mean of the N observations
(𝑿− 𝑋̅)𝟐
σ : Standard deviation of N observations =√ 𝑵−𝟏
X : Rainfall Event
T : Recurrence interval (Storm Return Period)
N : Sample size

3.5.2.1 Construction of IDF curve by Gumbel Distribution method

Rainfall Data has been obtained from IMD of the Safdarjung rain gauge station.
Following steps are to be taken for the construction of IDF Curve by Gumbel Method:

Step 1: Determine the maximum depth of rainfall of each rainfall event for
15,30,45,60.....minutes interval occurring on one day, i.e. 25.7.1982 as given in Table
3.13

Table 3. 13: Maximum rainfall depth

Time Successive Successive Successive Successive Successive Successive

interval – interval interval interval interval interval interval
15 min rainfall rainfall rainfall rainfall rainfall rainfall
(min) Depth– 15 Depth – 30 Depth – 45 Depth – 60 Depth – 75 Depth – 90
mm min min min min min
0 0
15 4
15 8 12
15 16.5 24.5 28.5
15 11.5 28 36 40
15 7 18.5 35 43 47
15 10.5 17.5 29 45.5 53.5 57.5
Max 16.5 28 36 45.5 53.5 57.5
Rainfall

Similarly, determine maximum rainfall depth and duration for all rainfall events
occurring each day for the entire year and then find out the maximum rainfall depth
and duration occurring in the year for 15,30,45…minutes for 25 years.

Step-2: Similarly, maximum rainfall depths of each year for 15,30,45,60.......minutes

duration is obtained for entire sample size i.e. 25 years, and thus annual maximum
series has been prepared as given in Table 3.14.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

Table 3. 14: Maximum annual series Rainfall Depth (mm)

15 30 45 60 75 90
Year
min min min min min min
1979 21.5 25.5 32.5
1980 16.5 26 38 40.2 25.3 28.6
1981 13.5 18 24 19.5 23 26
1982 21 37.5 43.2 47 53.5 57.5
1983 10.6 18.6 16.6 20.3
1984 27 41.5 58
1985 18.8 34.8 34 45 49
1986 21.5 41 16.3 19.5 23.3
1987 18.5 26
1988 20.2 22.7 20.5 23.5
1989 22 40 47.5 52.8 42 45
1990 35.8 55.8 85.8 109.8 125.8 135.8
1991 20.7 27.5 34 44 50.5
1992 22 34 38.2 40.2 39
1993 18.5 26 30 36.5 41.5 50
1994 41 56 61.5 56
1995 19 30.5 40.5 45
1996 18 36 50 61 17.3 19.8
1997 34 25 34 38.3 21 23
1998 30 50 70 82 86.5 91.5
1999 18
2000 20 32.5 50.3 60.3 55 61.5
2001 27 28 47 53
2002 29 30 32.5 15.2 19 23.6
2003 30 40 37.8 28

Step-3: Gumbel distribution is applied on the above tabulated annual series to obtain
maximum values for annual rainfall depth corresponding to 15,30,45,60....minutes
duration for 5 years storm return period and subsequently converted into intensity as
shown in the table 3.15.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

Table 3. 15: Computation using Gumbel distribution method

15 min 30 min 45 min 60 min 75 min 90 min

Mean ( 𝑋̅ ) 22.96 33.45 40.97 44.62 44.78 51.12
Standard Deviation (σ) 7.12 10.38 16.74 22.38 29.14 35.57
√6
𝛼 = (𝜋 )𝜎 5.549 8.09 13.05 17.44 22.71 27.72

19.76 28.78 33.44 34.55 31.67 35.12

𝑢 = 𝑋̅ − 0.5772𝛼
For T = 5 years
𝑇
𝑦𝑇 = −𝑙𝑛 [𝑙𝑛 ( )] 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
𝑇−1
𝑋𝑇 = 𝑢 +  𝑦𝑇 28.08 40.92 53.01 60.72 65.74 76.7
Intensity in mm/hr 112.3 81.83 70.68 60.72 52.59 51.13

Step 4: Plot Intensity Duration Frequency for the above obtained values:

Gumbel distribution method

120
100
Intensity in mm/hr

80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Duaration in min

Figure 3.5: IDF curve for 5 year Return Period

3.5.3 Log Pearson Type III Distribution

Log Pearson type III distribution is widely used for frequency analysis for stream flows
and can also be used for rainfall. The values obtained by Log Pearson type III
distribution is more satisfactory as it has three-parameter distribution that considers
mean, standard deviation, and skewness of data series. Process of computations
described as follows:

 The variate (data series) is transformed into a logarithmic form either on

base (10 or e), and the transformed data is then analysed.
 If X is the variate of random hydrologic series then the series of Z variates
where Z = log X

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

For this Z series, for any recurrence interval, T, the equation

𝑍𝑇 = 𝑍̅ + 𝐾𝑧 𝜎 (3.6)
Where,
𝐾𝑧 : Frequency factor which is function of recurrence interval T and coefficient
of skew Cs
𝜎 : ∑(𝑍−𝑍̅)2 1/2
Standard deviation of Z variate sample [ 𝑁−1 ]
Cs : ∑(𝑍−𝑍̅)3 1/3
Coefficient of skew of variate Z = 𝑁 [(𝑁−1)(𝑁−2)𝜎3 ]
Z̅ : Mean of the Z values
𝑁 : sample size
The variation of 𝐾𝑧 = f (Cs , T) is given in Table 3.16 and Table 3.17

After finding out ZT, the corresponding value of XT can be obtained by taking antilog
of ZT

Table 3.16: Kz values for Pearson Type III distribution (Positive Skew)

Return period in years

Skew
2 5 10 25 50 100 200
coefficient
Cs Exceedance probability
0.50 0.20 0.10 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.005
3.0 -0.396 0.420 1.180 2.278 3.152 4.051 4.970
2.9 -0.390 0.440 1.195 2.277 3.134 4.013 4.909
2.8 -0.384 0.460 1.210 2.275 3.114 3.973 4.847
2.7 -0.376 0.479 1.224 2.272 3.093 3.932 4.783
2.6 -0.368 0.499 1.238 2.267 3.071 3.889 4.718
2.5 -0.360 0.518 1.250 2.262 3.048 3.845 4.652
2.4 -0.351 0.537 1.262 2.256 3.023 3.800 4.584
2.3 -0.341 0.555 1.274 2.248 2.997 3.753 4.515
2.2 -0.330 0.574 1.284 2.240 2.970 3.705 4.444
2.1 -0.319 0.592 1.294 2.230 2.942 3.656 4.372
2.0 -0.307 0.609 1.302 2.219 2.912 3.605 4.298
1.9 -0.294 0.627 1.310 2.207 2.881 3.553 4.223
1.8 -0.282 0.643 1.318 2.193 2.848 3.499 4.147
1.7 -0.268 0.660 1.324 2.179 2.815 3.444 4.069
1.6 -0.254 0.675 1.329 2.163 2.780 3.388 3.990
1.5 -0.240 0.690 1.333 2.146 2.743 3.330 3.910
1.4 -0.225 0.705 1.337 2.128 2.706 3.271 3.828
1.3 -0.210 0.719 1.339 2.108 2.666 3.211 3.745
1.2 -0.195 0.732 1.340 2.087 2.626 3.149 3.661
1.1 -0.180 0.745 1.341 2.066 2.585 3.087 3.575
1.0 -0.164 0.758 1.340 2.043 2.542 3.022 3.489
0.9 -0.148 0.769 1.339 2.018 2.498 2.957 3.401

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

Return period in years

Skew
2 5 10 25 50 100 200
coefficient
Cs Exceedance probability
0.50 0.20 0.10 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.005
0.8 -0.132 0.780 1.336 1.993 2.453 2.891 3.312
0.7 -0.116 0.790 1.333 1.967 2.407 2.824 3.223
0.6 -0.099 0.800 1.328 1.939 2.359 2.755 3.132
0.5 -0.083 0.808 1.323 1.910 2.311 2.686 3.041
0.4 -0.066 0.816 1.317 1.880 2.261 2.615 2.949
0.3 -0.050 0.824 1.309 1.849 2.211 2.544 2.856
0.2 -0.033 0.830 1.301 1.818 2.159 2.472 2.763
0.1 -0.017 0.836 1.292 1.785 2.107 2.400 2.670
0.0 0 0.842 1.282 1.751 2.054 2.326 2.576

Table 3.17: Kz values for Pearson Type III distribution (Negative Skew)

Return period in years

Skew 2 5 10 25 50 100 200
coefficient
Exceedance probability
Cs
0.50 0.20 0.10 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.005
-0.1 0.017 0.846 1.270 1.716 2.000 2.252 2.482
-0.2 0.033 0.850 1.258 1.680 1.945 2.178 2.388
-0.3 0.050 0.853 1.245 1.643 1.890 2.104 2.294
-0.4 0.066 0.855 1.231 1.606 1.834 2.029 2.201
-0.5 0.083 0.856 1.216 1.567 1.777 1.955 2.108
-0.6 0.099 0.857 1.200 1.528 1.720 1.880 2.016
-0.7 0.116 0.857 1.183 1.488 1.663 1.806 1.926
-0.8 0.132 0.856 1.166 1.448 1.606 1.733 1.837
-0.9 0.148 0.854 1.147 1.407 1.549 1.660 1.749
-1.0 0.164 0.852 1.128 1.366 1.492 1.588 1.664
-1.1 0.180 0.848 1.107 1.324 1.435 1.518 1.581
-1.2 0.195 0.844 1.086 1.282 1.379 1.449 1.501
-1.3 0.210 0.838 1.064 1.240 1.324 1.383 1.424
-1.4 0.225 0.832 1.041 1.198 1.270 1.318 1.351
-1.5 0.240 0.825 1.018 1.157 1.217 1.256 1.282
-1.6 0.254 0.817 0.994 1.116 1.166 1.197 1.216
-1.7 0.268 0.808 0.970 1.075 1.116 1.140 1.155
-1.8 0.282 0.799 0.945 1.035 1.069 1.087 1.097
-1.9 0.294 0.788 0.920 0.996 1.023 1.037 1.044
-2.0 0.307 0.777 0.895 0.959 0.980 0.990 0.995
-2.1 0.319 0.765 0.869 0.923 0.939 0.946 0.949
-2.2 0.330 0.752 0.844 0.888 0.900 0.905 0.907
-2.3 0.341 0.739 0.819 0.855 0.864 0.867 0.869
-2.4 0.351 0.725 0.795 0.823 0.830 0.832 0.833

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

Return period in years

Skew 2 5 10 25 50 100 200
coefficient
Exceedance probability
Cs
0.50 0.20 0.10 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.005
-2.5 0.360 0.711 0.771 0.793 0.798 0.799 0.800
-2.6 0.368 0.696 0.747 0.764 0.768 0.769 0.769
-2.7 0.376 0.681 0.724 0.738 0.740 0.740 0.741
-2.8 0.384 0.666 0.702 0.712 0.714 0.714 0.714
-2.9 0.390 0.651 0.681 0.683 0.689 0.690 0.690
-3.0 0.396 0.636 0.666 0.666 0.666 0.667 0.667

3.5.3.1 Construction of IDF curve by Log Pearson type III method

The same data series which has been analysed for Gumbel distribution as given in
Table 3.14 has been used for Log Pearson type III method.

The data series has been transformed in logarithmic series, and the computation is
done as per the given Table 3.18.

Table 3.18: Computation using Log Pearson type III method

15 min 30 min 45 min 60 min 75 min 90 min
Mean (𝒛̅) 3.0894 3.4656 3.6323 3.6818 3.6385 3.7465

Standard Deviation (𝝈) 0.305 0.304 0.418 0.503 0.575 0.624

Coefficient of Skewness (Cs) 0.011 -0.031 0.722 1.054 -2.791 -2.593

T = 5 years
K from WRC 1981 with 0.84134 0.84014 0.7878 0.75098 0.66735 0.69735
Coefficient of Skewness (Cs)
𝒛𝑻 = 𝒛̅ + 𝑲𝒛 𝝈 3.34601 3.721 3.9616 4.05954 4.02223 4.18165
XT = exp (𝒛̅ + 𝑲𝒛 𝝈) 28.389 41.306 52.541 57.948 55.825 65.474
Intensity in mm/hr 113.56 82.61 70.06 57.95 44.66 43.65

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

Log Pearson Type III

140.00
120.00
Intensity in mm/hr

100.00
80.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Duration in minutes

Figure 3. 6: IDF curve from Log Pearson Type III

3.6 Translation of IDF curve into rainfall hyetograph

Hyetograph is a plot of rainfall depth against the time duration. It is usually

represented as a bar chart. The Hyetograph translated from IDF curve can be used
in SWMM model for calculating runoff from the catchment for which IDF curve is
constructed. The Hyetograph can also be superimposed upon unit Hydrograph for a
given catchment to compute the direct runoff hydrograph provided the IDF curve
relates to that catchment. Time area method also uses Hyetograph for computation
of runoff from the catchment.
The alternating block method is a simple way to develop a rainfall hyetograph from
an intensity duration curve for a given storm return period as described in the book
‘Applied Hydrology by Ven Te Chow.’ The rainfall hyetograph generated by this
method specifies the precipitation depth occurring in n successive time intervals of
duration 𝛿𝑡 over a total duration of 𝑇𝑑 = 𝑛𝛿𝑡 . The intensity from a given return period
is read from the IDF curve for each of the duration, and corresponding precipitation
depth is found as product of intensity and duration. By taking difference between
successive precipitation depth values, the amount of precipitation to be added for
each additional unit of time 𝛿𝑡 is found. These increments or blocks are recorded into
a time sequence with maximum intensity occurring at the centre of the required
duration Td, and the remaining blocks are arranged in descending order alternately
to the right and left of the central block to form the required rainfall hyetograph as
shown in the Table 3.19.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 3
Rainfall Analysis

Using the data of Intensity and duration, a sample Hyetograph is prepared as follows:

Table 3. 19: Computation to prepare Hyetograph

Duration Intensity Successive Incremental Time Precipitation
(minutes) (mm/hr) Depth. Depth (Minutes) ( mm )
(mm) (mm)
10 151.38 25.23 25.23 0-10 4.27
20 108.61 36.20 10.97 10-20 4.71
30 89.44 44.72 8.52 20-30 5.36
40 77.92 51.95 7.23 30-40 6.41
50 70.03 58.36 6.41 40-50 8.52
60 64.17 64.17 5.81 50-60 25.23
70 59.6 69.53 5.36 60-70 10.97
80 55.91 74.55 5.01 70-80 7.23
90 52.84 79.26 4.71 80-90 5.81
100 50.24 83.73 4.47 90-100 5.01
110 48 88.00 4.27 100-110 4.47
120 46.04 92.08 4.08 110-120 4.08

Figure 3.7: Hyetograph

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 4
Runoff Estimation

CHAPTER 4: RUNOFF ESTIMATION

4.1 General

The essential requirement for designing of Storm Water Drainage system is the proper
estimation of storm runoff to downstream drains or the point of disposal. It has a
bearing on optimizing the cost of infrastructure as well as its performance. The
parameters like rainfall intensity, imperviousness factor, runoff coefficient, recurrence
period, climate change, and identification/zoning of drainage catchment play an
important role. In chapter 3, the analysis of rainfall has been dealt in detail. In this
chapter various methods of estimation of storm runoff like Rational Method, Time Area
Method, Unit Hydrograph Method, and Rainfall-Runoff Simulation method are
explained.

4.2 Storm Runoff

Runoff from a catchment is that fraction of precipitation which generates surface flow.
It thus represents the output from the catchment corresponding to precipitation in a
given unit of time. For given precipitation, initial losses due to the interception, evapo-
transpiration, infiltration and detention storage requirements have to be first satisfied
before the commencement of runoff. After these losses are met, the excess rainfall
moves over the surface termed as storm runoff. This is illustrated in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Different routes of runoff

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 4
Runoff Estimation

4.3 Factors affecting runoff

The runoff estimation is affected by the following factors of catchment hydrology:

a) Size of Catchment
b) The shape of the Catchment, i.e., Fan-shaped, Fern shaped, Irregular Shaped,
etc.
c) Elevation of the Catchment
d) Drainage Density
e) Type of soil of the catchment
f) Type of cover viz. paved, unpaved, vegetative, etc.
g) Slope and orientation of the catchment
h) Topography (Depression storages/ponds/ lakes) and geology of the catchment
i) Saturation of soil with water due to previous precipitation if any, including the level
of groundwater table.

4.4 Methods of Runoff Estimation

The following methods are generally used for runoff estimation for the design of urban
storm water drainage systems.

1. Rational Method
2. Time Area Method
3. Unit Hydrograph Method
4. Rainfall-Runoff process simulation

The above methods and their use in the design of storm water networks are given
below.

4.4.1 Rational Method

The rational method was developed during the second half of the 19 th century for
estimating design discharge from an urban catchment. Majority of urban storm
drainage systems are designed based on the Rational Method, in as much as 90%
cases across the globe, in spite of having several limitations.

4.4.1.1 Steps of computation for Rational Method

The procedure for the estimation of storm runoff by the rational method is mentioned
in the following steps:

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 4
Runoff Estimation

Step 1: Obtain historical rainfall data of 30 years or more for the given project area
Step 2: Select a return period from Table 4.1 as required
Step 3: Prepare the IDF curve for the above return period as per Chapter 3
Step 4: Demarcate the catchment
Step 5: Determine the time of concentration (tc) as described in section 4.4.1.6
Step 6: Determine rainfall intensity against the time of concentration from IDF curve
Step 7: Determine runoff coefficient (C) as described in section 4.4.1.5
Step 8: Calculate peak flow by Rational formula as given in section 4.4.1.3

4.4.1.2 Design flow

Storm water drains are designed, taking into account the peak flow. The peak flow is
defined as the flow when the entire catchment is contributing to its outlet. This will
occur when the given intensity of rainfall begins instantaneously and continues until
the time of concentration.

4.4.1.3 Procedure for estimation of runoff

If properly understood and applied, the ‘rational method’ can produce satisfactory
results for sizing storm drains, street inlets, and small on-site detention catchments.
The formula for calculating peak flow is given as below:

Qp = 10 C I A (4.1)

Where,
𝑄𝑝 : Peak flow at the point of design, m3/hr
C : Runoff coefficient, dimensionless
I : Average rainfall intensity should be taken for the duration of rainfall equal to the
time of concentration, mm/hr
A : Catchment area, hectares

This formula is dimensionally consistent to other measurement systems.

Although this method is widely used in storm water drainage design, the estimation of
runoff involves the following assumptions:
a) The maximum size of a catchment should be between 8 to 10 sq km
b) Larger catchments can be sub-divided into smaller sub-catchments
c) The peak flow occurs when the entire catchment is contributing to the flow

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 4
Runoff Estimation

d) The rainfall intensity is uniform over the entire catchment

e) The rainfall intensity is uniform over a time duration equal to the time of
concentration
f) The frequency of the computed peak flow is the same as that of the rainfall
intensity corresponding to the return period of the ‘design storm.’
g) The coefficient of runoff is the same for all storms of all recurrence probabilities

4.4.1.4 Design Return Period

The design return period of a storm is an average period of time after which it reoccurs,
for a given rainfall magnitude or more corresponding to a particular duration of time.
This is integral part of IDF curve developed, based on analysis of past rainfall data, for
designing of storm water drainage systems. Depending on importance of the drainage
area, socio-economic conditions of the city and other constraints such as funding for
infrastructure and availability of space for construction of drains, the design return
period of storm should be judiciously adopted in estimation of storm runoff. In view of
the above, the recommended design return period of storms is given in Table 4.1 for
estimation of storm runoff.

Table 4.1: Recommended Design Return Period for various types of urban
catchments

Return Period
S. No. Urban Catchment
Class I Cities** Other cities***
1. Central Business and commercial Once in 5 years Once in 2 years
2. Industrial Once in 5 years Once in 2 years
3. Urban Residential Once in 5 years Once in 2 years
4. Airports and other critical Once in 100 Once in 50
infrastructure* years years

*Critical infrastructure includes Railway Stations, Power stations, etc.

** Class I Cities are cities having population 1 Lakh and above
*** Other cities are cities having population less than 1 lakh
Note:
1. It may not be always feasible to design / retrofit the storm water drains for the
recommended return period in all the cities. In cases where redesigning / retrofitting
is not feasible as per recommended return period due to city profile / site
constraints, efforts should be made to adopt recommended return period by
adopting ‘Best Management Practices, (BMP) like in-situ rainwater harvesting
methods within premises / plots, along the storm water channels / conduits and
storm retention/ detention structures to accommodate the excess runoff. However,
the preferred return period shall be as per those recommended in the Table 4.1
above.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 4
Runoff Estimation

2. Under exceptional circumstances, a high powered committee constituted by State

/ UT Government through a notification may justify the adoption of higher return
period considering techno-economical and socio-environmental conditions than
the one recommended in Table 4.1 after exploring various other available options
to meet the design requirements.

4.4.1.5 Runoff Coefficient

The coefficient of runoff (C), is a function of the nature of surface and assumed to be
the same for all storms of all recurrence probabilities. Recommended values of C on
various surface types of the catchments are given in Table 4.2. While choosing the
values for C, the ultimate development of the catchment as per the master plan should
be taken into consideration.

Table 4.2: Runoff co-efficient of various surfaces

S. No. Type of Area Runoff Coefficient

1 Commercial Area 0.70 – 0.95
2 Industrial Area 0.60 – 0.90
3 Institutional Area 0.70 – 0.95
4 Residential Area 0.60 - 0.75
-High Density 0.40 - 0.60
-Low Density
5 Recreational areas 0.10 - 0.25
6 Pavement 0.70 - 0.95
- Asphaltic Pavement 0.80 – 0.95
- Concrete Pavement 0.70 - 0.85
- Brick Pavement
7 Roof Catchment
- Tiles 0.8-0.9
- Corrugated metal sheets 0.7-0.9
- Concrete 0.7-0.90
Source: Adapted from ASCE and WPCF 1969

Whereas the use of the runoff coefficient implies there is a constant ratio of rainfall to
runoff, the actual ratio will vary over the course of a storm due to the condition of the
area and the variability of the rainfall pattern. A common practice is to use average
coefficients for various types of areas and assumed that the coefficients will be
constant throughout the duration of the storm.

Weighted average runoff coefficient of catchment area containing different character

of surfaces for a flow concentrating at a point may be estimated as follows:

Weighted average of ‘C’ values of different type of urban surfaces should be calculated
by the following formula

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 4
Runoff Estimation

𝐶1 𝐴1 +𝐶2 𝐴2 +𝐶3 𝐴3 +.………

𝐶= (4.2)
𝐴1 +𝐴2 +𝐴3 ……..

Where,

C1, C2, C3 ............... are runoff coefficients of urban surfaces

A1, A2, A3................. are areas of respective urban surfaces

4.4.1.6 Time of Concentration in storm drainage system (tc)

The rainfall intensity (I) in the rational formula is the average rainfall intensity over a
given duration equal to the time of concentration for the drainage area. The rainfall
intensity for the design storm can be obtained from the IDF relationship described in
Chapter 3.

The time of concentration (t c ) is defined as flow travel time taken from the hydraulically
most remote point in the contributory catchment to the point under consideration. The
time of concentration for drain sizing is the time required for water to travel from the
most hydraulically distant point in the total contributing catchment to the design point.
Typically, this time consists of two components:

i. Time for the surface flow to reach the first inlet, i.e., t 0

ii. Time to flow through the storm drainage system to the point of consideration i.e. t f .

tc = t0 + tf (4.3)

The inlet time is dependent on the distance of a farthest point in the drainage
catchment to the inlet manhole as said above, as well as, on the shape, characteristics
and topography of the catchment. It generally varies from 5 to 30 minutes in urban
areas. In hilly areas the inlet time may be as low as 3 minutes, where steep slopes are
encountered. However, the following formula is widely used to determine inlet time to
reasonable accuracy.

4.4.1.6.1 Time of surface flow (t0)

The formula to compute the time of surface flow has been developed by the Corps of
Engineers, USA from airfield drainage data. The method was originally intended for
use on airfield drainage problems but has now been used frequently for surface flow
in urban catchments.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 4
Runoff Estimation

The formula to calculate time of surface flow (𝑡0 ) is given as follows:

0.994 (1.1−C)L0.5
to = (4.4)
S0.333

Where,
t o : Time of surface flow (Minutes)
C : Rational Method runoff coefficient
L : Length of surface flow (m)
S : Surface Slope, in percentage (%)

Note: If slope (S) is expressed as a ratio, then the formula to be applied is

0.218 (1.1−C)L0.5
to = (4.5)
S0.333

4.4.1.6.2 Time of flow (𝐭 𝐟 )

Ldrain
tf = (4.6)
V

The velocity of flow in m/s is computed from the Manning’s equation

1
V= R0.67 S 0.5 (4.7)
n

Where,
V : Velocity of Flow, m/sec
t f : Time of travel, minutes
n : Manning’s roughness coefficient
R : Hydraulic radius, m
S : Longitudinal slope

4.4.1.7 Partial Area Effect

In general, the appropriate time of concentration (tc) for calculation of the flow at any
point is the longest time of travel to that point. However, in some situations, the
maximum flow may occur when only part of the upstream catchment is contributing.
Thus the product of runoff coefficient, lesser catchment area and higher rainfall
intensity which is resulting from a lower tc may produce a greater peak discharge than

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 4
Runoff Estimation

that if the whole upstream catchment is considered. This is known as the ‘partial area
effect’.

This can occur in 2 cases as described below:

i. The first case occurs when a highly impervious section exists at the most
downstream area of a watershed and the total upstream area flows through the
lower impervious area. When this occurs, two separate calculations should be
made. First, calculate the runoff from the total drainage area with its weighted C
value and the intensity associated with the longest time of concentration. Second,
calculate the runoff using only the smaller impervious area. The typical procedure
would be followed using the C value for the small impervious area and the intensity
associated with the shorter time of concentration. Compare the results of these two
calculations and use the largest value of discharge for design.

ii. The second case occurs when a smaller, impervious area is tributary to the larger
primary watershed of less impervious area. When this occurs, two sets of
calculations should also be made. First, calculate the runoff from the total drainage
area with its weighted C value and the intensity associated with the longest time of
concentration. Second, calculate the runoff to consider how much discharge from
the larger primary area is contributing at the same time as the peak from the smaller,
impervious tributary area. When the small area is discharging, some discharge from
the larger primary area is also contributing to the total discharge. In this calculation,
use the intensity associated with the time of concentration from the smaller
impervious area. The portion of the larger primary area to be considered is
determined by this equation:

t
Ac = A tc1 (4.8)
c2

Where,

Ac : Smaller impervious tributary area to the larger drainage area

A : Larger drainage area
tc1 : Time of concentration of the tributary area
tc2 : Time of concentration of larger drainage area

An illustrative example is given in Appendix A 4.1.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 4
Runoff Estimation

4.4.2 Time Area Method

This method applies a convolution of the rainfall excess hyetograph with a time area
diagram representing the progressive area contributions within a catchment in set time
increments to generate runoff hydrograph of total flow to be routed through urban drain
network.

4.4.2.1 Travel Time

The excess rainfall over the catchment causes surface flow that passes through a
catchment channel to the point of catchment outlet. The time taken for surface flow
from different points to the catchment outlet in the drainage catchment is called travel
time. The time will be evidently more for remote points of the catchment and will be
lesser for the points nearer to the catchment outlet. These points can be earmarked
on the catchment from where the flow takes equal time to reach the catchment outlet.
The line joining such points of equal time of travel is called isochrones. Different
isochrones can be drawn expressing different time of flow, and obviously the highest
value of isochrones represents the time of concentration since it is the maximum time
of flow from farthest point of the catchment.

Hydrographs are generated in time area method by convolution of the rainfall excess
hyetograph with a time area graph generating progressive runoff contribution from
sub-catchments within the catchment in set time increments. To apply this method,
the catchment is first divided into a number of time zones separated by lines of equal
travel time (isochrones) to outlet, as shown in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2: Isochrones

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The ordinates of runoff hydrograph can be determined by applying each block of

rainfall excess hyetograph given below in Figure 4.3 to the entire catchment.

Figure 4.3: Hyetograph

The runoff from each sub-area reaches the outfall at lagged intervals defined by the
time area curve, as shown below in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4: Time area curve

The simultaneous arrival of the runoff from areas A1, A2, A3, A4 caused by storm I1, I2,
I3, I4 shall be determined by adequately lagging and adding runoff contributions from
sub-catchments as explained below.
Travel time of each zone is Δt. Rainfall occurs over the entire catchment in time t. Now
in first Δt interval, I1 rainfall has fallen over the entire catchment, and therefore after Δt
interval, the discharge at outlet is contributed by sub-catchment A1 from rainfall I1.
Hence, discharge q1 = A1 * I1

Similarly, I2 rainfall has fallen in second Δt interval, the discharge A2*I1 and A1*I2 reach
simultaneously at the outlet.
Hence discharge, q2= A2 * I1 +A1 * I2

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Similarly by lagging and adding discharges

q3 = A3 *I1 + A2 *I2 + A1 * I3
q4 = A4 *I1 + A3 *I2 + A2 * I3 + A1 * I4

After lapse of 4Δt the rain stops and runoff generated by I1 and I2 are entirely drained
out.
Rest of the incremental rainfalls falling over the sub-catchment subsequently reach
the outlet point as given by lagging and adding sub-catchments flows hereunder.
q5 = A4*I3 + A3*I4 + A2*I3
q6= A4*I4 + A3*I3
q7= 0

A hydrograph can be developed by plotting discharges against time that can be used
for designing channels/ conduits. An illustrative example is given in Appendix A 4.2.

4.4.3 Unit Hydrograph Method

The unit hydrograph method is an outcome of investigation into the geometric

properties of the surface runoff portion of the hydrograph in its relation to an effective
rain that has fallen during a unit time. The unit hydrograph is, therefore, defined as the
hydrograph of direct runoff resulting from a unit depth (1 cm) of rainfall excess
occurring uniformly over the catchment and at a uniform rate for a specified duration
(D hours). A typical 30 min unit hydrograph is shown below in Figure 4.5.

2.5
Discharge (cumecs)

1.5

0.5

0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390
Duration (Min)

Figure 4.5: 30 min Unit Hydrograph

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The unit hydrograph represents the lumped response of the catchment to a unit rainfall
excess of D hr duration to produce a direct runoff hydrograph to the rainfall excess.
Hence the volume of water contained in the unit hydrograph must be equal to rainfall
excess which is considered 1 cm over the entire given catchment.

If the rainfall excess in a duration D hours is r times the unit depth (1 cm), the ordinates
of the resulting DRH will be r times the corresponding ordinates of the D hour unit
hydrograph. Since the area under the D hour DRH should be r times the area under
the corresponding D hour unit hydrograph, the base of the DRH will be the same as
that of the unit hydrograph.

4.4.3.1 Limitations of Unit Hydrograph

i. The upper limit of the catchment area for the use of Unit Hydrograph is prescribed
not to be more than 5000 sq km whereas the lower limit of catchment area may
not be less than 200 Ha;
ii. The catchment should not have large storages in terms of tanks, ponds, large
flood bank storages, etc., which affect the linear relationship between storage and
discharge;
iii. If the precipitation is decidedly non-uniform unit hydrograph cannot be expected
to give good results.

An illustrative example is given in Appendix A 4.3.

This method may not Rainfall-runoff to small urban catchments.

4.4.4 Rainfall- runoff process simulation

Following two methods for simulation of rainfall-runoff process is used for computation
of storm runoff from urban watersheds:

4.4.4.1 Kinematic Wave Equation

This method is applied to describe the overland flow on the catchment considered as
a wide plane with very shallow depth of flow which is technically termed as sheet flow.
For a given rate of rainfall and infiltration varying discharges from unit width of the
catchment can be evaluated and adding discharges of all such unit widths, total
discharge varying with each time step can be computed in shape of hydrograph at the
outlet of the catchment. The Saint Venant equations describe the one-dimensional
unsteady flow, which is applicable in this case. In kinematic wave motion inertial and
pressure forces have negligible effects; therefore continuity equation is given in
equation 4.9 and Manning equation given in equation 4.10 are combined as given in
equation 4.11 which is used to simulate and compute the runoff from the watershed:

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∂𝑦𝑜 ∂𝑞𝑜
+ = (𝐼 − 𝑓) (4.9)
∂t ∂X

𝑞𝑜 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝑦𝑜 )^ 𝑚𝑜 (4.10)

Where,
𝑞𝑜 : Variable flow per unit width of overland flow plane
𝜇𝑜 : (1/N)So0.5
𝑚𝑜 : 5/3
𝑆𝑜 : Average slope of overland flow
𝑦𝑜 : Mean depth of out flow
(I − f) : Rate of excess rainfall (rainfall – infiltration)
t : Time
x : Spatial coordinate
N : Manning roughness coefficient of overland flow (Values may be seen in
Appendix A 5.7)

Combining equations 4.9 and 4.10, Kinematic wave equation is obtained as follows:

∂𝑌𝑜 ∂𝑦𝑜
+ 𝜇𝑜 𝑚𝑜 𝑦𝑜 (𝑚𝑜 −1) = (𝐼 − 𝑓) (4.11)
∂t ∂X

In the application of above formulae the lateral flow is considered equal to difference
between the rates of rainfall and infiltration and the overland flow is taken to be flow
per unit width of the plane. The equation 4.11 has one dependable variable so that it
can be solved to give a relationship for 𝑦𝑜 in terms of x, t and excess rainfall depth
(I − f). Once 𝑦𝑜 is found, it can be substituted back into equation 4.10 to obtain the
value of 𝑞𝑜 . The solution of equation 4.11 can be worked out by finite difference
approximations. Nevertheless, it is easier to solve the equation by computer software
to develop the runoff hydrograph at the outlet of the watershed.

Hydrologic Engineering Center (HEC), US Corps of Engineers research facility in

Davis, California has developed such a computer program named HEC-1 that is widely
used to develop runoff hydrograph from the watershed at its outlet.

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4.4.4.2 Non Linear reservoir method

Nonlinear reservoir method for rainfall runoff simulation can also be used to compute
runoff quantity for single event or long term simulation primarily from urban catchments
as per governing equations discussed below.

Figure 4.6: Nonlinear reservoir model

From the above Figure 4.6, the sub-catchment experiences inflow from precipitation
and losses from evaporation and infiltration. The net excess ponds atop the sub
catchment surface to a depth d. Ponded water above depression storage depth d s can
become runoff outflow q. Depression storage accounts for initial rainfall abstraction.
From conservation of mass, the net change in depth d per unit time is the difference
between inflow and out flow rates over the catchment i.e.

∂d
=I−e−f−q (4.12)
∂t

Where,
I : Rate of rainfall
e : Surface evaporation rate
f : Infiltration rate
q : Runoff rate
I, e, f and q are expressed as flow rate per unit area.

Assuming that flow across the sub catchment surface behaves as it were a uniform
flow within a rectangular channel of width w, height d-ds, and slope s. The Manning’s
equation can be used to express the runoff’s volumetric flow Q as

1 2⁄ 1⁄
Q = N 𝐴𝑋 R 3 So 2 (4.13)

Where,
N : Manning’s roughness coefficient of overland flow
S : Average slope of the catchment

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Ax : Area across the sub-catchment width through which the runoff flows.

Referring to figure 4.6, Ax is the rectangular area with width w and height d-ds. Because
w will always be much larger than d, it follows that 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑊 ∗ (d − 𝑑𝑠 ) and 𝑅𝑋 = (d −
𝑑𝑠 )

Substituting the values of Rx and Ax in equation 4.13:

1
5
(𝑤∗𝑠 2 )
𝑄= ∗ (d − 𝑑𝑠 )3 (4.14)
𝑁

To obtain the runoff per unit area,

1
5
(𝑤∗𝑠 2 )
𝑞= ∗ (d − 𝑑𝑠 )3 (4.15)
𝐴𝑁

Substituting this equation into the mass balance relation given in equation 4.12:

5
∂d
= I − e − f − µ (d − ds )3 (4.16)
∂t

Where,
1
(𝑤 ∗ 𝑠 2 )
µ=
𝐴𝑁

The above equation is a nonlinear differential equation for known values of I, e, f, ds

and µ. It can be solved numerically over each time step for ponded depth by numerical
integration method and subsequently the value of runoff Q that can be developed in
the shape of runoff hydrograph at the outlet of the catchment.
Environmental Protection Agency (US) has developed computer software named
“SWMM” which is widely used to compute and develop the runoff hydrograph at the
outlet of the catchment.

4.5 Climate Change effects on Urban Storm Runoff

Based on intensive research across the globe as well as those reported through IPCC,
it has been established that global warming induced climate change is causing a
change in rainfall precipitation pattern. Various studies in India including those by IMD
also strengthen above changing pattern. It is established that rise in atmospheric
temperature lead to intensifying Earth Hydrologic Cycle causing short duration heavy
intensity precipitations. Each 1 deg C rise in atmospheric temperature leads to 7 %
increase in water vapor in the atmosphere. Countries like the UK have already
recommended an increase of 20 % in the design storm runoff to account for change
in rainfall pattern due to climate change.

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However, in a vast country like India, It is not feasible to assign a particular percentage
increase in rainfall intensity over the one obtained from the IDF curve. This is also due
to the fact that in IMD study, some rainfall stations have recorded an increase in
rainfall, whereas others are showing a reduction in rainfall intensity. For accessing the
percentage increase in rainfall intensity, a detailed analysis of 30 years or more is
required. One of the methods to access changing trend in rainfall intensity is to break
30 years rainfall data in 3 sub-group of 10 years each and draw respective IDF curves
for each sub-Group data. For a particular time of concentration of 30 minutes and 60
minutes, the rainfall intensity may be read out from IDF curves and tabulated for each
sub-group period. Subsequently, using linear regression model, the changing trend in
rainfall intensity can be estimated to further project design rainfall intensity and can be
suitably incorporated in storm runoff estimation. In case of no increase or negative
increase trend in rainfall intensity, the conventional value of intensity obtained based
on analysis of 30 years rainfall data may be used.

Also, to account for the impact of climate change on rainfall and consequent change
in design discharge, Intensity – Duration – Frequency curves needs to be periodically
updated for a given catchment or locality intending to design new or retrofitting old
storm water drains.

Additionally, increased volume of runoff from higher intensity of rainfall on account of

climate change can also be channelized by implementing BMPs, LIDs etc. as
recommended in Chapter 10 rather than going for large size conveyance drains.

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CHAPTER 5: HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF STORM WATER DRAINS

5.1 General

The Chapter gives a broad coverage of theory and practice of open channel hydraulic
in planning and design of storm water channels and conduits that convey storm runoff
resulting from rainfall over urban catchments as described in Chapter 3 & Chapter 4
of this Manual. Flow equations to compute the hydraulic parameters required in
designing the channels, gutters, and conduits under different flow conditions are given
with illustrative examples to show the application of the flow formulae. A brief outline
about design aspects of the engineered natural channels has been discussed in the
final section of this chapter.

5.2 Storm water flows in Channels and Conduits

Storm water flows in channels/ conduits in contact with atmospheric air is said to be
an open channel flow or free-surface flow.

If the rate of discharge remains constant with time at a given cross-section, the flow is
said to be steady, and if it varies with time, then the flow is called unsteady flow.

If the velocity and depth of flow are the same at every section of channel/conduit, the
steady open channel flow is said to be uniform flow, and if the velocity, depth or both
are changing then the flow is known as non-uniform flow.

When fluid flows in a parallel direction without interruption between each layer, it is
defined as laminar flow, and if it moves in irregular paths, it is said to be turbulent flow.

Storm water flows in open channel/conduit are under unsteady and turbulent flow
conditions but to simplify the design process, it is assumed to flow in steady turbulent
conditions either uniform, non-uniform gradually or rapidly varied flow.

Flow Formulae which are applicable in design computations of storm channels/

conduits are given as follows:

1. Reynolds’s number

For open channel flow of any cross section:

Re = VR / ν (5.1)

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For flow in pipe of diameter D

Re = VD / ν (5.2)

Where,
R e : Reynold’s Number (Dimensionless)
V : Cross- sectional mean velocity in m/sec
D : Diameter of pipe
R : Hydraulic Radius (A/P) in m
ν : Kinematic Viscosity in m2/sec
P : wetted perimeter in m

Re gives a dimensionless number, which is called Reynold’s number. It determines

whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. It is found that in open-channel, flow is laminar
when Re ≤ 500 and turbulent when Re > 1000, whereas in pipe flow, the flow is laminar
when Re ≤ 2000 and flow is turbulent when Re > 4000.

2. Specific Energy Es: It is defined as the energy of the flow with reference to the
channel bed as the datum.

Es = Y+ V2/2g (5.3)

Where,
Y : Depth of water
V : Mean cross section velocity
g : Acceleration due to gravity
Es : Specific energy

3. Froude number

Fr = V / (gDm) 1/2 (5.4)

Where,
Fr : Froude number (Dimensionless)
V : Mean velocity in m/sec
Dm : Hydraulic mean depth in m (cross section area of flow/width of the channel)

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g : acceleration due to gravity in m/sec2

4. Critical flow: The general equation for Critical flow:

Q2B/gA3 = 1 (5.5)

Where,
Q : Discharge, m3/sec
B : Width of water surface, m
A : Cross section area of water flow, m2
g : Acceleration due to gravity, m/sec2

For a fixed discharge, the specific energy is minimum at critical depth. For all other
values of specific energy, there are two alternate depths, one is subcritical depth when
flow depth is greater than critical depth and other is supercritical depth when flow depth
is less than critical depth. In steady Uniform flow, the flow depth is known as normal
depth. The slope at normal depth is said to be mild slope, at critical depth the slope is
said to be critical slope and at supercritical depth, the slope is known as steep slope.

5. Manning’s Equation

Manning’s Equation for uniform gravity flow:

V = (1/n) x R2/3x S1/2 (5.6)

Manning’s Equation for uniform flow in terms of discharge:

Q = (1/n) x (A5/3/P2/3) x S1/2 (5.7)

For circular section:

Q = (0.3118/n) xD8/3x S1/2 (5.8)

Where,
V : Velocity of flow in m/sec
R : Hydraulic radius (Flow area (A)/Wetted perimeter (P)) in m.
S : Slope of Hydraulic Gradient
n : Manning’s coefficient of roughness for Channels / conduits
P : Wetted perimeter in m
A : Area of cross section of water area in m2

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Q : Discharge in m3/sec
D : Diameter of pipe in m

Owing to its simplicity and acceptable degree of accuracy in a variety of practical

application, Manning’s formula is valid for turbulent flow which is the most widely used
uniform flow formula for designing storm water pipe conduits and channels. Due to its
long practical use, values of n for a very wide range of surfaces are available as given
in the Table 5.1. Charts for Manning’s formula are given in Appendix A 5.5 (A) and
Appendix A 5.5 (B) for the stated ranges of discharges.

While choosing the storm water pipe diameters, minimum required diameter is
computed and the next larger commercial available pipe diameter is selected. In
circular conduits, maximum velocity occurs at 0.81 depth and maximum discharge
occurs at 0.95 depth.

Table 5.1: Coefficient of roughness for channel flow for use in manning’s
formula
Type of Material Condition Manning’s n
Salt-glazed stoneware (a) Good 0.012
pipe (b) Fair 0.015
Cement concrete pipes (a) Good 0.013
(With collar joints) (b) Fair 0.015
*Spun concrete pipes (RCC & PSC) with S / S Joints (Design 0.011
value)
Neat Cement Plaster 0.018
Sand and Cement Plaster 0.015
Concrete, steel troweled 0.014
Masonry Concrete, wood troweled 0.015
Brick in good condition 0.015
Brick in rough condition 0.017
Masonry in bad condition 0.020
Stonework Smooth, dressed ashlar 0.015
Rubble set in cement 0.017
Fine, well-packed gravel 0.020
Earth Regular surface in good condition 0.020
In ordinary condition 0.025
With stones and weeds 0.030
In poor condition 0.035
Partially obstructed with debris or 0.050
weeds
Steel Welded 0.013
Riveted 0.017
Slightly tuberculated 0.020

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Type of Material Condition Manning’s n

With spun cement mortar lining 0.011
Cast Iron / Ductile iron Unlined 0.013
With spun cement mortar lining 0.011
Asbestos Cement 0.011
Plastic (Smooth) 0.011
FRP 0.01
HDPE / UPVC 0.01
Note: Values of n may be taken as 0.015 for unlined metallic pipes and 0.011 for
plastic and other smooth pipes
* n value for Spun concrete pipes (RCC & PSC) with S / S Joints may be taken as
given by the manufacturer.
Source: Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment Systems, by CPHEEO, 2013

5.3 Design consideration for storm water drains

Critical flow condition develops when Froude no equals to 1.0. In open channel flow
design, critical state of flow should be avoided as under such condition the water
surface becomes unstable and wavy. It is, therefore, recommended that the open
channel flow should be designed so that the Froude no should not exceed 0.8
preferably and self-cleansing velocity as recommended in Table 5.2.

5.3.1 Permissible limit of Velocity

To ensure that deposition of suspended solids does not take place, self-cleansing
velocities using Shield’s formula is considered in the design of channels/conduits.

From findings of Shields, Camp derived the formula:

𝟏 (𝟏/𝟐)
𝟏
𝐕 = 𝐧 ∗ 𝐑𝟔 [𝐤 𝐬 (𝐒𝐬 − 𝟏)𝐝𝐩 ] (5.9)

Where,
n : Manning’s n
R : Hydraulic Mean Radius in m
ks : Dimensionless constant with a value of about 0.04 to start motion of granular
particles and 0.8 for adequate self-cleansing of conduits
Ss : Specific gravity of particles
dp : Particle size in mm

Shields formula indicates that velocity required to transport material in conduits is only
slightly dependent on conduit shape and depth of flow but mainly dependent on the
particle size and specific weight. A velocity of 0.6 mps would be required to transport

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sand particles of 0.09 mm with a specific gravity of 2.65 that are commonly found in
storm water from urban catchments.

Table 5. 2: Design velocities to be ensured in gravity storm conduits/channels

S. No. Criteria Value

1 Minimum velocity 0.6 m/s

2 Maximum Velocity 3 m/s
Source: WPCF, ASCE, 1982

Note:
For hilly regions, maximum velocity to be permitted in storm water conduits
should be 6.0 m/s for plastic pipes or other pipes lined with plastics.

5.3.2 Freeboard in open channel

The freeboard is the vertical distance from the water surface of designed flow condition
to the top of the channel. The importance of this factor depends on the consequence
of overflow of the channel bank. Freeboard should be sufficient to prevent waves,
super elevation changes, or fluctuations in water surface from overflowing the sides.
Recommended value of minimum freeboard for different width is as given in Table 5.3.

Table 5. 3: Minimum Free Board for open channels

Drain Size Free Board

(i) Beyond 300 mm bed width 10 cm

(ii) Beyond 300 mm & up to 900 mm bed width 15 cm

(iii) Beyond 900 mm & up to 1500 mm bed width 30 cm

For larger drains, the freeboard shall be higher up to 90 cm depending upon the
discharge. For storm conduits, freeboard is not defined as they are supposed to run
full.
Source: IRC SP 50 – 2013

However, a steep gradient channel should have a freeboard height equal to the flow
depth to compensate for the large variations in flow caused by waves, splashing, and
surging.

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5.3.3 Curves/bends in drains

Curves and bends are sometimes unavoidable in drain alignments. The complexity in
the design arises due to increase in friction losses along the curve that causes serious
local erosion due to spiral flow motion induced by the centrifugal force which is very
pronounced and irregular in the bend.

Therefore, in order to reduce the super elevation of the water surface that occurs due
to the difference in elevation of water surface between inside and outside wall of the
bend at the same section and maintain the freeboard, a minimum radius of curvature
of 3 times the width of the drain should be provided in the horizontal curve. Benching
should be provided at the bend to minimize the sedimentation at the inner side of the
bend.

5.3.4 Junction Sump for storm water drain intersection

A sump of sufficient size shall be provided where drains converge or intersect. The
minimum internal width of the sump shall not be less than 2 times the width of the drain
leading away from the sump. Drains shall enter the sump at angles less than a right
angle and at different levels wherever possible. The invert level of the downstream
drain shall be lower than the invert level of the sump so that no stagnant water will
collect in the sump.

5.3.5 Hydraulically Efficient Channel Section

The conveyance of a channel section of a given area increases with a decrease in its
perimeter. Hence a channel section having the minimum perimeter for a given area of
flow provides the maximum value of the conveyance. With the slope, roughness
coefficient and area of flow fixed, a minimum perimeter section will represent the
hydraulically efficient section as it conveys the maximum discharge. This channel
section is also called the best section. Proportions of some most efficient sections is
given in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4: Proportions of Some Most Efficient Sections

Sl. Channel Area Wetted Width Hydraulic Top 𝑸×𝒏
No. Shape (Ae) Perimeter (Be) Radius width 𝟖⁄ 𝟏⁄
= 𝑲𝒆
𝟑
(Pe) (Re) (Te) 𝒚𝒆 𝑺𝟎 𝟐
1. Rectangle Ye
(Half 2Ye2 4Ye 2Ye 2Ye 1.260
square) 2
2. Trapezoidal Ye 4Yec
2
(Half √3Ye2 2√3 Ye √3
Ye 1.091
regular 2 √3

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Sl. Channel Area Wetted Width Hydraulic Top 𝑸×𝒏

No. Shape (Ae) Perimeter (Be) Radius width 𝟖⁄ 𝟏⁄
= 𝑲𝒆
(Pe) (Re) (Te) 𝒚𝒆 𝟑 𝑺𝟎 𝟐
hexagon,
1
𝑚 = √3)
3. Circular π 2 Ye
(semi- Y πYe D = 2Ye 2Ye 0.9895
circular) 2 e 2
4. Triangle Ye
(Vertex Ye2 2√3 Ye - 2Ye 0.500
angle-90⁰) 2√2

Where,

n : Manning’s Coefficient
e subscript : most efficient
Ye : Depth of flow for the most efficient section in m
Qn : Discharge in m3/sec
So : Bed slope
Source: Flow in open channels by K. Subramanaya

Example 5.1

Design the most efficient trapezoidal section for the following design parameters:

 Discharge (Q) = 20 m3/s

 Bed slope (S) = less than 0.0003
 Manning (n) = 0.013
 Depth of flow (Y) = Less than 3.0 m
Solution:

As per Table 5.4, conditions of most efficient Trapezoidal section:

Q × n
= 1.091
Y 8/3 × S1/2
3
1.091 × 0.1414 8
So, 𝑌 = ( 20 × 0.013 ) = 2.88 m

As, Y is less than 3.0 m; Hence, it is OK

𝑌
As per Table 5.4, Hydraulic radius = 2

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2.88
Hydraulic radius = = 1.44 𝑚
2

As per Manning’s formula, v = 1/n × R0.66 × s0.5

1
v = × 1.440.66 × 0.00020.5 = 1.387 m/s
0.013

As per Table 5.4, v is greater than 0.6 m/s and less than 3 m/s. Hence, it is self-
cleansing velocity and acceptable value of velocity.

Example 5.2

An open triangular channel of V-shaped with each side inclined at 45 ͦ to vertical. It

carries a discharge of 40 LPS. When the depth of flow at the centre is 225 mm,
calculate the slope of the channel.

Solution: Given Data

a) Discharge (Q) = 40 LPS
b) Manning’s constant (n) = 0.013
c) ∠θ = 45°
d) Depth of flow (Y) = 0.225 m.

As per Table 5.4, condition for the best hydraulic section:

𝑄𝑛
= 0.5
𝑌 8/3 × 𝑆 1/2
0.04 × 0.013
= 0.5
0.2258/3 × 𝑆 1/2
Solving the Equation: S = 0.0030231

Example 5.3

Find the most efficient section of the rectangular channel to carry 300 lps when the
bed slope is 1 in 1000. (Given n as 0.013)

Solution:
Given data
 Discharge (Q) = 300 lps
 Bed slope is (S) 1:1000
 Manning Constant (n) = 0.013
As per Table 5.4, condition for most efficient rectangular channel:

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Qn
= 1.260
Y8/3 × S1/2

Solving the equation, Y = 0.418 m

As per the Table 5.4:

 Area of cross-section = 2Y2 = 2 × 0.4182 = 0.349 m2
 Width of channel = 2 Y = 2 × 0.418 = 0.836 m
 Hydraulic radius, R = Y/2 = 0.418/2 = 0.209 m
 Velocity of flow is (V) = 1/n × R0.66 × s0.5 = 1/0.013 × 0.2090.66 × 0.0010.5 = 0.865
m/s

5.3.6 Partially Filled Circular Section

Area and hydraulic radius are static or elements of

shape, and roughness, velocity and discharge are
dynamic elements of flow. A partially filled circular
section is shown in Figure 5.1. The basis for
computation of both groups of elements are shown
below:

Figure 5. 1: Partially Filled

Circular Section

𝑎 𝜃 sin 𝜃
= 360° − (5.10)
𝐴 2𝜋

𝑟 360° sin 𝜃
=1− (5.11)
𝑅 2𝜋𝜃
2⁄
v r 3
= (R ) , where n is Constant (5.12 - a)
V

1⁄
vs r 6
= (R) , where n is constant (5.12 - b)
V

2⁄
q a r 3
= A (R) , where n is constant (5.13)
Q

Where,
A : cross-section of the circular section
a : cross-section of the partially filled circular section
R : hydraulic radius of the full circular section
r : hydraulic radius of the partially filled section
V : velocity of flow of the full section

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 5
Hydraulic Design of Storm Water Drains

v : velocity of flow of the partially filled section

Q : discharge from full section flow
q : discharge from partially filled section
vs : Self-cleansing velocity in partial flow circular conduits

d v a q
From above equations, ratios of , , , can be calculated and tabulated as given
D V A Q
Table 5.5 and graphical presentation in Figure 5.2. For self-cleansing velocity and
vs Q s S
change in slope, , Q , S can be determined from the graphical presentation given in
V f f
Figure 5.3.

Table 5. 5: Hydraulic Properties of circular sections for manning’s formula

Constant (n) Variable (n)

d/D v/V q/Q no/n v/V q/Q
1.0 1.000 1.000 1.00 1.000 1.000
0.9 1.124 1.066 1.07 1.056 1.020
0.8 1.140 0.968 1.14 1.003 0.890
0.7 1.120 0.838 1.18 0.952 0.712
0.6 1.072 0.671 1.21 0.890 0.557
0.5 1.000 0.500 1.24 0.810 0.405
0.4 0.902 0.337 1.27 0.713 0.266
0.3 0.776 0.196 1.28 0.605 0.153
0.2 0.615 0.088 1.27 0.486 0.070
0.1 0.401 0.021 1.22 0.329 0.017

Where,
D : Full Depth of Flow (Internal dia)
d : Actual Depth of Flow
V : Velocity at full depth
v : Velocity at depth ‘d’
Q : Discharge at full depth
q : Discharge at depth ‘d’

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Hydraulic Design of Storm Water Drains

Figure 5. 2: Hydraulic – Element graph for circular storm

water conduits

Figure 5. 3: Hydraulic elements of circular storm water

conduits that possess equal self-cleansing properties at
all depths

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 5
Hydraulic Design of Storm Water Drains

Example 5.4

A 225 mm dia storm water drain is to discharge of 0.005 cumecs at a required

gradient of 1 in 1500. Find out the depth and velocity of flow in storm drain.
Assume Manning’s coefficient ‘n’ as 0.013.

Solution:

Using Manning’s formula, discharge through the pipe while flowing full is given by;
1
𝑄= 𝐴. 𝑅 2/3 . √𝑆
𝑛

1 𝜋 0.225 2/3 1
𝑄= . (0.225)2 . ( ) .√
0.013 4 4 1500

Hence, Q = 0.0116 m3/s,

0.0116
Now, 𝑉 = 𝜋 = 0.292 m/s
×(.225)2
4

Discharge through the Drain when flowing partially full (q) = 0.005 cumec when
𝑞 0.005 𝑑 𝑣
= .0116 = 0.431, then from above table, = 0.458, = 0.959
𝑄 𝐷 𝑉

Depth & Velocity of partially filled drain,

𝑑
= 0.458, d = 0.458*.225 = 0.103 m
𝐷
𝑣
= 0.959, v = 0.959*.292 = 0.28 m/s
𝑉

5.4 Design Sheet

The designer should tabulate the complete hydraulic design of channels and conduits
for the entire given network of project catchment area in the relevant columns given in
Table 5.6 and Table 5.7.

77
 From

1
2
Drain ID
To

3
Incremental Area

Total area

Area
(Hec)

4
Drainage

5
Slope of Ground Level (1 in)
Profile

6
Ground

Overland Flow Length (m)

Part A: Engineering Design

7
Time of (to) inlet

8
Time of flow tf
tc
(min)
time of

9
Total tc = to + tf
concentration

Rainfall Intensity
10 (mm /hr) (I)

Runoff Coeff. “C”

11

Runoff (Q)(m3/hr)
12

10CIA
Manning Coefficient
13

78
Pipe Dia
14

QFull
15

Slope I in
16

Full
17
Design

Design
18
Velocity mps
Table 5. 6: Computation sheet for Storm Water Conduit

Length m
19

Time in Sec
20

Fall m
21

Drop in Manhole
22

Upper end
23
Profile

Lower end
Ground

24
elevation
Chapter: 5

Upper end
Hydraulic Design of Storm Water Drains

25
Invert

Lower end
26
Elevation
Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 5
Hydraulic Design of Storm Water Drains

Prepare a working plan layout and profile of the storm drainage system establishing
the following design information:

Columns 1 to 2 identify the location of the drain, street, and manholes

Columns 3 to 4 record the increment in the tributary area and total area

Columns 5 to 6 gives the ground profile i.e. Slope and overland flow length

Columns 7 to 9 records the time of concentration from the formula given in Chapter 4
clause 4.4.1.6.

Column 10 is the value of the intensity of rainfall in mm corresponding to the time of

concentration from IDF curve for required return period

Column 11 is the runoff coefficient from Table 4.2 given in Chapter 4

Column 12 is the value of runoff (CIA) in m3/hr from each tributary area from the
Rational formula given in Chapter 4.

Column 13 – 20 records the chosen size, required grade resulting capacity, full and
actual velocity of flow for each drain or line. These designs of storm water conduit are
computed from Manning’s equation for each required flow and maintaining a self-
cleansing velocity.

Column 21 – 26 identifies the profile of the drain

Column 21 is Column 19 × Column 16

Column 22 is the required drop in manholes is obtained directly from the

recommended values in Chapter 11, section 11.3.7.5 Drop in Manhole.

Column 23 & 24 are upper and lower end Ground elevation

Column 25 & 26 gives invert elevation at the upper end with a minimum cover of 0.6
m at starting manhole. In case a manhole having more than one inlet, the drop in the
manhole is considered with respect to the lowest invert level of the inlets to fix the
invert level of the outlet.

79
 From

1
2
Drain ID
To

3
Incremental Area

Total area Area

(Hec)

4
Drainage

5
Slope of Ground Level (1 in)
Profile

6
Ground

Overland Flow Length (m)

Part A: Engineering Design

7
Time of (to) inlet

8
Time of flow tf
tc
(min)
time of

9
Total tc = to + tf
concentration

10 Rainfall Intensity
(mm /hr) (I)

Runoff Coeff. “C”

11

Runoff (Q)(m3/hr)
12

10CIA
Manning Coefficient
13

80
Depth
14

Width
15

QFull
16

Slope I in
17
Design

Velocity mps
18

Length m
Table 5.7: Computation sheet for Storm Water Open Channel

19

Time in Sec
20

Fall m
21

Drop in Manhole
22

Upper end
23
Profile

Lower end
Ground

24
elevation
Chapter: 5
Hydraulic Design of Storm Water Drains

Upper end
25
Invert

Lower end
26
Elevation
Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 5
Hydraulic Design of Storm Water Drains

Prepare a working plan layout and profile of the storm drainage system establishing
the following design information:

Columns 1 to 2 identify the location of the drain, street, and manholes

Columns 3 to 4 record the increment in the tributary area and total area

Columns 5 to 6 gives the ground profile, i.e. Slope and overland flow length

Columns 7 to 9 records the time of concentration from the formula given in Chapter 4
clause 4.4.1.6.

Column 10 is the value of the intensity of rainfall in mm corresponding to the time of

concentration from IDF curve for required return period

Column 11 is the runoff coefficient from Table 4.2 given in Chapter 4

Column 12 is the value of runoff (CIA) in m3/hr from each tributary area from the
Rational formula given in Chapter 4.

Column 13 – 20 records the chosen size, required grade resulting capacity, velocity of
flow for each drain or line. These designs of storm water open channel are computed
from Manning’s equation for each required flow and maintaining a self-cleansing
velocity.

Column 21 – 26 identifies the profile of the drain

Column 21 is Column 19 × Column 17

Column 22 is the required drop in manholes is obtained directly from the

recommended values in Chapter 11, section 11.3.7.5 Drop in Manhole’

Column 23 & 24 are upper and lower end Ground elevation

Column 25 & 26 gives invert elevation at the upper end with a minimum cover of 0.6
m at starting manhole. In case a manhole having more than one inlet, the drop in the
manhole is considered with respect to the lowest invert level of the inlets to fix the
invert level of the outlet.

A worked out example on design of storm water channels and conduits is given in
Appendix 5.8.

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5.5 Gutters and Inlets

5.5.1 Gutter

A pavement gutter is defined as a section of

pavement adjacent to the roadway which
conveys water during a storm runoff event. It
Kerb
may include a portion or all of a travel lane. Inlet
Gutter sections usually have a triangular shape
with the kerb forming the near-vertical leg of the
triangle. Conventional gutters may have a Gutter
straight cross slope or a composite cross slope
Figure 5. 4: Gutter and Inlet
where the gutter slope varies from the pavement
cross slope.

Figure 5.5: Gutter, section with Figure 5.6: Typical gutter section—composite
uniform cross-slope cross-slope

5.5.2 Design of Gutters

Gutter Flow calculations are necessary to establish the spread of water on the
shoulder, parking lane, or pavement section. Streets with uniform cross slopes like
that shown in Figure 5.4 are found in urban areas. Since the gutter flow is assumed to
be uniform for design purposes, Manning’s equation is appropriate with a slight
modification to account for the effects of a small hydraulic depth (A/T). However, for
main roads and highways minimum gutter width should not be less than 0. 6 m.

For a triangular cross-section as shown in Figure 5.5, Manning’s equation for gutter
flow is written as:

𝐊𝐜 ⁄ ⁄
𝐐= 𝐒𝐱𝟓 𝟑 𝐒𝐋𝟏 𝟐 𝐓 𝟖⁄𝟑 (5.14)
𝐧

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Where,
Kc : Empirical constant equal to 0.376
n : Manning’s roughness coefficient for gutter flow as given in Table 5.8
Q : Flow rate (m3/s)
T : Width of flow (spread), m
Sx : Cross slope, m/m
SL : Longitudinal slope, m/m
Equation neglects the resistance of the kerb face since this resistance is negligible.

The flow depth (m) can be found using:

Y = TSx (5.15)
And,
Sx T2
The cross-sectional flow area, A = (5.16)
2

Table 5. 8: Manning’s n for gutter flow

Surface type n
Concrete 0.013
Hot mix asphaltic concrete 0.015
Sprayed seal 0.018

Example 5.5

A triangular gutter of concrete has a longitudinal slope of 1%, cross slope of 2%, and
a kerb depth of 0.2 m. Determine the flow rate and flow depth if the spread is limited
to 2 m.

Solution:

𝐊 𝐜 𝟓⁄𝟑 𝟏⁄𝟐 𝟖⁄𝟑

𝐐= 𝐒 𝐒 𝐓
𝐧 𝐱 𝐋
Where,
Kc = empirical constant = 0.376
n : Manning’s roughness coefficient = 0.012
Q : Flow rate (m3/s)
T : Width of flow (spread) = 2 m
Sx : Cross slope = 0.02
SL : Longitudinal slope = 0.01
5 1 8
0.376
Q= × 0.023 × 0.012 × 23 = 31.33 × 0.00145 × 0.1 × 6.364 = 0.029 m3/s
0.012

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 5
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5.5.3 Composite Gutter Sections

The design of composite gutter sections requires consideration of flow in the

depressed segment of the gutter, Qw. Equations are provided for use to determine the
flow in a width of gutter in a composite cross-section, W, less than the total spread, T.
For a composite street section as given in Figure 5.6:

Q = Qw + Qx (5.17)

Qw : Flow rate in the depressed section of the gutter (m3/s) (flow within gutter width,
W)
Qx : Flow capacity of the gutter section above the depressed section and within the
street width, TX, (m3/s)

Qx
Q= (5.18)
( 1− E0 )

Where,

(5.19)

And,
Sw = Sx + a/W (5.20)

Where,
Q : Gutter flow rate (m3/s)
E0 : Ratio of flow in a chosen width (usually the width of a grate) to total gutter flow
(Qw/Q)
W : width of the gutter (typical value = 0.6 m)
SW : the gutter cross slope (typical value = 1/12)
a : gutter depression = WSW - WSx
Figure 5.6 depicts all geometric variables. From the geometry, it can be shown that:

Y = a +TSx (5.21)

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 5
Hydraulic Design of Storm Water Drains

And,
Sx T2 +aW
A= (5.22)
2

Where,

Y : Flow depth above the depressed gutter section (m). Note that the depth of
flow at the gutter line is defined as d, where d = Y + a
A : flow area (m2)

Example 5.6

Determine the discharge in a composite gutter section if the allowable spread is 3 m,

the gutter width is 0.6 m, and the vertical depth between gutter lip and gutter is 0.05
m. The street’s longitudinal slope is 1%, the cross slope is 2%, and the kerb height is
0.2 m.

Solution:

First determine the gutter cross slope, Sw, using Equation 5.20:

𝑎
𝑆𝑤 = 𝑆𝑥 +
𝑊

0.6
( 12 − 0.6 × 0.02)
𝑆𝑤 = 0.02 + = 0.083 𝑚
0.6

The flow in the street is found as:

K c 5⁄3 1⁄2 8⁄3
Qx = S S Tx
ƞ x L
0.376
Qx = 0.025/3 0.011/2 2.48⁄3 = 0.047
0.012

1
E0 = =0.4920
0.083⁄0.02
1+ 2.67
0.083⁄0.02
[1+ 3.6 ] −1
{ −1 }
0.6
Now the theoretical flow rate can be found as:
Qx 0.047
Q= = = 0.0925
( 1 − E0 ) ( 1 − 0.492)

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 5
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Then, the computed flow depth is:

Y = a +TSx = 0.036+ 3.6×0.02 = 0.108 m

5.6 Storm water inlets

Storm water inlets are devices used to collect runoff and discharge it to an
underground storm drainage system. Inlets are suitably located on pavements, in
gutter sections, paved medians, roadside and at locations of specific requirement.

5.6.1 Types of inlets

i. Grate inlets

Grate inlets are horizontal openings covered with one or more suitable gratings
through which the flow passes.

ii. Kerb inlet

Kerb inlets are vertical openings in the road kerb when they are equipped with the
diagonal notches cast into the gutter along the kerb opening to form a series of ridges
or deflectors. Such inlets are suitable where heavy traffic is expected.

iii. Combination inlets

Combined grate and kerb inlets are more efficient. These are compound of a kerb and
gutter inlet acting as a single inlet. Following figures 5.7 and 5.8 give the details of
different types of the inlet, as shown below:

0.6 m 0.6 m
450 X 450 X 0.4 m 0.6 m
0.4 m
500 mm 450 1100 X
mm 500 mm

Figure 5. 7: Section of Street Inlet

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 5
Hydraulic Design of Storm Water Drains

Figure 5. 8: Plan of street inlet

iv. Catch basin

The catch basin illustrated in Fig 5.9 is a special type of inlet structure designed to
retain sediment and debris transported by storm water which might enter into storm
water system and clog the storm pipes.

0.6 m

0.3 m
0.45 m X 0.5 m
Sump

Figure 5. 9: Catch Basin

A separate catch basin may be used for each or at alternate of every 3 street inlet to
further save expenses, the pipes from several outlets at a corner may discharge into
the same catch basin. Catch basin sumps require periodic cleaning to be effective and
if not properly maintained, they may become odorous and mosquito nuisance.

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5.6.2 Design of Inlets

Inlets admit storm runoff to storm water drains. They are designed to remove the flow
in gutters with minimum interference to traffic. There are 3 general types of inlets Kerb
Inlets, Gutter Inlets, and Combination Inlets.

On the basis of model studies, empirical formulae are developed for flow into gutter
inlets and kerb inlets with and without depression as follows:

Q
= 0.04176 × d0.5 (5.23)
L

0.563
Q 0.579 Qo
= 1.296 × i × (√S ) (5.24)
L ⁄n

Where,
𝑄𝑜 : Discharge into the inlet, m3/sec
Q : Flow in Gutter, m3/sec
l : Length of the opening, m
i : Cross slope of the gutter
S : Longitudinal slope
d : Depth of flow in Gutter, m

Example 5.7

For a flow of 0.0283 m3/sec, a longitudinal street grade of 2 %, a mean crosswise

street grade of 5.6% and a manning coefficient of 0.015, find (a) length of an
undepressed kerb inlet required to capture 90% of flow, and (b) maximum depth of
flow in gutter

Solution:
0.563
𝑄 𝑄𝑜
= 1.296 × 𝑖 0.579 × ( )
𝐿 √𝑆⁄
𝑛

0.563
𝑄 0.0283
= 1.296 × 0.0560.579 × ( ) = 0.00928
𝐿 √0.02⁄
0.015

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 5
Hydraulic Design of Storm Water Drains

For 90% capturing

0.9 × 0.0283
= 0.00928
𝐿

Hence, 𝐿 = 2.74

Calculate depth:

𝑄
= 0.04176 × 𝑑0.5
𝐿

0.0283
= 0.04176 × 𝑑 0.5
2.74

d = 0.06 m

The kerb Inlet is designed for length 2.74 m, and depth of flow in the gutter at the
kerb Inlet is 0.06 m.

5.6.3 Location of inlets

Inlet structures are located at the upstream end and at intermediate points along the
gutter line. Inlet spacing is controlled by the geometry of the site, inlet opening
capacity, and tributary drainage magnitude. Inlet placement is generally a trial and
error procedure that attempts to produce the most economical and hydraulically
effective system.

Following rules may be observed while locating storm water inlets:

 Inlets are constructed from the uppermost point of the gutter section,
successively spaced by locating the point where, some of the bypassing flow
and the flow from the additional contributing area, exceed the gutter capacity.
 The inlet should be placed at intersections to prevent street cross-flow, which
could cause pedestrian and ventricular traffic hazards.
 Inlets are also required where the street cross slope begins to super elevate.
 The inlet should be located at any point where side drainage enters streets and
may overload gutter capacity
 Inlets are required to be constructed at all low points in the gutter grade and at
median breaks.
 Inlets should be located upstream of the bridges to prevent storm flow on to the
bridge deck and down steam of bridges to intercept drainage from the bridge.

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 5
Hydraulic Design of Storm Water Drains

 As a matter of general practice, inlets should not be placed within driveway

areas.
 Minimum spacing should not be less than 10 m and the maximum should not
be greater than 30 m.

Example 5.8

Determine inlet spacing to cater runoff from half road catchment. Following data are
given:

 Rainfall intensity for Design storm, I = 300 mm/hr

 Half road width = 9 m
 Longitudinal slope = 0.5 %
 Cross slope = 3%
 Width of gutter = 1.5 m
 Runoff coefficient = 0.91

Solution:

 Runoff as per Rational formula (Qroad) = CIA/360

= 0.91 x 300 x (9 x L1 x 10-4)/360
= 0.000683 L1

Where L1 is the length of gutter flow in the upstream sub-catchment.

 Calculate the allowable limit of gutter flow.

Compute the gutter discharge, Q, using the equation

K c 5⁄3 1⁄2 8⁄3
Q= S S T
n x L
Where:
Kc = empirical constant equal to 0.376
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient = 0.013
T = Width of flow (spread) = 1.5 m
Sx = Cross slope = 0.003
SL = Longitudinal slope = 0.005

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 5
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Using W = 1.5 m;
Q = 0.018 m3/s
= 18 L/s and V x D is less than 0.4 m/s.
Therefore, spacing for the first inlet is,
L1 = 0.018 / 0.000683
= 26.3 m » 26 m

Therefore, the inlet spacing to be adapted is 26 m.

5.7 Gradually Varied Non-uniform Flow

If subcritical flow exists in a channel of mild slope and this channel meets with a
channel of a steep slope in which the flow is supercritical, then there will be the change
of surface level between the two. In this situation the water surface level changes
gradually between the two. The flow in the joining region is known as gradually varied
flow. And if the situation is reversed that is upstream slope is steep with a supercritical
flow and downstream with a subcritical flow, then there must occur a hydraulic jump
to join the two. There may occur a short length of gradually varied flow between the
channel junction and the jump. The above situations are shown in figure 5.10.

Figure 5.10: Examples of Subcritical & Supercritical Flow

Similarly if a storm channel discharges in a river/ stream, two situations may arise (1)
when river/stream surface level is below the invert of discharging channel (2) when
surface level of stream/ river is above the invert of the storm channel and above
the surface level of water in the channel.

In the first case, a Draw down curve type of profile develops with gradually varied flow
originating from the point of drop backward. In the second case, a backwater curve

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Part A: Engineering Design Chapter: 5
Hydraulic Design of Storm Water Drains

develops, and the profile can be determined from analysis. Channels/ conduits should
be designed considering water profiles under these conditions.

5.7.1 Basic equation for gradually varied flow

The basic assumption in the derivation of gradually varied flow is that the change in
energy with distance is equal to the frictional losses. Based on the above assumption,
the gradually varied flow equation can be given as follows:

dY So −Sf
= (5.25)
dX 1−F2r

Where,
Fr : Froude Number
Y : Depth of flow
X : Distance along flow alignment
So : Bed slope
Sf : Friction Slope

The basic equation of gradually varied flow describes variation of depth Y with distance
X in terms of the bed slope. So, also the friction slope, Sf , the discharge Q and channel
shape.
The differential equation of gradually varied flow as derived above has no explicit
solution except numerical integration method, which is the only practical solution.

5.7.2 Method of solution of the gradually varied flow equation

There are two basic numerical methods that are used to solve the above flow
equations:

1. Direct Step Method – Distance from depth

2. Standard Step Method – Depth from distance

5.7.2.1 Direct Step Method

This method is the simplest and is suitable for use in prismatic channels and conduits.
The equation used is:

∆Es = ∆X(𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆𝑓 ) (5.26)

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Following steps may be followed:

 Assume the value of control depth

 Calculate the specific energy Esg
 Calculate Sf (mean)
 Calculate ∆Es and calculate corresponding ∆X which is the distance from the
starting point and subsequently between intervals

Example 5.9

A 3.0 m diameter circular outfall storm conduit laid on a gradient of 1 in 2000

discharges 5.0m3/sec in a tidal river. During tidal hours the water level of the river rises
2.0 m above the invert of the incoming conduit whereas during non-tidal hours the
water level of the river recedes below 1.5 m below the invert of the incoming conduit.
Determine water surface profile generated inside the conduit during tidal and non-tidal
hours. Assume n = 0.013

Solution (i) for Back water curve:

Discharge = 5.0 m3/sec

Diameter = 3.0 m
Slope = 0.0005
By applying formula Q=A5/3*s1/2/n *P2/3
At full flow discharge= 10.0 m3/sec approximately

Calculate the depth of flow at 5 m3/sec discharge.

𝑞
As, 𝑄 = 0.5
𝑑
So, from Table 5.5, = 0.5
𝐷
d = 0.5 × 3 = 1.5 m

During tidal hours the river water rises 2.0 m above the invert of the conduit which will
create a back water curve of surface level of water inside the conduit. To plot the profile
of back water curve, computations are given in the following table along with
corresponding plot of back water profile under gradually varied flow condition. Obtain
depth, area, hydraulic radius from given table of geometric element for circular channel
section given in Appendix 5.3 and for trapezoidal section is given in Appendix 5.4.

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Table 5. 9: Calculation of back water curve

Hydraulic Frictional
Bed Manning Specific
S. Flow mean slope Cumulative
Slope Coefficient Discharge Depth Velocity Energy So-Sf ΔEs
No. Area radius (Sf) Distance(X)
(So) (n) (Es)
(R) (mean)

m3/s m m2 m m/s (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 0.0005 0.013 5 2 4.95 0.8697 1.0103 2.0520222 0.000208 0.000292 0 0

2 0.0005 0.013 5 1.9 4.69 0.8517 1.0659 1.9579091 0.000223 0.000277 0.0941130 339.53
3 0.0005 0.013 5 1.8 4.43 0.8328 1.1292 1.8649869 0.000249 0.000251 0.0929223 709.61
4 0.0005 0.013 5 1.7 4.07 0.8028 1.2275 1.7767939 0.000295 0.000205 0.0881930 1140.02
5 0.0005 0.013 5 1.6 3.8 0.7773 1.3143 1.6880423 0.000352 0.000148 0.0887516 1738.80
6 0.0005 0.013 5 1.5 3.53 0.7500 1.4147 1.6020080 0.000424 0.000076 0.0860343 2871.96

Calculation shall be done as follows:

i. Column 1 records Bed slope (So) of the conduit
ii. Column 2 records Manning’s coefficient (n)
iii. Column 3 records discharge
iv. Column 4 records the control depth which is the water level of river above
the invert level of the conduit, 2.0 m. Step ∆Y is taken as 0.1.
v. Column 5 records flow area which can be obtained from the Table given in
Appendix 5.3: Geometric elements for Circular Channel Sections
vi. Example: As, y/do = 2/3 = 0.67 for control depth 2 m
vii. From Table given in Appendix 5.3: A/ do2 = 0.5594
viii. So, A = 0.5594 × 32 = 5.0346 m2
ix. Column 6 records Hydraulic mean radius which can be obtained from the
Table given in Appendix 5.3: Geometric elements for Circular Channel
Sections
x. Example: As, y/do = 2/3 = 0.67 for control depth 2 m
xi. From Table given in Appendix 5.3: R/ do = 0.2917
xii. So, R = 0.2917 × 3 = 0.8751 m
xiii. Column 7 records Velocity = Discharge / Flow area
xiv. Column 8 records Specific energy = Y + v2/2g
xv. Column 9 records Sf which is calculated from Manning’s formula. Sf =
(v×n/R2/3)2
xvi. Column 10 records So - Sf (mean)
xvii. Column 11 records change in specific energy with respect to change in
depth of water

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xviii. Column 12 records cumulative distance calculated from the formula

∆Es = ∆X(𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆𝑓 )

Figure 5. 11: Depth Distance Relationship (Back Water Curve)

Solution (ii) for Draw down curve:

When river water during non-tidal hours recedes 1.5 m below invert level of incoming
conduit, the storm water discharging in the river falls freely, consequently creating a
draw down curve starting from the outfall point in the conduit backward till it attains
normal depth. Computations for draw down curve along with graph of draw down curve
profile based on the theory and analysis of gradually varied flow conditions in open
channel as given in the manual.

For finding the critical depth and other geometric elements from the table given in
Appendix A 5.3 containing the geometric elements of the circular channel section.

Z (section factor) = Q/g1/2 = 5/9.81/2 =1.596

Z/do2.5 = 1.596/15.58 = 0.10, for this y/d0 =0.318

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Hence y (critical depth) = 0.95 m, this is the control depth for computation as given
below

Table 5. 10: Calculation of draw down curve

Hydraulic Frictional
Bed Manning Specific
S. Flow mean slope Cumulative
Slope Coefficient Discharge Depth Velocity Energy So-Sf ΔEs
No. Area radius (Sf) Distance(X)
(So) (n) (Es)
(R) (mean)

m3/s m m2 m m/s (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 0.0005 0.013 5 0.95 1.867 0.527 2.6787 1.3157114 0.0028523 -0.002352 0 0

2 0.0005 0.013 5 1.1 2.291 0.593 2.1821 1.3426829 0.0022330 -0.001733 -0.0269715 15.56
3 0.0005 0.013 5 1.2 2.641 0.643 1.8935 1.3827409 0.0016629 -0.001163 -0.0400580 50.01
4 0.0005 0.013 5 1.3 2.906 0.677 1.7205 1.4508759 0.0012521 -0.000752 -0.0681350 140.60
5 0.0005 0.013 5 1.4 3.174 0.710 1.5752 1.5264576 0.0009572 -0.000457 -0.0755817 305.92
6 0.0005 0.013 5 1.5 3.534 0.750 1.4147 1.6020080 0.0007268 -0.000227 -0.0755504 639.07

Figure 5. 12: Depth Distance Relationship (Draw Down Curve)

5.7.2.2 Standard Step Method

The Standard Step Method, on the other hand, is tedious iterative and is usually
applicable to non-prismatic channels like rivers and streams.

5.8 Rapidly Varied Non – Uniform Flow

Rapidly varied non-uniform flow produces abrupt changes in depth and velocity over
very short distances, as in the case of flow over spillway, over the sharp-crested weir
and flow through regions of changing cross-sections. Rapid change can also occur
when there is a change from supercritical to subcritical flow in a channel reach at a
hydraulic jump as shown in figure 5.13.

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Figure 5.13: Hydraulic Jump

Following equation can be used to compute depth of hydraulic jump when incoming
flow depth, velocity and channel geometry are given:
𝐘𝟏
𝐘𝟐 = [√𝟖𝐅𝐫 𝟐 + 𝟏 − 𝟏] (5.27)
𝟐

Froude number can be determined by the formula given under specific energy
section.

5.8.1 Energy Dissipation

Storm pipe drains constructed in plains are commonly designed for subcritical flow,
developing a self-cleansing velocity that may not cause erosion in channel/pipe or
damage hydraulic structures. But in hilly region high velocity of moving storm water
down the steep slope causing supercritical flow conditions cannot be avoided, and that
may result in rapid erosion of channel and damage to the downstream structures. To
safeguard against such risks two control measures are generally adopted either to
reduce the velocity of flow or dissipate the energy by means of hydraulic jump as
described.

5.8.2.1 Stepped Channel

Stepped channels are commonly employed to permit flow along the slopes. They can
effectively dissipate the energy and reduce the velocity within safe limits. Design
guidelines for such channels may be referred to Appendix A 5.2.

5.8.2.2 Chute

Chutes are constructed to dissipate the energy down the slope where it flattens to
gentle slope, resulting in the hydraulic jump. This reduces the velocity of flow on the
paved apron to a point where the flow becomes incapable of scouring the down-stream

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channel bed. The jump is confined to the channel reach that is known as the stilling
basin. In practice the stilling basin is seldom designed to confine the entire length of
free hydraulic jump on the paved apron because such a basin would be too expensive.
Consequently accessories such as sill etc. to control the jump are usually installed in
the basin. The main function of such control is to shorten the range within which the
jump will take place. The control improves the dissipation of energy function of the
basin and stabilises the jump action. Design guidelines may be referred to any
standard book on irrigation and hydraulic structures Like Irrigation Engineering and
Hydraulic Structures.

5.8.2.3 Aprons

Aprons are provided upstream and downstream of the weir in order to protect the
scour from reaching to the concrete floor upstream and downstream of the weir.

5.8.2.4 Afflux

The rise in the maximum flood level (HFL) upstream of the weir caused due to the
construction of weir is called Afflux. This may occur in storm channels if control
structure or obstruction is placed across the channel that extends as backward curve
discussed in Gradually Varied Flow phenomenon.

5.8.2.5 Loss of Energy in Hydraulic Jump

Loss of energy in hydraulic jump is calculated from the following formula:

Es (Energy Loss) = (Y2- Y1)3 /4Y1Y2 (5.28)

Where,
Y1 : Depth of flow before jump
Y2 : Depth of flow after jump

An example on critical depth and specific energy is given in Appendix A 5.1.

Example 5.10

A concrete chute with a stream width of 0.6 m is discharging water down the
embankment of 3.0 m height with a steep slope. The discharge is 0.1m 3/s. Find the
velocity and depth of water down the slope of the toe level where hydraulic jump takes
place. Find also the energy dissipated due to jump.

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Since the water is to move down the steep slope, critical depth at critical velocity will
be developed at the edge of the fall.

Solution:

Q = 0.1 m3/s
B = 0.6 m.
AC = B × YC = 0.6 YC
YC = Critical depth
Vc = Critical velocity.

As per the following formula, at a critical depth

Q2 B
=1
gA3c

Solving the equation,

YC is obtained as 0.14 m and VC = 1.190 m /s

Vc2 (1.190)2
Es = Yc + = 0.14 + = 0.212 m
2g 2 × 9.81

After 3.0 m drop, energy level at the toe level is equal to 3 + 0.212 = 3.212 m
V2
Y2 + 2g2 = 3.212 m

Q / 0.6 = V2 × Y2

0.1/0.6 = 0.167 = V2 × Y2

V2 = 0.167 / Y2

0.167 2
)(
3.212 = Y2 + Y
2𝑔

Y2 = 0.021

V2 = 7.9 m/s

Froude Number is calculated by the formula:

v 7.9
Fr = = = 17
√gy 0.453

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Y2 = 0.021

Y2
Y3 = {√8Fr 2 + 1 − 1}
2
0.021
= × {√8 × 172 + 1 − 1}
2
0.021
= × 47.09 = 0.49 m
2

V3 = 0.1 / (0.6 X 0.49) = 0.34 m/s.

Loss of energy = (Y3 - Y2)3 / 4 Y2 Y3

= 2.51 m

5.9 Hydraulic routing

The flow of storm water through channel and conduit occurs in the state of unsteady
condition and its flow rate, velocity and depth vary in space and time throughout the
channel/ conduit system. To obtain the values of these parameters hydraulic flow
routing based on partial differential equations known as saint venant equations for
one-dimensional flow can be applied. The following contains the summary of these
equations neglecting lateral inflow.

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Continuity and Momentum Equations

As shown above, alternative hydraulic flow routing equations are formulated by using
full continuity equation while eliminating some terms of momentum equation. The
simplest hydraulic routing equation is the kinematic wave that includes the gravity and
frictional forces only, balancing each other while neglecting other terms. The diffusion
wave routing equation incorporates the pressure term only. The dynamic wave
equation considers all the terms of the momentum equation.

Hydrograph generated by rainfall-runoff simulation as described in chapter 4 is routed

by these equations as per requirement of the flow condition through channels/ conduits
to the outfall point. The channel/conduit can be sized from resulting computations of
flow rate, velocity, and depth along any section of the channel/ conduit. The resulting
hydrograph can also be generated at the outfall end.
Storm Water Management Model ‘SWMM’ developed by US EPA is a computer
software program that is widely used to successfully perform the related computations.

Hydraulic modeling has become increasingly acceptable solutions in planning and

design of urban storm drainage systems since these solutions are more sustainable
help in designing the system without complicated and time consuming manual
computations compared to traditional practices. SWMM model description and case
study is given in Appendix A 5.9.

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5.10 Engineered Channels

The storm drainage system should be designed in an environmentally responsible

manner to minimize disruption of the natural environment of the city natural
streams/waterways. Engineered waterways/channels are preferred means of meeting
the objective by providing a drainage system that more closely resembles natural
streams/waterways. These channels are components of the major drainage system
designed to collect and convey flows from minor drainage system. The following
sections discuss the design guidelines for engineered channels as well as modified
natural channels.

Figure 5. 14: Concrete Channel Figure 5. 15: Natural Channel

Design guidelines for engineered channels are given in Table 5.11.

Table 5. 11: Design Guidelines for Engineered Channels

S. No. Item Value

1. Design Flows 25 years Return Period (as per the past
historical data )
2. Flow Regime Froude number < 0.8
3. Design velocity with grassed 1.2 m/sec maximum
lining-
With other lining such as-
 Riprap 1.8 m/sec
 Concrete 3.0 m/sec
4. Maximum Longitudinal Slope 0.4 % for natural lining
0.2 % for concrete lining
5. For steep slope Drop structure may be provided
6. For curvature into the Centreline of curvature should have
channel minimum radius, 2× top width, but not
less than 30 m

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Note: Natural channels should be preserved as far as possible, and engineering of

channels should be minimized.

5.10.1 Curvature and Super Elevation

Superelevation should be provided on outside bend of channel as per the following

equation:

V2 T
∆y = (5.29)
2grc

Where,
∆y : Difference in water surface elevation inside vs outside of the curve.
v : Mean velocity
T : Top width of channel section
g : Acceleration due to gravity
𝑟𝑐 : Radius of curvature

5.10.2 Freeboard

Freeboard of engineered channels should be provided as given in table 5.12:

Table 5. 12: Freeboard in Engineered Channels

S.
Discharge (m3/s) Freeboard (mm)
No.
1 Below 3 450
2 3 and above but below 30 600
3 30 and above but below 300 900
4 300 and above but below 3000 1200
5 3000 and above 1500
Source: IS 7784(Part I): 1993

5.10.3 Modification of Natural Channels

Natural channels are either having steep erodible banks or bottom or mild sloped
channels that are almost stabilised. Therefore, if such natural channels are to carry
the storm run-off from urbanized areas, some form of modifications of the channel is
essentially required to stabilize it. Therefore, the following criteria should be ensured
while engineering the natural channels:

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i. Lining of bank and bed if necessary

ii. Channels and overbank capacity shall be adequate for design storm i.e. 25 year
return period.
iii. Channel velocity shall not exceed 2 m/sec or the critical velocity for any
particular section with a minimum value of Manning’s Roughness coefficient
“n”, in case of stabilized earthen channel.
iv. Water surface limits shall be defined so that the flood plain can be zoned and
protected.
v. Drop structures should be constructed to limit flow velocities and control water
surface profile, particularly for the initial storm run-off.

5.10.3.1 Channel Linings

Channel linings should be provided wherever the bed and banks are not in stabilized
condition and likely to be eroded in high floods in the natural channel. Different types
of channel linings are as follows:

a) Rigid Lining: under rigid lining criteria following type of linings are considered:
 Concrete
 Precast concrete slab
 Stonemasonry
 Cellular reinforced concrete paving with infill soil.

b) Flexible lining: under flexible lining criteria following type of linings are considered:
 Rip-rap
 Gravels
 Gabion or random Rubble

Each type of lining should be scrutinized for its applicability, how it meets other
community needs, its long term integrity, maintenance needs, etc. As lining is costly
component of a lined channel. Therefore, such shape of channel should be adopted,
which has less surface area and more hydraulic capacity. Though semi-circular
section provides maximum hydraulic capacity with minimum surface area per unit
length, but cost and ease of construction provides preference of trapezoidal section,
which is somewhat pragmatic approximation of semi-circular shape. Hence,
trapezoidal section is adopted for storm water drains/ channels.

Further, wherever feasible, the bottom of the channel may be kept pervious according
to approved design and capacity of storm water runoff to be carried duly accounting
for constraints of land availability, etc.

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CHAPTER – 6: DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR SPECIAL AREAS

6.1 General

Storm runoff estimation for hydraulic design of storm water drains is elaborated in
Chapter 4. However, in the course of storm water drains design, there are many
special areas like hilly and coastal terrains which require special consideration in the
design. This chapter outlines the additional design criteria for storm water drains under
some specific conditions such as control of erosion & sedimentation, dissipation of
excess energy of runoff, design of outfall in coastal areas and control of backflow to
minimize incidences of waterlogging.

6.2 Hilly Terrain

Hilly areas are characterized with high terrain slope. In case of a storm, the runoff
gushes down the hill at very high velocities causing erosion of soil along drains/slopes.
The amount and size of soil particles transported, increase the volume and velocity of
runoff and are subsequently carried along drainage system of the basin to the
receiving bodies e.g., river and stream.

6.2.1 Impact of Erosion and Sedimentation on performance of storm water

drains

On steeper slopes, water moves faster as compared to flatter slopes and this
increased flow velocity aided by a lack of significant vegetative cover results in
transportation of larger amount of sediments. The increasing urbanization of hilly areas
increases the paved surfaces and results in increased surface runoff, further aiding
the transport of eroded sediments. Deposition of such eroded sediments inflicts
serious problems in the drainage channels in the areas located downstream of it
resulting in frequent flooding. Rapid downward movement of sediment-laden water
can cause problems like landslides that frequently occur during monsoon almost in
most of the hilly towns, causing loss of lives and damage to property. Therefore, the
interlinked consequences of urban development are transforming the hilly urban
watersheds into multi-hazard zones. Protecting erosion and prevention of
sedimentation is extremely important in planning and design of urbanization in hilly
areas. The following section mentions about the considerations to be adopted in the
design of storm water drains to mitigate the issue of erosion and sedimentation.

6.2.2 Additional Design considerations for drainage systems

i. Storm drains should be constructed on both sides of the road and connected
with cross drains across the road at suitable intervals having gratings to collect
rainwater from the surface of the road during rains

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ii. Roof water drains should be connected to these drains so that the rainwater may
not spill over the slopes
iii. The collected storm water conveyed through drains should be disposed off in
the valley stream through existing natural channels or constructed channels
along the slope at a suitable location
iv. Natural channels should be engineered either by constructing a stepped
channel or chute (design guidelines may be seen in chapter 5). The width of
such an engineered channel should never be reduced from its existing natural
width
v. Valley stream bank at the point of outfall should be protected by revetment
against erosion
vi. To drain out the increased discharge through the natural channel in a valley, the
bank of such channel should be protected by retaining wall made of rock block
or gabion box, depending on the steepness of the side slope
vii. Sufficient weep holes should be provided in case of concrete/masonry retaining
walls. Weep holes shall be provided in cement stone masonry walls at a spacing
of about 1.5 m centre-to-centre in either direction. The size of weep holes shall
be 100 mm to 150 mm connected with PVC (flexible) pipes embedded at 100
down from the horizontal towards the valley.

Figure 6. 1: Weep holes in a retaining wall

viii. For a channel carrying debris and having a moderate slope (say 10° < S < 30°)
intermediate sill projecting from the bed can be constructed to reduce the flow
velocity
ix. For a channel having a thick natural cover of boulders (which is found in most

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of the natural channels), no additional measures are necessary for protection

against scouring
x. In absence of a boulder bed in a moderate slope, a discrete concrete block may
be placed to prevent scouring under the impact of high streamflow velocity, while
keeping the bed permeable to allow infiltration
xi. The road must have adequate cross slope or camber as per Clause 5 of IRC,
SP-42 (1994) for quick disposal of storm water runoff laterally to the roadside
drain/drains
xii. A minimum longitudinal grade of 0.5 % should be provided to the road, wherever
possible in order to facilitate surface drainage
xiii. Intercepting drain, as in a hilly terrain sloping towards the road, should have
adequate size and be connected properly with well-designed culverts/bridges
xiv. In case width of terrain contributing flow to the drain is very large, intercepting
drain at higher elevation should be provided

Figure 6.2: Intercepting / Catch Water Drain on a Hill Slope

xv. To dissipate the energy of flowing water with high velocity down the steep slope
in the hilly area, a stepped channel or chute should be provided with a protective
apron as given in clause 5.8.1 of chapter 5

6.2.3 Temporary erosion and sedimentation control practices

The temporary erosion and sedimentation control measures to be implemented in the

catchment area and the drainage systems are elaborated below:

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a) Mulching

Mulching refers to the application of plant

residues or other suitable materials to the
soil surface to prevent erosion and reduce
surface flow velocities. Mulching also fosters
plant growth by increasing available moisture
and providing insulation against extreme heat or
cold. Mulch materials, application rates, and
specifications are explained in Table 6.1. Figure 6.3: Mulching

Table 6. 1: Mulch materials, application rates and specifications

Sr. Mulch Quality Application
Remarks
No Material Standards rate
1. Straw Air-dried, free 50 mm - 75 mm Cost-effective protection when
from thick, 2000- applied with adequate
undesirable 3000 Kg per thickness. Hand-application
seed and 4000 m2 generally requires greater
coarse material thickness than blown straw.
Straw should be crimped to
avoid wind blow. The thickness
of straw may be reduced by
half when used in conjunction
with seeding.

2. Wood Fiber No growth- 450 - 680 Kg Shall be applied with hydro

Cellulose inhibiting per 4000 m2 mulcher. Some wood fiber with
factors very long fibers can be
effective at lower application
rates
3. Compost No visible water 50 mm thick More effective control can be
or dust during min, approx. obtained by increasing
handling. Must 100,000 Kg per thickness to 75 mm.
be purchased 4000 m2
from supplier
with Solid
Waste Handling
Permit.
Source: King County, Washington Surface Water Design Manual

b) Temporary/permanent seeding

Temporary seeding and permanent seeding are two types of vegetative controls.
Temporary seeding is applied in areas that will be dormant for 15 days or more
whereas, permanent seeding is applied in areas that will be dormant for one year or
more. Selection of vegetation types depends on the season, site conditions and costs.

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Construction guidelines:

1. Prior to seeding, install all necessary erosion control practices such as dikes,
waterways, and basins
2. Provide proper shaping of the area to be seeded in a manner such that seedbed
preparation and seeding operations can be carried out
3. Soil conditions needed for the establishment and maintenance of seeding must be
as follows:
a. Sufficient fine-grained material to maintain adequate moisture and nutrient
supply
b. Sufficient pore space (crumb-like structure or bulk density 1.2 to 1.5 gm/cm3) to
permit root penetration
c. Sufficient depth of soil to offer an acceptable root zone. The depth to rock layers
shall be 0.3 m or more.
d. A promising pH range for plant growth. If the soil is so acidic then soil
modification would be mandatory.
e. Freedom from toxic materials harmful to plant growth
f. Freedom from excessive amounts of roots, branches, large stones and trash of
any kind

c) Sediment Basins

A sediment basin is a constructed embankment of compacted soil across a drainage

way which detains sediment-laden runoff. The basin allows runoff to pond and
sediment to settle down. They are generally used where the construction area is
disturbed in 2 ha or more. Accumulated sediment within the basin should be removed
as necessary.

Figure 6. 4: Sediment Basin

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Design Steps:

When constructing a sediment basin, designers should estimate the site constraints
that could affect the efficiency of the sediment basin. These constraints include basin
capacity, estimated sediment load, and freeboard, maintenance frequency, and
hydraulic capacity of outlet structure.

Design sediment basin(s) using the equation:

1.2 𝑄
𝐴𝑠 = (6.1)
𝑉𝑠

Where,

As : Minimum surface area for trapping soil particles of a definite dimension

Vs : Settling velocity of the design particle dimension chosen (Vs = 0.0085 cm/s for a
design particle size of 0.01 mm at 68°F)
1.2 : Factor of safety
Q : Peak basin influent flow rate (m3 ⁄sec), which shall be calculated by Rational
formula given in Chapter 4

This method is dependent on the outlet structure design. If the designer chooses to
utilize the outlet structure to control the flow duration in the basin, the basin length
(distance between the inlet and the outlet) should not be less than twice the basin
width; the depth should not be less than 0.9 m nor greater than 1.5 m for safety
reasons and for maximum efficiency.

d) Check Dams

Check dams are small temporary dams, constructed across a drainage ditch to reduce
erosive runoff velocities of concentrated flows. Check dams are limited to use on small
open channels draining 4 ha (10 ac) or less. Sediments should be removed when it
reaches approximately half the height of the dam. Check dams should be spaced in
the channel so that the crest of the downstream dam is at the elevation of the toe of
the upstream dam.

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Figure 6. 5: Check Dams

Design Steps:

Check dams should follow to the following requirements:

a) Check dams should be constructed before surface runoff is directed to the swale
or drainage ditch
b) The maximum runoff contributing area to the dam should be lesser than 10 acres
c) The dam maximum height should be 0.6 m
d) The centre of the dam should be at least 15 cm lower than the outer edges
e) The maximum spacing between the dams should be such that the toe of the
upstream dam is at the same elevation as the overflow elevation of the downstream
dam
f) The check dam should not be used in a flowing watercourse
g) Stone check dams should be built of a well-graded 5 cm to 7.5 cm stone. 2 cm
stone on the up gradient side is suggested for better filtering.
h) If sensibly installed and monitored, timber check dams may be used and should be
constructed of 10 cm to 15 cm logs embedded at least 45 cm deep into the soil.
However, stone check dams are generally chosen. The stone has the capability to
conform to the channel and settle if scour happens.

Note: Detailed design may be referred from the ‘Manual on Artificial Recharge of
Ground Water’ published by Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), September 2007.

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e) Silt Fences

A silt fence is the most widely used temporary sediment barrier. The fence consists of
a filter fabric supported by wooden posts or wire mesh. It is placed across or at the toe
of a slope to intercept and detain sediment and reduce flow velocities. The maximum
effective life of a silt fence is approximately six months. Proper maintenance of a silt
fence requires removal of sediment deposits when necessary. Silt fences which
decompose or become ineffective prior to the end of the expected useable life should
be replaced immediately.

Figure 6. 6: Silt Fence

Design Criteria:

I. Ensure silt fence height is a minimum of 400 mm above ground level

II. Place supporting posts for silt fences no more than 2 m apart unless additional
support is provided by tensioned wire (2.5 mm HT) along the top of the silt fence
III. Ensure supporting posts are embedded a minimum of 400 mm into the ground
IV. Always install silt fences along the contour
V. Join lengths of silt fence by doubling over fabric ends around a wooden post or
batten or by stapling the fabric ends to a batten and butting the two battens
together
VI. Install silt fence wings at either end of the silt fence projecting upslope to a
sufficient height to prevent outflanking
VII. Do not use silt fences in catchments of more than 0.25 ha

f) Brush Barrier

A brush barrier is a temporary sediment barrier composed of materials (such as weeds,

vines, root mats, soil, rock, etc.) pushed together at the perimeter of a given site and
at the toe of fills. Maintenance measures include inspection following each rainfall and

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removal of sediment deposits when they reach half of the barrier height.

The height of a brush barrier shall be a minimum of 1 m. The width of a brush barrier
shall be a minimum of 1.5 m at its base (the sizes of brush barriers may vary
considerably based upon the amount of material available and the judgment of the
design engineer). Material larger than 15 cm in diameter should not be used as the
non-homogeneity of the mixture can lead to voids where sediment-laden flows can
easily pass.

The drainage area for brush barriers should not be greater than 0.1 ha per 30 m of
brush barrier length. Additionally, the drainage slope leading down to a brush barrier
must be not greater than 3:1 and no longer than 45 m.

Figure 6.7: Brush Barrier

g) Diversion Dike

A diversion dike is constructed of compacted soil and is used to divert runoff to an

acceptable location. They are placed either at the top of a disturbed area to divert site
runoff, or at the bottom to deflect sediment-laden runoff to a sediment trapping
structure. Dikes should be inspected weekly and after rainfall events and repairs made
as necessary. Following are the installation criteria of diversion like:
a. Clear and grub area for diversion dike construction
b. Excavate channel and place soil on the down gradient side
c. Shape and machine compact excavated soil to form a ridge
d. Place erosion protection (riprap, mulch) at the outlet
e. Stabilize channel and ridge as required with mulch, gravel, or vegetative cover

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Figure 6.8: Diversion Dike

h) Temporary slope drains

A slope drain is a flexible tubing or conduit used to convey concentrated runoff from
the top to the bottom of a disturbed area without causing erosion on or below the slope.
It can also be used to carry storm water down a slope away from a control facility.
Slope drains should be inspected weekly and after rainfall events to ensure proper
operation.

Figure 6.9: Temporary Slope Drain

The temporary slope drain must be sized to safely convey the desired flow volume.
Temporary slope drains may be constructed of flexible or rigid pipe, riprap, or heavy
plastic lining. When piping is used, it must be properly anchored by burying it with
adequate cover or by using an anchor system to secure it to the ground.

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The discharge from the slope drain must be directed to a stabilized outlet, temporary
or permanent channel, and/or sedimentation basin.

6.3 Coastal Terrain

The coastal areas present a unique challenge to the design of storm water drainage
systems, owing to tides, high groundwater tables, and relatively flat terrain. During
high tides, low lying areas along the coast are prone to flooding/inundation and
disposal of storm water becomes a problem. During severe storms/cyclones, the
discharge of storm water through drains is often not effective and results in water
logging and flooding. Backflow of sea water further exasperates the problem. The
following section mentions the special design considerations in storm drainage outfalls
in coastal areas.

6.3.1 Design Considerations for storm water drainage in Coastal Areas

The following measures suggested should also be incorporated in design for efficient
discharge of storm water in coastal areas:

a) Encouraging infiltration through low impact development activities, such as

preserving & recreating natural landscape features, bio-retention facilities,
vegetated rooftops, permeable pavements, etc.
b) Installing pumps to provide sufficient pressure to storm water to overcome
backflow during sea-level rise. Alternatively, a suitable pumping system or a
combination of systems shall be implemented so as to minimize flooding in low
lying areas during high tide periods
c) Installing check valves/ flap gates to only allow outflow from storm water conduits
and effective prevention of backflow
d) Trench drains are recommended in locations where there is localized flooding at
a low point in a paved area
e) Avoid pipes discharging on
beaches
f) Avoid construction of
conduit/channels along the
shoreline
g) Minimize the number of outlets Figure 6.10: Trench Drain
into the sea or estuary

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6.3.2 Storm outfalls in coastal towns/cities

Tide levels can influence storm water drainage planning since a significant portion of
the drainage infrastructures in the coastal cities is dependent on outfalls having a tidal
influence of the surrounding sea and estuaries. The establishment of engineering
design values for the still water levels or tail water elevations, utilized in drainage outfall
hydraulic analysis for storm water management planning should also account for rising
sea level trends over a projected period of time to ensure that the planned drainage
improvements will function effectively under current tidal water conditions, as well as,
future conditions.

6.3.3 Sea levels in different conditions

Variation in seawater levels is essentially required to be understood in its various

phases of tidal events before concluding the desired seawater elevation for positioning
the storm outfall levels in coastal areas of the sub-continent. The pictorial illustration
of the tidal levels is shown in Figure 6.11. The following sections briefly discuss the
various relevant aspects:

Source: Adapted from ‘Queensland Urban Drainage Manual’

Figure 6.11: Sea levels

a) Tidal water levels

Chart datum is plane below which all depths are published on a navigational chart. It
is also the plane to which all tidal heights are referred, so by adding the tidal height to
the charted depth, the true depth of water is determined. By international agreement,
chart datum is defined as a level so low that the tide will not frequently fall below it.

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b) Mean sea level

Mean sea level(MSL) is average level of the sea surface over a long period normally
19 years or the average level which would exist in the absence of tide, i.e. the average
height of surface of the sea at a tide station for all stages of the tide over years of
period. The MSL is usually determined from hourly height readings measured from a
fixed predetermined reference level (chart datum).

c) Highest Astronomical Tide (HAT) and Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT)

The highest and lowest tide levels respectively can be predicted to reach under
average meteorological conditions or under any combination of astronomical
conditions but are not the regular occurrence. These levels will not be reached every
year.

d) Spring Tides

During the full moon and new moon phases of a Lunar cycle (approximately a
fortnightly occurrence), the gravitational forces of the moon and the sun act to reinforce
one another. The tides experience an increased range during these phases. Since the
combined tidal force is increased, the high tides are higher and the low tides are lower
than the average. Spring tide is a term which implies a welling up of the water and
bears no relationship to the season of the year.

e) Neap Tides

The tides of decreased range occurring near the times of first and third quarter phases
of the moon when the gravitational forces of the moon and the sun counteract each
other. As the combined tidal force is decreased, the high tides are lower and the low
tides are higher than average. Neap comes from a Greek word meaning scanty.

f) MHWS (Mean High Water Springs) & MLWS (Mean Low Water Springs)

The height of mean high water springs is the average of the heights of two successive
high waters during those periods of 24 hrs (approximately once a fortnight) when the
range of the tide is greatest. The height of mean low water springs is the average
height obtained by the two successive low waters during the same period i.e.

MHWS The average height of the high waters of spring tides above Chart Datum
MLWS The average height of all low waters of spring tides above Chart Datum

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g) MHWN (Mean High Water Neaps) & MLWN (Mean Low Water Neaps)

The height of mean high water neaps is the average, throughout a year as defined
above, of the heights of two successive high waters during those periods
(approximately once a fortnight) when the range of the tide is least. The height of mean
low water neaps is the average height obtained from the two successive low waters
during the same periods, i.e.
MHWN The average height of the high waters of neap tides above Chart Datum
MLWN The average height of the low waters of neap tides above Chart Datum

h) Storm surge

A storm surge (meteorological tide) is an atmospherically ocean driven response by

extreme surface winds and low surface pressure associated with severe weather
conditions, usually cyclones. Strong off-shore winds can generate significant ocean
currents when these currents approach a barrier such as shorelines, sea levels
increase as the water is forced up against land. The low atmospheric pressure
associated with cyclones can also raise sea levels well above predicted tide levels.

i) Historical sea levels

Historical sea levels are instrumental records of sea-level changes measured with
permanent tide gauges at required locations. Such gauges are installed at 28 locations
along Indian coastline operated and maintained by Survey of India.

j) Availability of Tidal Data

The annual and monthly MSL tide gauge data can be obtained from Permanent
Service for Mean sea level (PSMSL) and the satellite altimetry data from Topex/
Poseidon Jason 1 and Jason 2. There are 28 tide gauge stations along the Indian
coastline. Necessary data can be obtained, recorded by these gauges from Survey of
India, Dehradun. Global data can also be obtained from the Water Ocean Circulation
Experiment (WOCE), National Oceanographic Data Centre (NODC), and Indian
National Centre for Ocean Information Service (INCOIS), Hyderabad, etc. Besides,
national port and harbor authorities of maritime board of coastal states of India also
publish annually, tide tables recorded at the minor ports within jurisdiction of their state.

6.3.4 Global trend in sea level variation

Based on major findings of IPCC scientific assessment of working group (2014), it is

anticipated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue to increase at the current rate,

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an average rate of global sea-level rise between 3 cm and 10 cm per decade is

predicted over the next century, resulting mainly from thermal expansion of the ocean.

6.3.5 Regional trend in sea level variation

Recent studies on regional sea variation along the Indian coast (APAC-2015)
reported that average rise in MSL in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea based on
available tide gauge data-set have been found to be 1.92 mm/year and 1.72 mm/year
respectively.

6.3.6 Design considerations for tidal outfall in ocean and bays

Selection of appropriate tail water level at the location of storm water outfall is the basic
necessity in design and planning of storm water drainage system of coastal cities. The
nature of tidal variation, storm surges, mean sea level, wave set up, and climate
change effect, that significantly influences tail water level, have been briefly described
in the foregoing sections.

However, the local maritime board of state Government and/or other local authorities
should be consulted to establish an appropriate tail water level for design of storm
outfall to ocean/ bay. Consideration should also be given to the joint probability of
occurrence of the design storm, tide level, and storm surge. The effect of increased
tail water level resulting from climate change should be examinedriverbankand
necessary allowance should be made in determining the tail water level. Suggested
tail water level for discharge to tidal waterways in design of storm outfall system are
given in Table 6.2.

Table 6. 2: Design considerations for tidal out fall

Design condition Design tail water level

Minor storm (< 1 in 5 years ) In the range of MHWN to MHWS
Major storm (> 1 in 5 years ) In the range of MHWS to HAT
Effect of climate change Additional 0.3 m

6.3.7 Design consideration for outfall in tidal rivers and streams

In case where the drainage outfall is located in the tidal reach of a stream or river,
water levels within receiving waters may be affected by flood flows passing down the
receiving waterway. The severity of this coincident flooding will depend principally on
the ratio of the time of concentration of the side channel/drain relative to that of the
receiving waterway. The procedure described in section 4.4.1.7 (Partial area effect)
may be adopted to assess the most critical combination of flows and stream water
level. Therefore, a tail water level should include an appropriate surcharge to the

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corresponding flood discharge, in addition to the stream water level. Such case may
also arise in non – tidal rivers that should be dealt with accordingly.

Table 6. 3: Design tail water level

Design condition Design tail water level

Minor storm (< 1 in 5 years ) In the range of MHWN to MHWS
Major storm (> 1 in 5 years ) In the range of MHWS to HAT
Effect of climate change Additional 0.3 m
Surcharge due to the combined As per design calculation in Chapter 4,
discharge of side drain and clause 4.4.1.7 of Partial area effect
mainstream

Alternatively, local authorities and maritime boards may determine appropriate tail
water levels or discharge conditions of particular reaches of tidal streams based on
local experience and knowledge.

6.3.8 Design tail water level for non-tidal storm outlets

Design tail water level for the following non-tidal water bodies may be adopted as
follows:

a. For river and streams – High Flood water level (HFL)

b. For lakes - Normal high water level or overflow level
c. For storm water ponds – Normal high water level or overflow level

6.3.9 Outfall Structure

Typical drawing of outlet structure for river/streams is given in Figures 6.12 and 6.13:

Figure 6. 12: Storm Water channel outfall

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Figure 6. 13: Storm Water Conduit outfall

a. The Boulder or stone pitching should be done over the bank of the river to protect
against erosion of the bank.
b. The pitching should extend 5 times the depth of outfall storm water channel/conduit
c. Barricades should be installed wherever applicable to safeguard against any type
of damage to the structure

6.3.10 Backflow control Systems

Storm water pipes and drains can be subject to backflow in circumstances where flood
levels within the receiving water rise above the water level within the pipe or drain.
Backflows can be the result of normal tidal action or a result of river flooding. Backflow
prevention devices are used when it is desirable to limit the degree of backflow or
likelihood of backflows. The most common types of backflow prevention devices
include flap gates and mechanically operated gates. Backflow prevention devices can
be used for the following reasons:

a. To reduce the risk of coastal sediment/sand inflows into tidal drains

b. To reduce saltwater intrusion into established freshwater habitats
c. To reduce the frequency and/or severity of backwater flooding of low-lying land
adjacent floodplains
d. To reduce the floodwater inundation of flood-prone land protected by flood control
levees

6.3.10.1 Flap Gates and Flood Gates

Flap gates are installed at or near storm drain outlets for the purpose of preventing
back flooding of the drainage system at the high tides or high surges in the Receiving
Ocean or tidal streams. Small differential pressure on the back of the gate is kept so
that the flap should open at a very small head differential. Flap gates are typically
made of cast iron, or rubber or steel and available in round square and rectangular

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opening and in various design and sizes. Adequate storage may be necessary if
pumping is to be avoided during the closure of the gate to prevent backflow in case of
the high tide. To control this flow from the storage tank, Flap gates or penstocks are
provided which can be opened and closed quickly at the predetermined stages of high
rise of river or sea level. The gates generally have electrical drive mechanisms. Flap
gate is usually hinged by key and lock type arrangement that makes it possible to get
the gate shutters seated firmly. Hinge pins, links, etc. should be of corrosion-resistant
materials.

6.4 River bank protection

The river passing through populated areas of towns and cities may cause excessive
damage to adjacent land, properties, hydraulic structures, etc. due to failure of the
banks caused by erosive forces of fast-moving currents. It, therefore, necessitates the
protection of river banks against erosion and caving, resulting in subsequent failure
and collapse. Detailed design and engineering of riverbank protection are beyond the
scope of this manual. In this regard the provisions of “Handbook for Flood Protection,
Anti Erosion and River Training Works” published by Central Water Commission,
Government of India are to be followed.

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CHAPTER 7: STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF BURIED STORM WATER CONDUITS

7.1 General

Hydraulic design of storm water conduits has been discussed in Chapter 5. These
pipes, when laid underground, are subjected to forces that need consideration of
various parameters such as pipe material properties, supporting strength and various
installation and loading conditions like fill loads, superimposed loads, sub-surface
water level, etc. This Chapter describes the process of the structural design of
underground rigid and flexible conduits under non-pressure flow application that are
generally used in storm water drainage system.

7.2 Type of Buried Pipes

There are two types of conduits that are generally used in storm drainage system
namely:

i. Rigid Pipes
ii. Flexible Pipes

7.2.1 Design of buried rigid pipe

Manual on sewerage and sewage treatment published by CPHEEO, 2013 may be

referred for design procedure for underground buried rigid pipes.

7.2.2 Design method of buried flexible pipe

Flexible pipe (non-pressure flow) derives its load carrying capacity from its flexibility.
Under vertical load, the pipe tends to deflect pressure on soil support along its sides.
At the same time, ring deflection relieves the pipe of the major portion of the vertical
load, which is then carried by surrounding soil through a mechanism of soil arching
action over the pipe. Therefore, the design of flexible pipes involves calculation of
deflection, buckling and wall thrust under total load including soil load, vehicular load,
and hydrostatic forces so that the pipe must be able to withstand these forces to
remain structurally stable.

7.2.2.1 Deflection in flexible pipe

The effective strength of the flexible pipe soil system is remarkably high, which is
determined by vertical deflection under pipe soil system. As per IS code 16098:2013
(part II), the deflection limit for various classification of PE pipe is given in Table 7.1.

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Table 7. 1: Recommended Design Deflection Limits

Average Initial Average Long term

S.No. Stiffness Class
Deflection Percent Deflection Percent
i. SN 2 5 8
ii. SN 4, 8,16 8 10
Source: IS code 16098:2013 (part II)

Following formula is applied to compute the vertical deflection in buried flexible pipe
for short term and long term conditions:

∆𝑦 𝐾(𝐷𝐿 𝑊𝑐 +𝑊𝐿 )
= 8𝐸𝐼 × 100 (7.1)
𝐷𝑀 ( 3 )+ (0.061 x 𝐸′)
𝐷

Where,
∆𝑦
: Deflection in %
𝐷𝑀
K : Bedding Constant (dimensionless);
𝐷𝐿 : Deflection lag factor (dimensionless);
𝑊𝑐 : Soil Column load on pipe, kPa
𝑊𝐿 : Live load, kPa
EI
: Ring Stiffness in kPa which is designated as SN by IS code 16098:2013 (Part II)
D3

E’ : Modulus of soil reaction in kPa

DM : Mean Diameter, m

(a) Loading on pipe

The loading on buried pipes is composed of dead load and live load i.e.

(i) Dead load, kPa (WC)

Dead load is the soil Column load on pipe which is calculated by the following
formula:

Wc = H × γS (7.2)

H : Burial depth to top of pipe, m

γS : Soil density, kN/m3

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(ii) Live load, kPa (WL)

The live load is imposed by a source moving over the buried pipe, such as vehicles on
a road, railway or load at an airport. The determination of live load is important for
shallow burial of less than 3.1 m. The effect of live load decreases as the depth of
cover increases. A table of live loads has been developed for highways and railways
which are given in the Table 7.2.

Table 7. 2: Live Loads on Flexible Pipes

Highway HS-25 Railway E80

Height of Cover
PL Distribution Width PL
(m) 2
(N/mm ) (Lw) (mm) (N/mm2)
0.3 0.108 787 N.R
0.6 0.048 1321 0.1824
0.9 0.036 1854 0.1632
1.2 0.024 2388 0.1272
1.5 0.015 2921 0.1152
1.8 0.012 3454 0.1080
2.1 0.011 3988 0..0846
2.4 0.006 4521 0.0768
3.1 N.S N.S 0.0528
3.6 N.S N.S 0.0384
4.3 N.S N.S 0.0288
4.9 N.S N.S 0.0240
5.5 N.S N.S 0.0192
6.1 N.S N.S 0.0144
6.7 N.S N.S 0.0132
7.3 N.S N.S 0.0120
7.9 N.S N.S 0.0096
8.5 N.S N.S 0.0072
9.1 N.S N.S 0.0048
10.7 N.S N.S N.S
12.2 N.S N.S N.S
Source: AASHTO

Notes:
1) Includes impact where required.
2) N.R indicates that the cover height is not recommended.
3) N.S indicates that the load is non-significant.

(b) Deflection lag factor, DL

For initial deflection, deflection lag factor is taken as 1.0. Long term deflection depends
on embedment and compaction of the soil. However, for conservative design, lag
factor can be considered as 1.5 for long term condition.

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(c) Soil modulus E’

The most commonly recognised values of soil modulus E’ are those of Amster Howard
of the US Bureau of Reclamation. Howard examined the information from known
laboratory and field tests and developed a table of average values of E’ which is given
in Table 7.3 for computation of deflection of buried flexible pipes.

Table 7. 3: Average Values of Modulus of Soil Reaction E′ for Initial Flexible

Pipe Deflection

E’ for degree of compaction of bedding

Slight Moderate High,
Soil type pipe bedding <85% Proctor, 85-95 % Proctor, >95% Proctor,
Dumped
material(Unified Soil <40% relative 40-70% relative >70% relative
Classification System) density density density
KPa KPa KPa KPa
Fine grained soils (LL<50) 345 1379 2758 6895
Soils with medium to no
plasticity CL, ML, ML-CL
with less than 25% coarse
– grained particles
Fine grained soils (LL<50) 690 2758 6895 13789
Soils with medium to no
plasticity CL, ML, ML-CL
with more than 25%
coarse – grained particles
Coarse grained soils with
fines GM, GC, SM, SC
containing more than 12%
fines
Coarse grained soils with 1379 6895 13790 20684
little or no fines GW, GP,
SW, SP containing less
than 12% fines
Crushed rock 6895 20684 20684 20684
Accuracy in terms of ±2 ±2 ±1 ±0.5
percentage of
deflections
Source: Amster K. Howard, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, “Modulus of Soil Reaction
(E′) Values for Buried Flexible Pipe,”

Note: Values given in Table 7.3 are consistent with field and laboratory data taken
over a 20 year period at Utah State University.

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(d) Bedding constant, K

The bedding constant is a term which accounts for the reactive force imparted from
the pipe bedding material when a pipe is installed. The bedding constant is determined
from the bedding angle, as shown in figure 7.1. Values of bedding angles and
approximate constants are given in Table 7.4. For most installations the bedding
constant is assumed to be 0.1.

Figure 7.1: Bedding Angle

Table 7. 4: Value of constant (K)

Bedding angle in degree K

0 0.110
30 0.108
45 0.105
60 0.102
90 0.096
120 0.090
180 0.083

(e) Pipe properties

Pipe properties of PE pipes are given in Table 7.5 as per IS code 16098:2013 (Part
II).

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Table 7.5: Nominal size, Minimum Mean Inside Diameters, Thickness of inside
Layers and Socket Length

DN/ID Series Minimum Wall Thickness Socket1)

Length
Sl No.
dim,Min e4,Min e5,Min AMin
DN/ID
mm mm mm mm
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
i) 75 71 1.0 0.85 27
ii) 100 95 1.0 1.0 32
iii) 125 120 1.2 1.0 38
iv) 135 130 1.2 1.0 39
v) 150 145 1.3 1.0 43
vi) 170 165 1.4 1.0 48
vii) 200 195 1.5 1.1 54
viii) 225 220 1.7 1.4 55
ix) 250 245 1.8 1.5 59
x) 300 294 2.0 1.7 64
xi) 400 392 2.5 2.3 74
xii) 500 490 3.0 3.0 85
xiii) 600 588 3.5 3.5 96
xiv) 800 785 4.5 4.5 118
xv) 1000 985 5.0 5.0 140
xvi) 1200 1185 5.0 5.0 162
1) For selection of Amin requirements for socket, refer to the pipe material and
construction. For pipe longer than 6 m it is recommended that one produce a larger
Amin that is specified in this table

Where,
Dim, Min: Minimum mean inside diameter of a socket

Where,
e4 : Wall thickness of the inside layer (waterway wall thickness)
ec : Construction height
de : Outside diameter

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di : Inside diameter

Note:
i. The internal diameter (DN/ID) shall be as per Table 7.5. Other nominal sizes,
falling within the range of Table 7.5, are also permitted. For DN/IDs not
specified in Table 7.5, the minimum inside diameter, d im, Min, shall be linearly
interpolated between the adjacent values specified in Table 7.5.
ii. Values of pipe properties should be obtained from the manufacturer for a
specific type of flexible pipe.

Table 7.6: Physical properties of PE pipe

Sl. No. Characteristics PE

1 Flexural Modulus, Emin in MPa 1000-1200
2 Density, kg/m3 950
3 Poisson’s ratio 0.4
Source: Adapted from IS code IS 16098:2013 (Part II)

Note: For long term condition, flexural modulus may be assumed as 30% of the initial
modulus as given in Table 7.6 for purpose of design.

(f) Pipe stiffness(PS)

Pipe stiffness value should be provided by pipe manufacturer or can be determined

theoretically by the following equation.

PS =6.71EI/r3 (7.3)

Where,
PS : Pipe stiffness in KPa
E : Modulus of elasticity in KPa
I : Moment of inertia in mm4/mm
r : Mean pipe radius in mm

7.2.2.2 Buckling Pressure

Buckling of pipe is a localized failure of the pipe wall structure which is due to
insufficient pipe stiffness, deep burial with high ground water table, internal vacuum or
poor backfill condition. Therefore, the pipe should be checked for critical buckling
pressure against actual buckling pressure giving a factor of safety greater than or
equal to 2.

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Factor of safety (FS) = Critical Buckling Pressure / Actual Buckling Pressure

a) Critical Buckling Pressure

Critical Buckling pressure is calculated by the following formula:

Pcr = 0.6(EI/D3)0.33(E′)0.67 (7.4)

Where,
Pcr : Critical Buckling Pressure, kPa
EI/D3 : Ring stiffness (SN) of pipe
E’ : Average Values of Modulus of Soil Reaction E′

The long and short term values of SN are used to calculate P crl and Pcrs, respectively.
(For metal pipes, the long term and short term moduli are identical)

b) Actual Buckling Pressure

Actual Buckling pressure is calculated by the following formula:

1000WL
Pv = 0.00981{(R w Hγs + γw Hw } + (7.5)
OD

Where,
Pv : Actual buckling pressure, kPa
H
R w : Water buoyancy factor = 1 - 0.33 [ 𝐻w ]

H : Burial depth to top of pipe, m

γw : Unit weight of water, 1000 Kg/m3
Hw : Height of ground water over top of pipe, m
WL : Live load, N linear mm of pipe = OD × PL
OD: Outside diameter of pipe in mm
γs : Soil density Kg/m3

The following example shall elucidate the application of the above mentioned formulae
in designing and checking the flexible pipe installation and its stability.

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Example 7.1

400 mm (SN 8) inside diameter and 480 mm outside diameter corrugated polyethylene
pipe is to be installed having a minimum cover of 0.5 m. Ground water is below the
invert of the pipe. Backfill materials are native soil compacted to 85-95% SPD. The
density of the backfill material is 15 kN/m3. Check whether the pipe shall be structurally
stable under the aforesaid installation conditions?

Solution:

i. Check for Deflection:

∆𝑦 𝐾(𝐷𝐿 𝑊𝑐 +𝑊𝐿 )
= 8𝐸𝐼 × 100
𝐷𝑀 ( 3 )+ (0.061 x 𝐸′)
𝐷
Where,
K = 0.1
𝐷𝐿 = For initial deflection = 1.0 and for long term deflection = 1.5
𝑊𝑐 = 𝜸s × H = 15 × 0.5 = 7.5 kPa
𝑊𝐿 = 68 kPa as per Table 7.2 (by interpolation)
𝐸𝐼
= 8 kPa (Value of SN by manufacturer)
𝐷3
E’ = 6895 kPa from Table 7.3

For short term condition

∆𝑦 0.1(1 × 7.5 + 68)

= × 100 = 1.56 %
𝐷𝑀 (8 × 8) + (0.061 x 6895)

Deflection (%) = 1.56 %

For long term condition

∆𝑦 0.1(1.5×7.5+68)
= (8×0.3×8)+ (0.061 x 6895) × 100 = 1.8 %
𝐷𝑀

ii. Check for Buckling

a. Critical Buckling Pressure

Pcr = 0.6(EI/D3)0.33(E′)0.67

Pcrs = 0.6(8)0.33(6895)0.67 = 444.6 k Pa

Pcrl = 0.6(2.4)0.33(6895)0.67 = 298.83 kPa

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b. Actual Buckling Pressure

H 0
R w = 1-0.33 [ 𝐻w ] = 1-0.33 [0.3] = 1

1000WL
Pv = 0.00981{(R w Hγs + γw Hw } +
OD

0.068×480×1000
Pv = 0.00981{(1 × 0.5 × 1500 + 1000 × 0} + 480

Pv = 7.35 + 68 = 75.36

FS = Pcrl/Pv = 298.83/75.36 = 3.96 > 2

Hence, Design is Safe

FS = Pcrs/Pv = 444.6/75.36 = 5.89 > 2

Hence, Design is Safe

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CHAPTER – 8: STORM WATER PUMPING

8.1 General

Urban storm water drainage system may encounter situations where gravity flow
conditions may not be feasible either due to the topographical configuration of low
lying or tidal areas and also where the water level of receiving water bodies is higher
than the water level of the outfall. Pumping of storm water becomes an imperative
need to avoid flooding and waterlogging of the area under such situations.

8.2 Planning of Pumping Station

Planning of pump station presents the designer with a challenge to provide a cost-
effective drainage system that meets the need of the project. Several important
considerations are involved in planning and site selection for the pump station. The
easy access necessary for safe operation, maintenance, and emergency functions
must be available at all times. Hydraulic conditions will have primary importance in site
selection, but site appearance and sound attenuation should be also assessed. In
normal circumstances, the location of the pump station is usually at the drainage
system outlet.
Foundation investigations are necessary, and enough space must be provided in the
area outside the station to accommodate parking as well as movements of large
machinery. A dependable energy source is essential. The primary source of electrical
power for most storm water pump stations is a public utility. Underground service is
preferred for safety and aesthetic reasons, and overhead lines into the station should
be avoided, as they present potential safety hazards during large equipment operation.

The essential components that require to be considered in the preparation of the layout
for the pumping station are as follows:

a. Location of the pumping point

b. Pump sump
c. Storage reservoir
d. Power Source
e. Electrical & Mechanical equipment
f. Access to site
g. Aesthetics of Pumping Station
h. Environmental quality

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8.2.1 Location of the Pumping Point

Location of pumping station should be selected on dry ground free from flooding risk.
However, in cases where pumping location lies in low point/flood-prone area on
account of topographic consideration, the pumping station floor on which the electrical
equipment and related accessories are placed should be at higher elevation.

8.2.2 Pump sump

Space for pump and sump should be assessed either for the dry wet pump which is
having separate sump or Wet well pump which contains the sump inside the pump
house

8.2.3 Storage Reservoir

Storage may be a necessary component where reduction of peak flow is desired

considering downstream drainage system or receiving bodies of water. In such cases,
adequate land area may be required.

8.2.4 Power Source

Electrical power supply source from electrical transmission grids should be the best
economical option. Transmission grid should be as near as possible to the pumping
station to avoid a quite high-cost involvement in obtaining the power supply from the
distant grid.

8.2.5 Electrical & Mechanical Equipment

The pump house should have adequate space to house electrical and mechanical
equipment such as switchboard, control panels, transformer, generator room, etc. As
per Indian Electricity Rules, the space required for these is given below:

(a) Sufficient space should be available in the pump house to locate the pump,
motor, valves, piping, control panels, and cable trays in a rational manner with
easy access and with sufficient space around each equipment for the
maintenance and repairs.
The minimum space between two adjoining pumps or motors should be 0.6 m
for small and medium units and 1 m for large units.
(b) Space for control panels should be planned as per the Indian Electricity (I.E)
Rules. As per these:

(i) A clear space of not less than 915 mm in width shall be provided in front of
the switchboard. In case of large panels, a draw out space for the circuit

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breakers may exceed 915 mm. In such cases, the recommendations of the
manufacturer should be followed.
(ii) If there are any attachments or bare connections at the back of the
switchboard, space if any behind the switch-board shall be either less than
230 mm or more than 750 mm in width measured from the farthest part of
any attachment or conductor
(iii) If the switchboard exceeds 760 mm in width, there shall be a passageway
from either end of the switch-board clear to a height of 1830 mm

(c) A service bay should be provided in the station with such space that the largest
equipment can be accommodated there for overhauling and repairs

(d) A ramp or a loading and unloading bay should be provided. In large installations,
the floors should be so planned that all piping and valves can be laid on the lower
floor and the upper floor should permit free movement.

(e) Head room and material handling tackle:

(iv) In the case of vertical pipes with hollow shafts motors, the clearance should
be adequate to lift the motor clear off the face of the coupling and also carry
the motor to the service bay without interference with any other apparatus.
The clearance should also be adequate to dismantle and lift the largest
column assembly.
(v) In the case of horizontal pumps (or vertical pumps with solid shaft motors),
the headroom should permit transport of the motor above the other
apparatus with adequate clearance
(vi) The mounting level of the lifting tackle should be decided considering the
above needs and the need of the headroom for the maintenance and repair
of the lifting tackle itself
(vii) The traverse of the lifting tackle should cover all bays and all apparatus.
(viii) The rated capacity of the lifting tackle should be adequate for the maximum
weight to be handled at any time

8.2.6 Access to site

There should be easy access to the pump station for heavy vehicles carrying
machineries, hoisting equipment, etc., that are likely to be used during construction
and maintenance. Sufficient space should be provided for service road, off-street
parking, station loading area, turn around area, heavy lifting equipment, roadside
warning signs including above-stated land requirement.

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8.2.7 Aesthetics of pumping station

Typical low-cost measure to enhance visual quality should be employed:

a. Allowing adequate area of natural and planted vegetation

b. Enclosing unsightly objects such as storage tank etc.
c. Using submersible pumps to reduce the size of required above ground facilities
d. Using local building materials that blend in with the surrounding architecture
e. Providing underground utilities (power supply, phone lines, etc.)

8.2.8 Environmental Quality

Following environmental qualities may be considered.

8.2.8.1 Air Quality

Diesel generators or engine driven pumps are potential air quality polluters that may
be replaced by natural gas or purely grid-supplied electrical energy.

8.2.8.2 Noise

Noise attenuation is a necessary concern near residential areas. Wherever practicable

one or more of the following measures may be adopted:

a) Use submersible pump

b) Where submersible pumps are not practicable, use an electrically driven motor if
engine is used, provide mufflers
c) Build a pump house from concrete or masonry
d) Sound insulation of the pump house wall may be an option

An environmental audit should be carried out at regular intervals.

8.3 Design of Pumping Station

8.3.1 Type of pump stations

Two types of pump stations are constructed for the purpose of storm water pumping
viz, wet pit and dry pit.

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8.3.1.1 Wet pit pump station

In wet pit system, the pump is either submerged underwater connected with a drive
shaft to an overhead electrical motor or the submerged pump is directly coupled with
submersible motor as shown in Fig 8.1.

Figure 8.1: Wet Pit Pump Station with

vertical turbine pump

8.3.1.2 Dry pit pump station

In dry pit system, the horizontal centrifugal pump directly coupled with the motor is
installed on the floor of the dry pit with its suction pipe connected to the sump as shown
in figure 8.2.

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Figure 8. 2: Dry Pit Pump Station with horizontal centrifugal pump

8.3.1.3 Trash Screens

Trash screen should be provided at the entrance to wet pit if large debris is anticipated
in the incoming storm water. For storm water pumping station simple steel bar screens
are adequate. Usually, bar screens are inclined with bar spacing approximately 58
mm. constructing the screen in modules facilitate removal for maintenance. If the
screen is relatively small an emergency overflow should be provided against clogging
and subsequent surcharging the collection system.
In case a substantial amount of sediments are anticipated a catch basin may be
provided to settle out the solids.

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8.3.2 Choice of Pump Type

The choice of pump type may be considered from the following type of centrifugal
pumps that are commonly used in storm water pumping in accordance with the criteria
of requirement.

1) Axial flow pump

Axial pumps deliver water parallel to the pump axis and driveshaft. They are generally
used for low head and high discharge application. These pumps cannot handle debris
because the propeller may be damaged if they strike large and hard object.

2) Radial flow pumps

Radial flow pumps use centrifugal force to deliver water. They can handle a wide range
of head and discharge, the best for high head applications. They can handle debris
quite well. A single vane non-clog impeller handles debris the best as it provides
largest impeller opening.

3) Mixed flow pumps

Mixed flow pumps are similar to axial flow pumps except that they create pressure and
velocity to liquids by the centrifugal force of impellers and the lifting force of vanes and
thus they are a combination of the above two types. They are suitable for intermediate
head and discharge application with better ease in debris handling.

All pumps can be driven either with directly coupled or through a driving shaft with
electrical motors or engines. In case of submersible pumps, submersible electrical
motor is coupled with the pumps submerged under storm water. Submersible pumps
have advantages in simplifying the design, construction maintenance, and thereby
reducing the cost of the pump station.

8.3.3 Design of wet pit

When automatic controls and variable discharge pump are installed, the wet well
should have storage of 5 min detention of minimum inflow within the wet well. In the
absence of such control and variable discharge pump, the wet well should have a
storage of a minimum cycle time of peak flow or should have storage from 10 min to
15 min of incoming peak flow calculated by the following formula:

𝑉 =𝑄×𝑡 (8.1)

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Where,
V : Effective Volume of wet well in m3 (Volume of the wet well below the invert level of
storm water drains)
Q : Peak discharge in m3/min
t : Cycle time in minutes

However, the minimum allowable cycle time (t) is designated by the pump
manufacturer based on electric motor size.

It is recommended to provide the same size of duty pump sets capable of managing
maximum and minimum storm flows for ease in operation & maintenance. The
designer may decide the pumping capacity in accordance with the above
recommendations by trial. The standby units may be provided with minimum 50 % of
the duty pump units.

The internal diameter of the well shall be kept such that a number of submersible
pumps coupled with motors or shaft driven installed inside the well may not create
mutual interference with each other. The data required as such should be provided by
pump manufacturer along with specified submergence depth of pump for functional
efficiency.

In case reduced constant discharge is required, dry pit pump station should be used.
The pumps should be connected through a suitable penstock with the storage tank,
water level sensor viz. float switch, electronic probes, and ultrasonic devices, etc.
should be used to control the pumping system.

8.3.4 Design Capacity of storage tank

The rate of pumped discharge of the storm water should be fixed as per peak inflow
of storm water. In case attenuation in peak runoff of the catchment to down steam
conveyance main or receiving water bodies is required, the storage volume required
to detain the surplus water in a storm water tank.

An example has been given herein to reduce the peak flow of 0.62 m 3/sec to 0.40
m3/sec by providing a designed capacity of a storage tank.
The capacity of the storm water storage tank to accomplish the reduction of peak flow
discharge either to downstream facilities or to receiving water bodies can be achieved
by operating the outflow hydrograph over inflow hydrograph for the design rainfall
event over watershed contributing to the tank. The estimated storage volume shall be
an area of shaded portion (intercepted between outflow hydrograph and the inflow
curve as shown in figure 8.3.

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Figure 8. 3: Inflow Hydrograph

By the above graph, it could be easily inferred that the peak flow can be reduced to
0.40 m3/sec by providing a storage tank of 130 m3 capacity.

8.3.5 Pump Characteristic Curves

There are two types of pump curves i.e. system curve and pump curve as described
below:

8.3.5.1 System Curve

A plot of the curve for evaluated values of head to be developed by the pump against
different values of flow rates is called the system head curve. The total dynamic head
comprises total of the following:

Total Dynamic Head = 𝐻𝑠 + 𝐻𝑓 + 𝐻𝑣 + 𝐻𝑙 (8.2)

Where,
𝐻𝑠 = Static head measured from the liquid level of the sump to the delivery point (m)
𝐻𝑓 = Frictional head in total pipe length from foot valve to delivery end (m)
𝑣2
𝐻𝑣 =Velocity head (m)
2𝑔
𝐻𝑙 = Head loss in fittings and valves (m)

A residual head may also be added if required (m)

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8.3.5.2 Pump curve

The pump curve is a plot of curve of pump flow rates versus various heads. Pump
curves are supplied by manufacturer of the pump. The point of intersection of pump
curve and system curve as shown in figure 8.4, 8.5, 8.6 is called the operating point
or design point of the pump.

Figure 8. 4: Operating point of the

curve Figure 8. 5: Change in Operating
Point of Pump with the change in
Water level in Suction Sump

Figure 8. 6: Change in operating point of the pump by operation of delivery

valve
8.3.6 Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHr)

The suction lift capacity of a pump depends upon its NPSHr characteristics. The
meaning of NPSHr can be explained by considering an installation of a pump working
under suction lift as illustrated in Fig 8.7

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Figure 8.7: Schematic Representation of NPSHr

When a pump, installed as shown is primed and started, it throws away the priming
water and has vacuum developed at its suction. The atmospheric pressure acting on
the water in the suction sump then pushes the water through the foot valve, into the
suction line, raising it up to suction of the pump. While reaching up to the suction of
the pump, the energy content of the water, which was one atmosphere when it was
pushed through the foot valve would have reduced. This reduction occurs due to partly
in overcoming the friction through the foot valve, the piping and the pipe fittings, partly
in achieving the kinetic energy appropriate to the velocity in the suction pipe and partly
in rising the static suction lift. The energy content left over in the water at the suction
face of the pump is thus less than one atmosphere until here the flow is a fairly
streamlined flow. But with the impeller rotating at the pump suction, the flow suffers
turbulences and shocks and will have to lose more energy in the process. This tax on
the energy of the water demanded by the pump, before the pump would impart its
energy, is called the NPSHr of the pump.
The NPSHr characteristics of a pump are parabolic, increasing with the flow rate.
Pumps of high specific speed have high NPSHr.

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8.3.6.1 Vapour Pressure and Cavitation

The energy of the water at the pump suction, even after deducting the NPSHr should
be more than the vapour pressure VP, corresponding to the pumping temperature.
The vapour pressures in meters of water column (mWC), for water at different
temperatures in degrees Celsius are given in Table 8.1.

Table 8. 1: Vapour Pressure of Water

0C (mWC)
0 0.054
5 0.092
10 0.125
15 0.177
20 0.238
25 0.329
30 0.427
35 0.579
40 0.762
45 1.006
50 1.281

If the energy of the water at the pump suction would be less than the vapour pressure,
the water would tend to evaporate. Vapour bubbles so formed will travel entrained in
the flow until they collapse. This phenomenon is known as cavitation. In badly devised
pumping systems, cavitation can cause extensive damage due to cavitation erosion
or due to the vibration and noise associated with the collapsing of the vapour bubbles.

8.3.6.2 Calculating Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHa)

To ensure against cavitation, the pumping system has to be so devised that the water
at the pump suction will have adequate energy. Providing for this is called as providing
adequate Net Positive Suction Head available (NPSHa). The formula for NPSHa
hence becomes as follows.
NPSHa= Pressure on the water in the suction sump

𝑉2
𝑠
= 𝑃𝑠 − 𝐻𝑓𝑠 − 2𝑔 − 𝑍𝑠 − 𝑉𝑃 (8.3)

Where,
PS : suction pressure
Hfs : friction losses across the foot valve, piping and pipe fittings
VS : Velocity at the suction face

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Zs : Potential energy corresponding to the difference between the levels of the pump-
centre line and of the water in the suction-pump
VP : Vapour pressure

While calculating NPSHa, the atmospheric pressure at the site should be considered,
as the atmospheric pressure is influenced by the altitude of the place from the mean
sea level (MSL). Data on the atmospheric pressure in mWC for different altitudes from
MSI, is given in Table 8.2.

Table 8.2: Atmospheric Pressure in mWC at different altitudes above MSL

Altitude above MSL in m (mWC)

Upto 500 10.3
1000 9.8
1500 9.3
2000 8.8
2500 8.3
3000 7.8
3500 7.3
4000 6.8

8.3.6.3 Guidelines on NPSHr

The NPSHa has to be so provided in the systems that it would be higher than the
NPSHr of the pump. The characteristics of the pump’s NPSHr are to be obtained from
the pump-manufacturers.

8.3.7 Electrical Motors (prime mover)

Generally, either squirrel cage motors or slip ring motors are used as prime movers
for pump-drive as per requirement of load i.e. up to 20 B.K.W load squirrel cage motors
can be used above to that slip ring motors are used.

8.3.7.1 Motor Rating

Power required at pump shaft to deliver the required quantity of fluid to a specified lift
(head, measured in height of water column).
𝑄∗𝑆∗𝐻
B.K.W. (brake Kilo Watt) = (8.4)
102∗𝑒∗𝐸

Where,
Q : in L.P.S (pump required discharge)
H : height in meter (lift required)
S : specific gravity of fluid

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e : Efficiency of motor
E : Efficiency of pump

A multiplying factor over the computed B. K. W. should be applied as shown in table

8.3 as well as for losses in bearing etc., and additional 3 kW should be added to arrive
at the required rating of the motor.

Table 8.3: Multiplying factor for motor rating

Required BKW of the pump Multiplying factor to decide motor rating

Up to 1.5 1.5
1.5 to 3.7 1.4
3.7 to7.5 1.3
7.5 to 15 1.2
15 to 75 1.15
Above 75 1.1

8.3.7.2 Voltage rating

General guidance on the standard voltages and corresponding range of motor ratings
are given in Table 8.4.

For motor of ratings, 225 kW and above, where high tension (HT) voltages of 3.3 kV,
6.6 kV, and 11 kV can be chosen, the choice should be made by working out relative
economics of investments and running costs, taking into consideration cost of
transformer, motor, switchgear, cables etc.

Table 8.4: Selection of motor based on supply voltage

Range of Motor rating in KW

Supply Voltage
Minimum Maximum
Single phase A/C 230 V 0.3 2.5
Three phase A/C 415 V 250
Do 3.3 KV 225 750
Do 6.6 KV 400
Do 11 KV 600
D.C 230 V 150

Note: When no minimum is given, very small motors are feasible. When no
maximum is given, very large motors are feasible.

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Table 8.5: Protective enclosure and environment type of motors

Type Environment type Description of environment

Screen protected drip nil Indoor, dust-free environment.
proof SPDP
Total enclosed IP44 Indoor dust prone areas
Total enclosed fan IP54 Normal outdoor
cooled TEFC
IP 55 Outdoor at places of heavy
rainfall

8.3.8 Transformer Substation

Normally outdoor substations are provided. However, on considerations of public

safety and for protection from exposure to environmental pollution, the substations
may be indoors
i. Lightning arresters
ii. The gang operated disconnectors (GOD) is provided in an outdoor substation.
In indoor substation, circuit breakers are provided. In case of outdoor
substations of capacities 1000KVA and above, circuit breakers should be
provided in addition to GOD.
iii. Drop out fuses for small outdoor substations.
iv. Overhead bus bars and insulators.
v. Transformer.
vi. Current transformer and potential transformer for power measurement.
vii. Current transformers and potential transformers for protection in substations of
capacity above 1000 KVA.
viii. Fencing.
ix. Earthing

Earthing should be very comprehensive, covering every item in the substation and
accordance with IS: 3043.

8.3.8.1 Transformer Rating

a) Estimation of total power consumption

The first step in the transformer rating is to estimate the power consumption for various
units of pumping station such as:
a. Power consumed of working motors

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b. Power consumed by ventilating equipment

c. Power consumed by automation equipment
d. Power consumed by lighting
e. Power consumed by fan etc.
In this manner the total power consumed may be estimated to be ‘A’ KW, then add
10% for miscellaneous consumptions. Thus, say ‘B’ KW is the total power required for
which transformer is to be rated.

Total power requirement – ‘B’ KW

Then transformer rating – ‘B’ KW /0.85 = KVA
Where 0.85 is a power factor

Example 8.1

Total Power consumption = 1000 KW

Hence, transformer KVA required at 0.85 Power Factor and 10% margin
= 1000 × 1.1/0.85 = 1294 KVA
Hence, provide the next commercial rating as 1600 KVA

8.3.8.2 Improvement of Power Factor

For improvement of power factor, appropriate capacitors should be provided.

Capacitors may be located in the control panel or separately by an automatic power
factor correction panel which monitors a bank of capacitors through a power factor
sensing relay and appropriate contactors.

8.3.8.3 Lighting

The interior of pump stations shall be provided with sufficient lighting system specially
designed to achieve best illumination suited to the station layout. Energy-efficient
fluorescent fixtures are preferred. Lighting shall be at adequate levels for routine
service inspections and maintenance activities as given in Table 8.6.

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Table 8.6: Illumination Levels

S No Area Illumination Level (LUX)

1 Sub Station Building : 250
2 Pump House : 200
3 Control Room : 300
4 Transformer Yard : 50
5 Aerator Operating Platform : 50
6 Screen & Grit Separator area : 50
7 Chemical Stores : 100
8 Centrifuge House : 150
9 Chlorine Tonner Room : 150
10 All other indoor areas : 100
11 Outdoor Plant Area : 20
12 Roads : 10
Source: Manual on Water supply and Treatment (1991), CPHEEO

8.3.8.4 Ventilation

Pump stations shall be provided with a separate ventilating system and shall be sized
to provide a minimum of 10 air changes per hour. Ventilation systems shall be capable
of matching inside air temperature to outside air and shall be automatic. Ventilation
shall be accomplished by the introduction of fresh air into the pump station.

8.3.9 Pumping main

A pipeline either long or short when used to transport storm water against gravity under
pressure generated by an arrangement of a suitable pumping unit is generally termed
as pumping main. The design of such pumping main depends on the following factors:

a. Quantity of design flow

b. Available pressure or head
c. Losses of friction in pipe and fittings
d. Allowable velocity of flow
e. Quality of fluid
f. Material of pipe

Process design for sizing the pipe diameter is given as follows:

a. Determine the design flow rate in cum/hr

b. Determine the total head in m

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c. Select pipe material capable of withstanding hydraulic design pressure

d. Choose allowable self-cleansing velocity not less than 0.6m/sec and not more
than 1.4m/sec
e. Use Hazen – William formula or Darcy Weisbach formula as given in the
following section
f. Keep friction loss between 0.9 m and 1.2 m per 1000.0m to maintain prescribed
velocities as given in sl(d)
g. Test the pumping main against surge pressure and provide necessary
protection if required.

In case a pumping main is considerably long involving heavy investment attempt

should be made to design an economical size of the pipe. The design of economical
size of pipe (diameter) is based on the following parameters:

a) A design horizon of 30 years

b) Different type of pipe materials conducive to site conditions
c) Different sizes of pipes against different hydraulic grades which are considered
for a given quantity of storm water to be pumped
d) The useful service life of different materials and their relative costs as laid in
position
e) The duty, capacity and installed cost of pump sets required against the
corresponding sizes of pipelines under consideration
f) Recurring costs like energy cost and annual maintenance cost of corresponding
sizes of pipelines under consideration
g) The prevailing rate of interest
The process of computation may be referred to Manual on Water supply and
Treatment (1991), a publication of MoHUA, Govt. of India.

8.3.9.1 Friction flow formula to size Pumping Mains

Darcy Weisbach and Hazen Williams formulae are given for pressure-pipe frictional
assessment.

𝐟𝐥𝐯 𝟐
𝐡𝐟 = 𝟐𝐠𝐃 (8.5)

Where,
hf ∶ Head loss in pipe due to friction (m)

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f : Darcy Weisbach friction factor can be found from Moody’s diagram given in
Appendix A 5.6.
L : length in pipe (m)
D : Diameter of pipe (m)
V : Velocity of flow in pipe m/sec
G : Acceleration due to gravity (m/sec2)

Hazen William Formula

𝑄 = 1.292 × 10−5 × 𝐶 × 𝑑 2.63 × 𝑆 0.54 (8.6)

𝑉 = 4.567 × 10−3 × 𝐶 × 𝑑 0.63 × 𝑆 0.54 (8.7)
Where,
Q : Discharge in m3/hr
d : pipe diameter in mm
S : Hydraulic Slope
C : Hazen William Coefficient as per Table 8.7

A chart for Hazen William’s formula is in Appendix A 5.5 (C) and A 5.5 (D) for stated
ranges of discharges.

Table 8.7: Values of Roughness coefficient, C, in Hazen-Williams formula

Material Hazen-Williams C
New Pipes
Cast Iron 130-100
Concrete(RCC&*PCC with S/S 150-120
Concrete-lined Galvanized iron 120
Plastic 150-120
Steel welded joints lined with cement or bituminous enamel 150-120
Asbestos cement 150- 120
Welded Steel 140- 100
Source: Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment Systems, CPHEEO

However, the selection of pipe materials in order to minimize the head losses in pipes
should be considered. Besides, slime and sediment deposits on internal surfaces of
the pipes do affect the smoothness of internal surfaces of the pipes consequently
contributing to frictional losses. Metal pipes are generally provided with a lining of
smooth material such as PVC etc. to reduce the losses. Other factors such as pipe

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joints, manholes, branch pipes, bends, elbows, sudden enlargement and reduction in
pipe sizes, inlets, outlets etc. shall also contribute to losses that need to be computed
in system design. There will be pressure losses in fittings which shall be accounted for
as in Table 8.8 by multiplying the factor with the velocity head.

Table 8. 8: Friction factor for fittings in pumping mains

No. Types of Fittings Factor

1. Sudden contraction 0.5
2. Entrance shape well rounded 0.5
3. Elbow 90 degrees 1.0
4. Elbow 45 degrees 0.75
5. Elbow 22 degrees 0.5
6. Tee 90 degrees 1.5
7. Tee in a straight pipe 0.3
8. Gate valve open 0.4
9. Valve with reducer and increaser 0.5
10. Globe valve 10.0
11. Angle 5.0
12. Swing Check 2.5
13. Venturimeter 0.3
14. Orifice 1.0
Source: Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment Systems, CPHEEO

8.4 Flow Measurement

Measurement of flow in storm water channels and conduits are generally measured
either at pumping point, outfall location or at any selected points of interest, etc.
Different methods of flow measurement are given as follows:

8.4.1 Measurement of flow in open Channels

8.4.1.1 Rectangular Notches

The installation requirements, specifications, head measurements, head limits, and

accuracy will be the same as for triangular notches. The width of notch should be at
least 150 mm.

There are two types of rectangular notches viz. (i) with end contractions and (ii) without
end contractions.

(i) With End Contractions

The contraction from either side of the channel to the side of the notch should be
greater than 0.1 m.

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The discharge (m3/s) through a rectangular notch with end contractions is given by the
equations:
2
Q = 3 𝐶𝑒 √2𝑔𝑏𝑒 𝐻1.5 (8.8)

Where,

be : Effective width = Actual width of the notch + k(value of k being 2.5 mm, 3 mm and
4 mm for b/B ranges of upto 0.4, 0.4 to 0.6 and 0.6 to 0.8 respectively)

b/B : Ratio of the width of the notch to the width of the channel

H : Effective head = actual head measured (h) + 1 mm

g : Acceleration due to gravity (9.806 m/s2)

Ce : varies from 0.58 to 0.70 for values of b/B from 0 to 0.8

(ii) Without End Contractions

The discharge (m3/s) through a rectangular notch without end contractions is given by
the following expression:

2
Q = 3 𝐶𝑒 √2𝑔𝑏𝐻1.5 (8.9)

Where,

b : Width of the notch (m)

H : Effective head = actual/measured head (h) + 1.2 mm

Ce : 0.602 + 0.075 h/p

Where,

P : Height of the bottom of the notch from the bed of the channel

8.4.2 Measurement of flow in Closed Conduits

8.4.2.1 Differential Pressure Devices

The venturi, offices places and nozzles are used specifically for closed conduits. They
shall have minimum length of 5D on the upstream side and 2D on the downstream
side of the device (where D is the diameter of upstream pipe).

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8.4.2.1.1 Venturi Meters

Venturi meters provide a most dependable relation of differential pressure to velocity

through the ranges of flow required by engineering practice and return of at least 85%
of the velocity head when constructed in accordance with standard proportions of
extreme importance is the establishment of the accuracy of their coefficient, which give
them preference as a means for producing suitable velocity heads.

Standard venture meters usually are constructed with piezometer rings at the main
and throat section which are connected to the interior surface of the meters
Alternatively the pressure chambers could be omitted and pressure taps at main and
throat are provided. Each of these taps is equipped with a manually operated cleaning
valve.

Where fluids contain sediment or carry substance that may tend to clog the piezometer
opening, clear water flushing disconnectors and cleaning valves at both main and
throat sections are included.

Under special conditions, a venture with a circular inlet and outlet an elliptical throat
section, providing a flat invert as well as a flat top for the entire length of the tube can
be employed. The flat invert is self-scouring and prevents the accumulation of grit or
other solids under low flow conditions while the flat top prevents the trapping and
accumulation of air and gases, which under some conditions could adversely affect
the accuracy of the instrument reading.

Discharge through a venturi meter is given by the expression

𝑎1 𝑎2
Discharge Q = K √2𝑔ℎ (8.10)
√𝑎12 −𝑎22

Where,

a1 : Area of the pipe in m2

a2 : Area of the throat section in m2

h : Sum of the difference between pressure heads and potential heads at the inlet and
throat sections, in m

The coefficient K varies 0.95 to 0.98

The ratio of the diameter at the throat to the diameter at normal inlet section varies
from ¼ to ¾ and the usual ratio is ½. The smaller ratio gives increased accuracy of
gauge reading but is accompanied by higher fractional losses and low pressure at the
throat which could lead to cavitation. The angels of convergence and divergence in a
venturi meter are 20⁰ and 5⁰ respectively

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There are other electronic devices that are widely used these days for measurement
of flow such as Magnetic Flow Meters and Ultrasonic Flow Meters, which are readily
available with the manufacturers of these meters.

8.5 Storm water Storage Pond/Basins

The primary function of storm water storage pond is either to store the storm water
and gradually release through a controlled mechanism to receiving water bodies,
conveyance system, or completely consumed via infiltration and evaporation. There
are two types of storm water storage tank, as described below.

8.5.1 Detention ponds/Basin

Detention facilities provide temporary storage of storm water that is released through
an outlet that controls flows to pre-set levels. Detention facilities typically flatten and
spread the inflow hydrograph, lowering the peak to the desired flow rate. It is generally
planned to limit the peak outflow rate to the pre-development stage of the same
catchment for a specific range of flood frequencies.

8.5.2 Retention ponds/Basin

Retention ponds may also be called an extended detention pond as defined above as
all the stored storm water is absorbed through infiltration and evaporation over a long
period of time. Nevertheless, the stored water may be used if need be for water supply
and recreational purposes, etc. The pervious bottom should be provided in these tanks
to ensure sufficient infiltration capability to empty the pond within a reasonable time.
This is discussed in the rainwater harvesting section.

8.5.2.1 Site Selection

Proximity to the flood-prone area may be a primary consideration while selecting site
for detention basin. The nearer the site to such areas, the larger the tributary areas
that could be controlled by the site.

8.5.2.2 Adequacy of the site size

Land should be available of adequate size as determined by areal extent of the site
such that required volume of water could be stored temporarily on-site.

8.5.2.3 Topographic consideration

Topographic configuration should permit gravity-driven inflow and outflow from the
detention basin, which is the most desirable situation in locating the site for a detention
basin.

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8.5.2.4 Access to the site

Access must be provided for inspection and maintenance either from adjacent
publically owned land or through privately owned land under access easement
provision.

8.5.3 Design of storm water Storage Pond/Basin

The final design computation for detention basin/pond requires three curves:

a. An inflow hydrograph for design rainfall events occurring over the catchment
contributing to the basin/pond.
b. A stage versus storage curve
c. A stage versus discharge curve

A preliminary estimate of the storage required to reduce the peak flow within desired
limits to be released to downstream facilities or receiving bodies of water should first
be computed by the method described as follows:
1. Obtain an inflow hydrograph for the design rainfall event occurring over the
catchment contributing to the pond
2. Develop an approximate outflow hydrograph either by a straight line or by
sketching an assumed outflow of the same time base as that of inflow hydrograph.
Peak flow should be kept below inflow hydrograph peak to the desired level.
3. Operate the above outflow hydrograph by superimposing on the inflow hydrograph
as shown in figure 8.8
4. Area of an intercepted portion (shaded) within two hydrographs in figure 8.9 shall
give the initial storage requirement of the detention pond.

8.5.4 Optimization of Detention Tank/ Basin Capacity

To optimize the tank capacity ‘design storm’ draining the given catchment are routed
through the basin to determine the maximum storage volume and water level in the
basin corresponding to the maximum allowable outflow rate. A number of trials may
have to be worked out to maximize tank volume. However manual calculations for the
number of hydrographs that need to be estimated and routed through the tank will be
too tedious, complex and time-consuming. A suitable computer model may be used to
perform these calculations with ease and promptness.

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Figure 8. 8: Inflow and Outflow

Hydrograph

8.5.5 Basin outlet

Suitable outlets are provided for the planned release of water from a detention basin.
A stage-discharge relation curve is developed for full range of flows that the outlet
structure would experience. Weir or orifice is typically provided as outlet device
consistent with high and low rate of discharge, respectively. These outlet
arrangements are generally housed in a riser structure connected to a single outlet
conduit that passes through the basin embankment and discharges to the point of
interest. Care should be taken to ensure that the stage-discharge relationship
adequately reflects the range of different flow regimes that the structure will operate
upon.

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CHAPTER 9: INTEGRATION OF RAINWATER HARVESTING IN STORM

WATER DRAINAGE DESIGN

9.1 General

The conventional approach of storm water drainage systems design is considered to

be uneconomical and infeasible in many cities due to its current pace of sprawling.
The ever increasing urban runoff primarily due to growing size of urban areas,
rampant paving of urban spaces and global warming induced climate change have
posed new challenges before city authorities. In order to address these issues and
to control the runoff at source itself, integrating rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems
in storm water drainage systems design is increasingly being adopted.

9.2 Integration of rainwater harvesting & recharge systems with storm water
drainage design

With increase in number of large urban sprawling, the problems due to frequent
flooding and consequent damages of life and property have posed a difficult
challenge before city managers. Often due to huge cost involvement and lack of
space to accommodate wide storm water drain sections, city planners and engineers
are emphasizing integration of rainwater harvesting & recharge systems in storm
water drainage systems design. The various options / techniques for rainwater
harvesting and recharge, suitable for integration with storm water drainage system
design, are listed below:

9.3 Rainwater harvesting techniques

To minimize the quantity of storm runoff reaching to the storm water drains, a certain
quantity of storm water can be stored / percolated by introducing suitable techniques
as below:

I. In-situ storage / percolation within or around premises

II. Storage of runoff in nearby pond / water tank
III. Percolation of storm water inside / outside the drains along its stretch
IV. Spreading water for recharge in low lying areas and parks / gardens etc.
V. Disposal to reservoir / water body

9.3.1 In-situ storage / percolation

Rain water can be either stored within a building premises or it can be diverted to a
suitable place for use as explained below:

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9.3.1.1 Roof top rainwater collection potential

Rain water from the roof can be safely collected through rain water pipe either in a
constructed underground tank / reservoir for domestic use or can be percolated /
recharged in the ground water.

In a city having annual rainfall of 1000 mm, a roof top of an area of 100 sqm has
potential to collect rain water to the tune of 1,00,000 ltr (100 m 2 * 1 m) in a given year.
At rate of 100 lpcd consumption per person for a family of 4, the water can be
sufficient to meet various domestic requirements for (1,00,000 / 400 = 250 days).
However, it is to be stressed that before the onset of the monsoon season, the roof
surface should be properly cleaned.

In places where there are constraints in storing the rainwater, the same can be safely
recharged into the ground through various recharge techniques like percolation pits,
abandoned tube wells etc. Even partial storing / recharging of rain water will go a long
way in reducing peak runoff in storm water drains, thereby, reducing the incidences
of flooding in low lying area. Same approach can be followed on community basis as
well. However, due care should be taken to ensure that polluted water is not allowed
to enter into the system and the system is periodically cleaned to function as per
design requirements.

A typical roof top rainwater harvesting system is shown in Fig 9.1.

Figure 9.1: Typical rooftop rainwater harvesting system

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Filter unit for filtration of the rain water is given in figure 9.2.

Figure 9.2: Filter unit

For better performance, the filter should be periodically cleaned and properly
maintained. For further details, Manuals of CGWB and CPWD may be referred. The
Central Ground Water Board has prepared a ready reckoner to serve for estimating
water from roof tops (m3) and is shown in Table 9.1.

Fig 9.1 shows a typical roof catchment, the gutters fitted at the eaves, down spout
connected with the gutter at upper end and with rain water pipe at the lower end. The
rain water pipe is fixed on the wall by clamps and joins the storage tank on the ground.
The various components of RWH are briefly described below.

1. Roof Surface: The roof surface is the area which can be either flat or sloping.
This receives the rainfall and from which the collected rainwater is to be
harvested.
2. Gutters: These are made of different materials such galvanized iron sheet
folded to desired shape & size. Semi-circular gutters are prepared from PVC
material. Gutters are made 10 to 15 percent over sized according to flow
during highest intensity rainfall.
3. Conduits: These are pipelines or drain pipes that carry rain water from roof
catchments to harvesting system.
4. Storage tanks: Such tanks of various sizes to accommodate harvested rain
from roof tops can be of varied sizes and placed above or below ground
depending upon availability of space. Reinforced cement concrete (RCC) and
polyethylene and metal sheets are commonly used for preparing various
shapes & sizes of storage tanks.

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Table 9.1: Availability of Rainwater through Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting

Roof top Rainfall (mm)
area
100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
(Sqm.)
Harvested Water from Roof Top (cum)
20 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8 9.6 12.8 16 19.2 22.4 25.6 28.8 32
30 2.4 4.8 7.2 9.6 12 14.4 19.2 24 28.8 33.6 38.4 43.2 48
40 3.2 6.4 9.6 12.8 16 19.2 25.6 32 38.4 44.8 51.2 57.6 64
50 4 8 12 16 20 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
60 4.8 9.6 14.4 19.2 24 28.8 38.4 48 57.6 67.2 76.8 86.4 96
70 5.6 11.2 16.8 22.4 28 33.6 44.8 56 67.2 78.4 89.6 100.8 112
80 6.4 12.8 19.2 25.6 32 38.4 51.2 64 76.8 89.6 102.4 115.2 128
90 7.2 14.4 21.6 28.8 36 43.2 57.6 72 86.4 100.8 115.2 129.6 144
100 8 16 24 32 40 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160
150 12 24 36 48 60 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240
200 16 32 48 64 80 96 128 160 192 224 256 288 320
250 20 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400
300 24 48 72 96 120 144 192 240 288 336 384 432 480
400 32 64 96 128 160 192 256 320 384 448 512 576 640
500 40 80 120 160 200 240 320 400 480 560 640 720 800
1000 80 160 240 320 400 480 640 800 960 1120 1280 1440 1600
2000 160 320 480 640 800 960 1280 1600 1920 2240 2560 2880 3200
3000 240 480 720 960 1200 1440 1920 2400 2880 3360 3840 4320 4800
Source: Manual on Artificial Recharge of Ground Water, 2007

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The design guidelines of RWH system is as follows:

a) Conveyance System

Conveyance system includes gutters and downpipes ending at common collection

chamber. Following recommendations should be followed:

i. Gutters are used to convey water from the roof to pipes to the storage tank or
cistern.
ii. Use an expansion joint if a straight run of gutter exceeds 20 m.
iii. Keep the front of the gutter 15 mm lower than the back.
iv. Provide a minimum gutter slope of 1:200.
v. Gutter should be a minimum of 26 gauge galvanized iron or 22 gauge
Aluminum.
vi. Downspout should provide 6 square cm of opening for every 10 square m of
roof area.
vii. The maximum run of gutter for one downpipe is 15 m.

b) Size of Rain Water Pipes for Roof drainage

The broad idea about the particular diameter of pipe which will be required to cater the
certain roof surface area for given average rate of rainfall in mm/hr is shown in Table
9.2.

Table 9. 2: Sizing Rain Water pipes for Roof Surface area drainage

Average rate of rainfall (mm/hr)

Diameter
50 75 100 125 150 200
pipe(mm) 2
Roof area (m )
50 13.4 8.9 6.6 5.3 4.4 3.3
65 24.1 16.0 12.0 9.6 8.0 6.0
75 40.8 27.0 20.4 16.3 13.6 10.2
100 85.4 57.0 42.7 34.2 28.5 21.3
125 - - 80.5 64.3 53.5 40.0
150 - - - - 83.6 62.7
Source: CPWD Rain water Harvesting Manual

The storage system ensures water for continuous supply even during dry periods. The
storage tank is designed on the basis of a mechanism which store water during
excessive raining and thus facilitating the use of the stored water during dry period.

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The storage tanks are designed based on requirements of water, average annual
rainfall, and size of catchment. Designing the storage tank capacity for dry period is
calculated as follows:
(i) Area of rooftop : 100 m2
(ii) Average rainfall : 1000 mm
(iii) Coefficient of runoff for concrete roof : 0.80

 Tank capacity for : 100 sqm x 1 m x 0.80 = 80,000 ltrs.

245 scarcity days
 Drinking water for : 10 lpcd x 5 members x 245 days = 12,250 ltrs
family of 5
members
 Add safety factor of : 1.20 x 12,250 = 14,700 litres.
20 %

Hence, a rectangular tank with a depth of 2.5 m, length = 2.5 m, breadth of 2.5 m or
as per the design.

Harvested rooftop rainwater can be used for domestic purposes. However, in water-
scarce areas, that can be used for drinking purposes also after proper treatment and
disinfection to be decided based on the quality of raw water and the period of its
storage in the tank. However, since this is related to safety of public health before
using for drinking purposes as a last resort, the suitable boiling / treating through RO
process/ disinfection of storm water to be carried out as per city government guidelines
/ National Manual on water supply and treatment.

9.3.1.2 Percolation of runoff into ground

Rainwater collected from roof catchment can also be recharged to the aquifer through
suitable structures such as Percolation pits, percolation trenches, and recharge wells,
etc.

9.3.1.2.1 Percolation pits

This method is suitable where a permeable stratum is available at shallow depth. It is

adopted for buildings having roof area up to 100 sqm. Recharge pit of any shape is
constructed generally 1-2 m wide and 2-3 m deep. The pit is filled with boulders, gravel,
and sand for filtration of rainwater. Water entering into RWH structure should be silt
free. Top layer of sand of filter should be cleaned periodically for better ingression of
rainwater into the subsoil. Details are shown in Figure 9.3.

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Figure 9.3: Percolation Pit

9.3.1.2.2 Percolation trenches

This method is used where permeable strata are available at shallow depth. It is
suitable for buildings having rooftop area between 200 & 300 sqm. In this method,
trench of 0.5-1.0 m wide, 1-1.5 m deep and of adequate length depending upon rooftop
area and soil/subsoil characteristics should be constructed and filled with boulders,
gravels and sand as shown in Figure 9.4. Cleaning of filter media should be done
periodically.

Figure 9.4: Percolation Trench

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9.3.1.2.3 Recharge wells

In this method, a dry/unused dug well can be used as a recharge structure. It is suitable
for buildings having a rooftop area of more than 100 sqm. Recharge water is guided
through a pipe of 100 mm to the bottom of the well, as shown in Figure 9.5. Well
cleaning and desilting are imperative before using it. Recharge water guided should
be silt free, otherwise filter should be provided as shown in Figure 9.5. Well should be
cleaned periodically and chlorinated to control bacteriological contamination.

Figure 9.5: Recharge Wells

9.3.2 Storage of runoff in nearby percolation pond / water tank

Percolation tank is an artificially created surface water body, submerging in its

reservoir a highly permeable land, so that accumulated runoff is made to percolate
and recharge the groundwater storage. Depending on requirement, it is possible to
have more than one percolation tank in a catchment if sufficient surplus runoff is
available and the site characteristics favour artificial recharge through such structures.
In such situations, each tank of the group takes a share of runoff of the whole
catchment above it, which can be classified into two categories, i.e. free catchment
and combined catchment as defined below:

(i) 'Free catchment', which is the catchment area that only drains into the tank under
consideration and
(ii) 'Combined catchment', which is the area of the whole catchment above the tank.

The difference between the combined and free catchment gives the area of the
catchment intercepted by the tanks located upstream of any tank. Each tank will

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receive the whole runoff from its free catchment, but from the remainder of its
catchment it will receive only the balance runoff that remains after the upper tanks
have been filled.

9.3.3 Percolation of storm water inside/outside the drains along its stretch

The existing drains in urban area are attractive infrastructure facilities for arresting
surplus urban run-off, which runs waste in monsoon period. Hydraulics of groundwater
recharge through surface drains should be evaluated for which input parameters such
as recharge rate, free flow, and detained flow can be used in the computation of total
volume recharged. Recharge rates can be computed at different depths of flow in the
drain. Accordingly volume of water recharged and rise in groundwater table can be
assessed at, for different rainfall events. The recharge rate through surface drains
increases with increase in depth of flow in the drain and volume of water recharged
under detained flow conditions.
Rainwater collection model through storm water drain in urban areas is depicted in
Figure 9.6.

Figure 9.6: Rain water collection through storm water drains

For percolation of storm water runoff inside drains, wherever feasible, the bottom of
the channel should be kept pervious according to approved design and capacity of
storm water runoff to be carried duly accounting for constraints like land availability,
etc.

9.3.4 Spreading water for recharge in low lying areas and park/gardens etc.

This technique is ideal for lands adjoining rivers or irrigation canals in which water
levels remain deep even after monsoons and where sufficient non-committed surface
water supplies are available. The schematics of a typical flooding system are shown

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in Fig 9.7. To ensure proper contact time and water spread, embankments are
provided on two sides to guide the unutilized surface water to a return canal to carry
the excess water to the stream or canal. Flooding method helps reduce the
evaporation losses from the surface water system, is the least expensive of all artificial
recharge methods available and has very low maintenance costs.

Figure 9. 7: Water spreading in low lying area

Note: The detailed design criteria is elaborated in detail in ‘Manual on Artificial
Recharge of Ground Water’, published by CGWB. The same can be accessed at
www.cpheeo.gov.in.

9.3.5 Disposal to water body

After proper sedimentation, runoff from urban catchment should be disposed to the
natural water bodies. The aerial extent of the water bodies and its capacity should be
investigated to assess the requirement of the quantity of runoff from the catchment.

9.4 Precaution to be considered for harvesting of storm water

The storm water flow from a combined sewer shall never be taken up for recharge into
the ground. Similarly, there would be situations wherein the sewage is getting mixed
even in the drains meant exclusively for storm water and in such cases also the
recharge of this sewage mixed with storm water shall be avoided unless or otherwise
this is treated prior to a level fit for recharge. This shall be meticulously followed to
avoid causing pollution. However, CPCB standards for river water quality is expected
for storm water drains.

9.5 Pollution of Storm Water and its Treatment

The storm water runoff from the urban areas during the first rains will come into contact
with the pollution in the storm water drains, parking lots, etc. which have accumulated
till that time. These can be night soil, urine, vegetable rejects, food rejects, dead
insects, rats, etc. and decaying papers, etc. in the drains and chemical contaminants

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in the parking lot, etc. Once these are washed into the watercourses, they pollute the
same and may start water-borne diseases like Cholera, Typhoid, Jaundice, etc. in the
waters. Sources of contaminants in urban storm water runoff are given in Table 9.3.

Table 9.3: Sources of Contaminants in Urban Storm Water Runoff

Contaminant Contaminant Sources

Sediment and Floatables Streets, lawns, driveways, roads, construction
activities, atmospheric deposition, drainage channel
erosion
Pesticides and Residential lawns and gardens, roadsides, utility
Herbicides right-of-ways, commercial and industrial landscaped
areas, soil wash-off
Organic Materials Residential lawns and gardens, commercial
landscaping, animal wastes
Metals Automobiles, bridges, atmospheric deposition,
industrial areas, soil erosion, corroding metal
surfaces, combustion processes
Oil and Grease/ Roads, driveways, parking lots, vehicle maintenance
Hydrocarbons areas, gas stations. illicit dumping to storm drains

Bacteria and Viruses Lawns, roads, leaky sanitary sewer lines, sanitary
sewer cross-connections, animal waste, septic
systems
Nitrogen and Phosphorus Lawn fertilizers, atmospheric deposition. automobile
exhaust, soil erosion, animal waste, detergents

The US EPA's Nationwide Urban Runoff Program (NURP) carried out a

comprehensive study of urban runoff between 1978 and 1983 to examine the
characteristics of urban runoff and similarities or differences between urban land uses,
the extent to which urban runoff is a significant contributor to water quality problems
nationwide, and the performance characteristics and effectiveness of management
practices to control pollution loads from urban runoff. The sampling was conducted for
28 NURP projects which included 81 specific sites and more than 2,300 separate
storm events.

Median event mean concentrations (EMCs) for the ten general NURP pollutants for
various urban land use categories are presented in Table 9.4. However, it is to be
emphasized that Table 9.4, along with their values are mentioned for presenting the
context, and in an Indian context the values would be much higher. This is due to the
fact that the storm water drains in that country are not abused by people for night soil,
urine, waste food, etc. but in our country, it is different and hence the pollution
concentrations can be much higher. Hence, analysis has to be carried out at the

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relevant locations to arrive at the pollutant concentration in the Indian context. These
organisms can also pollute the groundwater on river banks as well.

Table 9. 4: Median Event Mean Concentrations for different Urban Land Uses

Pollutant Units Residential Mixed Commercial Open/Non-

Urban
Media COV Median COV Median COV Median COV
n
BOD mg/l 10 0.41 7.8 0.52 9.3 0.31 --- ---
COD mg/l 73 0.55 65 0.58 57 0.39 40 0.78
TSS mg/l 101 0.96 67 1.14 69 0.85 70 2.92
Total Lead µg/l 144 0.75 114 1.35 104 0.68 30 1.52
Total µg/l 33 0.99 27 1.32 29 0.81 --- ---
Copper
Total Zinc µg/l 135 0.84 154 0.78 226 1.07 195 0.66
Total µg/l 1900 0.73 1288 0.50 1179 0.43 965 1.00
Kjeldahl
Nitrogen
Nitrate + µg/l 736 0.83 558 0.67 572 0.48 543 0.91
Nitrite
Total µg/l 383 0.69 263 0.75 201 0.67 121 1.66
Phosphorus
Soluble µg/l 143 0.46 56 0.75 80 0.71 26 2.11
Phosphorus
COV: Coefficient of variation
Source: Nationwide Urban Runoff Program (US EPA 1983)

9.5.1 Targeted Pollutants

Pollutant removal can be achieved by reducing the volume of storm water runoff
discharged and by treating runoff prior to being discharged to off-site areas. Pollutant
removal depends on the design storm, soil types,, and other site-specific factors.
Table 9.5 identifies general performance effectiveness of storm water.

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Table 9. 5: Targeted Pollutant

Pollutant Filer Vegetated Retention Detention Media Wet

Strip Swale Device Basin Filter Ponds
Drains
Pathogens E. Coli H M H H H H
Fecal H M M H H M
Coliform
Metals Total Cu H M M H M H
Total Pb H H H H H H
Total Zn H H M H H H
Nutrients Nitrate H M L H L M
(NO3)
Total H M L H M M
Kjeldahi
Nitrogen
Total N H M L H M M
Dissolved H M L H L M
P
Total P H M M H M M
Sediment TSS H H H H H H
Average pollutant average removal rates from Table 9-14 of NCHRP Report 792: “H”
(High) = 67%-100%; “M” (Medium) = 33%-66%; “L” (Low) = 0%-32%.

9.5.2 Treatment methods for urban storm runoff

The onsite treatment methods of storm water are as below:

9.5.2.1 Sand Filters

Sand filters provide storm water treatment for first flush runoff. The runoff is filtered
through a sand bed before being returned to a stream or channel. Sand filters are
generally used in urban areas and are particularly useful for groundwater protection
where infiltration into soils is not feasible. Alternative designs of sand filters use a top
layer of peat or some form of grass cover through which runoff is passed before being
strained through the sand layer. This combination of layers increases pollutant
removal.

One of the main advantages of sand filters is their adaptability. They can be used on
areas with thin soils, high evaporation rates, low soil infiltration rates, and limited
space. Sand filters also have high removal rates for sediment and trace metals and

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have a very low failure rate. Disadvantages associated with sand filters include the
necessity for frequent maintenance to ensure proper operation, unattractive surfaces,
and odour problems.

Figure 9. 8: Cross-section schematic of sand filter compartment

Source: FHWA Manual

Figure 9. 9: Cross-section schematic of peat-sand filter

Source: FHWA Manual

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9.5.2.2 Water Quality Inlets

Water quality inlets are pre-cast storm drain inlets that remove sediment, oil and
grease, and large particulates from parking lot runoff before it reaches storm drainage
systems or infiltration BMPs. They are commonly known as oil and grit separators.
Water quality inlets typically serve highway storm drainage facilities adjacent to
commercial sites where large amounts of vehicle wastes are generated, such as gas
stations, vehicle repair facilities, and loading areas. They may be used to pre-treat
runoff before it enters an underground filter system. The inlet is a three-stage
underground retention system designed to settle out grit and absorbed hydrocarbons.

An oil and grit separator consists of three chambers as shown in Figure 9.10; a
sediment trapping chamber, an oil separation chamber, and the final chamber
attached to the outlet. The sediment trapping chamber is a permanent pool that settles
out grit and sediment and traps floating debris. An orifice protected by a trash rack
connects this chamber to the oil separation chamber. This chamber also maintains a
permanent pool of water. An inverted elbow connects the separation chamber to the
third chamber. Advantages of the water quality inlets lie in their compatibility with the
storm drain network, easy access, capability to pre-treat runoff before it enters
infiltration BMPs, and in the fact that they are unobtrusive. Disadvantages include their
limited storm water and pollutant removal capabilities, the need for frequent cleaning
(which cannot always be assured), the possible difficulties in disposing of accumulated
sediments, and costs.

Figure 9.10: Water Quality Inlet

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9.5.2.3 Filter Strips

Filter strips are similar in

many respects to grassed
swales, except that they are
designed to only accept
overland sheet flow. Runoff
from an adjacent impervious
area must be evenly
distributed across the filter
strips. Figure 9. 11: Cross-section of Filter Strip

To work properly, a filter strip must be

i. Equipped with some sort of level spreading device,

ii. Densely vegetated with a mix of erosion-resistant plant species that effectively
bind the soil,
iii. Graded to a uniform, even, and relatively low slope, and
iv. Be at least as long as the contributing runoff area.

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CHAPTER 10: INNOVATIVE STORM WATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

10.1 General

In today’s urban centred growth, integration of innovative approaches for storm water
management is getting prominence in city planning. Storm water is now increasingly
being valued as a resource to address water security in urban areas. To further
strengthen water security, some developed countries use storm water for recharging
groundwater aquifer after necessary adequate treatment to pollution laden urban
runoff. Further, some developed countries have taken it to next level, whereby, they
are integrating smart practices such as Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD),
Sustainable Urban Drainage System (SuDS), Low Impact Development (LID) and
other Best Management Practices (BMP) in their urban planning to economize storm
water management on one hand and water security on another hand. In this chapter,
a brief description of these innovative approaches is given to sensitize the users. The
detailed design of each of these methods requires expertise and detailed analysis of
existing ground situation for its integration in city infrastructure and is beyond the
scope of this Manual. However, many countries have come out with detailed guideline
/ Manuals for integrating above concepts in urban city planning.

10.2 Innovative Storm Water Management Practices

Many countries are coming out with innovative storm water practices, suiting to their
socio-economic and geographical condition. Under these practices, the maximum
utilization of water resources is targeted with minimum investment while keeping the
development in harmony with the environment, i.e. a huge shift from conventional
storm water drainage system designs. Several models have been attempted across
the world suiting to local conditions. The following three models are prominent and can
be integrated into the storm water drainage planning and designing. A brief of these
models is presented below.

10.2.1 Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD)

A new approach termed ‘Water Sensitive Urban Design’ (WSUD) was developed in
the late 1980s for urban planning and design. WSUD provides a broad framework
which incorporates storm water related issues like water quality, water quantity and its
conservation on one hand and integration of water security, wastewater treatment &
reuse, protection of water bodies and environmental & social objectives on the other
hand. In nutshell, the paradigm shift under WSUD is to see stormwater as a valuable
resource in conjunction with water and treated wastewater and not a mere traditional
design for its conveyance and disposal. Internationally, this concept is being used in
many cities viz. Melbourne in Australia, USA and Victoria, Ottawa city in Canada and

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also this concept is under preparation in Bangalore and Chennai cities in India. The
various aspects considered under WSUD is presented in the figure 10.1.

Source: Water Sensitive Urban Design in the UK –Ideas for built environment
practitioners - a scoping study (CIRIA project RP976)
Figure 10. 1: Aspects of Water Sensitive Urban Design

10.2.1.1 Objective of WSUD

Water Sensitive Urban Design for urban storm water seeks to address, inter alia, the
following important aspects:

i. Minimizing runoff at or near its source, by directing runoff from impervious

surface to pervious areas to reduce quantity and improve quality of runoff
ii. Preserve the existing topography and features of the natural drainage system
including waterways and water bodies.
iii. Integrate public open space with storm water drainage corridors to maximise
public access, passive recreation activities and visual amenity, while preserving
essential waterway habitats and wildlife movement corridors.
iv. Preserve the natural water cycle including minimising changes to the natural
frequency, duration, volume, velocity, and peak discharge of urban storm water
runoff.
v. Protect surface water and groundwater quality.
vi. Minimise the capital and maintenance costs of storm water infrastructure.

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10.2.1.2 Integration of WSUD in Urban planning and Implementation

a. City Urban Planning

Following eight components can be integrated into urban city planning for on-ground
implementation to achieve the objectives of Water Sensitive Urban Design.

1. Protect water quality

i. Storm water remains clean and retains its high value

ii. Implement best management practice on-site.
iii. Implement non-structural controls, including education and awareness programs.
iv. Install structural controls at source or near source.
v. Use in-system management measures.
vi. Undertake regular and timely maintenance of infrastructure and streetscapes.

2. Protect infrastructure from flooding and inundation

i. Storm water runoff from infrequent high intensity rainfall events is safely stored
and conveyed
ii. Safe passage of excess runoff from large rainfall events towards watercourses
and wetlands.
iii. Store and detain excess runoff from large rainfall events in parks and multiple
use corridors.
iv. Safely convey excessive groundwater to the nearest watercourse.

3. Minimise runoff

i. Slow the migration of rainwater from the catchment and reduce peak flows
ii. Retain and infiltrate rainfall within property boundaries.
iii. Use rainfall on-site or as high in the catchment as possible.
iv. Maximise the amount of permeable surfaces in the catchment.
v. Use non-kerbed roads and car parks.
vi. Plant trees with large canopies over sealed surfaces such as roads and car
parks.

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4. Maximise local infiltration

i. Fewer water quality and flooding problems

ii. Minimise impervious areas.
iii. Use vegetated swales.
iv. Use soak wells and minimise use of piped drainage systems.
v. Create vegetated buffer and filter strips.
vi. Recharge the groundwater table for local bore water use.

5. Make the most of nature’s drainage

i. Cost effective, safe and attractive alternatives to pipes and drains

ii. Retain natural channels and incorporate into public open space.
iii. Retain and restore riparian vegetation to improve water quality through bio-
filtration.
iv. Create riffles and pools to improve water quality and provide refuge for local
flora and fauna.
v. Protect valuable natural ecosystems.
vi. Minimise the use of artificial drainage systems.

6. Minimise changes to the natural water balance

i. Avoid summer algal blooms and midge problems and protect our groundwater
resources
ii. Retain seasonal wetlands and vegetation.
iii. Maintain the natural water balance of wetlands.
iv. No direct drainage to conservation category wetlands or their buffers, or to other
conservation value
v. Wetlands or their buffers, where appropriate.
vi. Recharge groundwater by storm water infiltration.

7. Integrate storm water treatment into the landscape

i. Add value while minimising development costs

ii. Public open space systems incorporating natural drainage systems.
iii. Water sensitive urban design approach to road layout, lot layout and
streetscape.

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iv. Maximise environmental, cultural and recreational opportunities.

8. Convert drains into natural streams

 Lower flow velocities, benefit from natural flood water storage and improve
waterway ecology
 Create stable streams, with a channel size suitable for 1 in 1 year design return
period rainfall events, equivalent to a bankfull flow.
 Accommodate large and infrequent storm events within the floodplain.
 Create habitat diversity to support a healthy, ecologically functioning waterway.

b. Step by Step Implementation

Step 1: Understand the Site

Step 1 in the design process is about developing a broad overview of the subject site
and identifying those issues that may assist or hamper the overall delivery of WSUD
practices.

Step 2: Identify Objectives

The implementation of WSUD in a development seeks to achieve a range of outcomes

relating to water quality, hydrology, conservation, biodiversity and amenity. Each of
these outcomes can be met by ensuring development complies with the appropriate
objectives and targets identified for the site.

The objectives should focus on:

i. Water quality
ii. Water quantity
iii. Integrated water cycle management
iv. Landscape and amenity
v. Biodiversity enhancement
vi. Social outcomes

Step 3: Identify Suitable WSUD Measures

To assess whether a WSUD measure is appropriate requires an understanding of the

requirements of the WSUD outcomes and the suitability of the particular measure to
assist in achieving those outcomes. In developing a proposed WSUD strategy, it is
often necessary to review this on an iterative basis, so that the characteristics of
different WSUD measures can be appropriately integrated. The WSUD measures,
their roles and benefits are given in Table 10.1.

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Step 4: Meet with Council and Relevant Authorities

In the majority of situations, it will be beneficial to the overall development process to

meet with council officers to:

i. Discuss the site of the proposed development, including opportunities and

ii. constraints of the site
iii. Discuss the concept design of the proposed development
iv. Establish objectives and targets for the proposed development
v. Discuss any likely council requirements, including any modelling expectations
vi. Discuss land and asset ownership issues including future maintenance and
vii. operation
viii. Determine the necessary approvals including any State Government approvals

Step 5: Conceptual Site Design

WSUD principles are most effective and economical when integrated into development
design at the concept design stage. Each development type may vary significantly and
present different WSUD opportunities. There are many ways to incorporate WSUD in
development projects to meet the objectives and targets. The design strategies used
in a project will depend upon:

i. The location and geography of the site

ii. Land use and activity (residential, commercial, industrial)
iii. Development or redevelopment scale
iv. Water use and demand (garden irrigation, industrial needs, etc.)
v. Water sources available, including rainfall, storm water and wastewater
vi. On-site catchment area (roof and surface)
vii. Groundwater and soil type
viii. Infrastructure (building and roads)
ix. Surrounding environment opportunities and constraints
x. Operation and maintenance (council or site owner)
xi. Urban landscape design (architectural and landscape)
xii. Catchment water quantity and quality objectives and targets

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Step 6: Model Base Case (if required by approving authority)

At this stage, sufficient information would have been collected to allow modeling of
both the existing site (i.e. pre-development) and the ‘untreated’ developed site that
would form the ‘base case’ with which to compare future modeling of the WSUD
systems proposed for the development (if required by the approving authority). In the
majority of developments, water quality modeling should focus on total suspended
solids, total nitrogen, total phosphorus and gross pollutants as the key pollutants of
interest, in addition to the hydraulic outcomes. Faecal coliforms and organics should
also be considered, depending on the measure being assessed.

Step 7: Locate WSUD Measures

When determining the optimal WSUD measures for a site, some consideration should
be given to the site analysis and the opportunities available, and the ‘natural’ or
obvious areas for WSUD measures (e.g. overland flow paths). The site analysis may
provide information on whether a ‘bottom of catchment’ approach or a distributed
approach to WSUD is optimal for the site. The identification of options for the use of
water-conserving measures at the design level for:
 Road layout
 Building Design (e.g. encouragement of green roofs)
 Internal services
 Housing layout
 Streetscape (including regulated self-supply options)

A number of planning and design tools based on BPP principles have been developed
which relate to the following:
 Public open space networks
 Housing layout
 Road layout
 Streetscape

Table 10. 1: WSUD Measures: Role, Focus, Site Conditions and Benefits

Measure Focus of WSUD Potential Suitable Site Unsuitable

Measure Benefits Conditions Conditions
Water Water
Quality Quantity
Demand Low High Reduction in Residential, Where
Reduction mains water commercial water
supply and quality does
industrial not meet
sites end use
requirement
s

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Measure Focus of WSUD Potential Suitable Site Unsuitable

Measure Benefits Conditions Conditions
Water Water
Quality Quantity
Rainwater Low High Storage for Proximity to Non-roof
Tanks reuse. roof. runoff
Sediment Suitable treatment.
Where tank
removal in site for water is not
tank. Frequent gravity used on a
flood feed. Need regular
retardation to basis
incorporate
into urban
design
Rain Gardens Medium High Volume Allotment Reactive clay
retention. scale sites. Near
Water quality infrastructure
improvement
Green Roofs Medium Medium Retention of Flat roofs, Roofs that
water. slopes up to are not
Biodiversity 30 degrees structurally
suitable
Infiltration High Medium Volume Precinct Non-
Systems retention. scale infiltrative
Water quality soils. High
improvement groundwate
r levels
Pervious High Medium Retention and Allotment Severe vehicle
Pavements detention of s, roads traffic
runoff and car movement and
parks developing
catchments
with high
sediment load

Urban Water Medium High Reduction in Residential, Locations

Harvesting mains water commercial where
and Reuse supply and demand is
industrial, limited or
generally adverse
more viable impacts to
for precinct downstream
scale sites users
Gross High Low Reduces litter Site and Sites larger
Pollutant and debris. precinct than 100
Traps Can reduce scales ha.Natural
sediment. channels.Low
Pre- treatment lying areas
for other
measures
Bioretentio High Low Fine and Flat terrain Steep terrain.
n Systems soluble High

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Measure Focus of WSUD Potential Suitable Site Unsuitable

Measure Benefits Conditions Conditions
Water Water
Quality Quantity
pollutants groundwater
removal. table
Streetscape
amenity.
Frequent flood
retardation
Swales Low Low Medium and Mild slopes Steep slopes
fine particulate (< 4%)
removal.
Streetscape
amenity.
Passive
irrigation
Buffer Strips High Low Pre-treatment Flat terrain Steep terrain
of runoff for
sediment
removal.
Streetscape
amenity
Sedimentatio High Medium Coarse Need Where
n Basins sediment available visual
capture. land area amenity
Temporary is
installation. desirable
Pre- treatment
for other
measures.
Constructe High Medium Community Flat Steep terrain.
d Wetlands asset. Medium terrain. High
to fine Need groundwater
particulate and available table
some soluble land area
pollutant
removal. Flood
retardation.
Storage for
reuse. Wildlife
habitat
Wastewater Medium High Nutrient Where
Management reduction to adequate
receiving treatment
environments. and risk
Fit for purpose manageme
substitution nt can be
ensured
Source: Adapted from City of Yarra (2006) and Knox City Council (2002)

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Step 8: Model Treated Case (if required by approving authority)

Evaluation and assessment of alternative water management strategies are based on

predictions made using forecasting tools. The emergence of new models and design
methods to evaluate the use of roof water and storm water, and reuse of treated
wastewater allow more reliable assessment of the multiple benefits of utilizing these
alternative sources.

Step 9: Objectives Check

At this stage, several iterations may be required to ensure that the majority of
objectives set out in Step 2 are achieved. Note that it may not be possible for all
objectives to be met and it may be that a degree of compromise is required in some
areas to achieve an optimal outcome. Where necessary, if particular objectives are
essential, then it may be appropriate to revisit the conceptual site design and/or the
type of WSUD measures used.

Step 10: Finalise Measures

Once the final WSUD conceptual design has been developed, it will be necessary to
confirm sizing and locations of measures prior to entering the detailed design process.
Of key importance at this stage will be the identification of services and completed
design elements (e.g. roads, open space areas, final lot layouts, hydraulic design)
within which WSUD measures may need to be integrated.
A conceptual design should be developed that shows:

 The location of the WSUD measure(s) within the development;

 The proposed layout of the measure in its specific location (also showing key
features such as roads and other services). The proposed layout should also
provide detail of proposed access to the WSUD measure for maintenance and
monitoring and, where relevant, any surrounding recreational infrastructure. This
is to ensure that adequate consideration has been given to ongoing maintenance
and that the functionality of open and other recreational spaces is not impeded.
Designers may also use the Design Assessment Checklist in each chapter during
the concept design to check that no key issues will arise later in the detailed
design. At this stage, it will also be appropriate to document operation and
maintenance plans, including all ongoing requirements of each of the measures.

10.2.2 Low Impact Development Design

LID is an innovative storm water management approach modeled after nature i.e.
manages rainfall runoff at the source using uniformly distributed decentralized
micro-scale controls. LID is “a storm water management and land development

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strategy that emphasizes conservation and the use of on-site natural features
integrated with engineered, small-scale hydrologic controls to more closely reflect pre-
development hydrologic functions”. This can be accomplished by creating site design
features that direct runoff to vegetated areas containing permeable or amended soils,
protect native vegetation and open space, and reduce the amount of hard surfaces
and compaction of soil. Common LID planning practices include site design planning
based on natural land contours and decreasing the impervious surface. These
methods include the following:

• Reducing impervious surfaces

• Disconnecting impervious areas
• Conserving natural resources
• Using cluster/consolidated development
• Using xeriscaping and water conservation practices

The basic LID strategy for handling runoff is to reduce the volume and decentralize
flows. This is usually best accomplished by creating a series of smaller retention or
detention areas that allow localized filtration instead of carrying runoff to a remote
collection area for treatment. The basic LID strategy is explained schematically in
figure 10.2.

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Source: Low Impact Development, design manual for urban areas, University of Arkansas Community Design Center, Fayetteville,
North Carolina, United States.
Figure 10.2: Basic LID strategy

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10.2.2.1 Objectives of Low Impact Development

Objectives of Low Impact Development (LID) are as follows:

• Protect water quality

• Reduce runoff
• Reduce impervious surfaces
• Encourage open space
• Protect significant vegetation
• Reduce land disturbance

10.2.2.2 Approach for Planning & Implementation of LID

Approaches for achieving objectives of LID can be broadly classified in following

categories:

i. Site Planning
ii. Hydrologic Analysis
iii. Integrated Management Practices
iv. Erosion and Sediment Control
v. Public Outreach Program

The same is schematically represented in the figure 10.3.

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Source: Low-Impact Development Design Strategies, An Integrated Design Approach,

Prepared by: Prince George’s County, Maryland Department of Environmental
Resources Programs and Planning Division, June 1999

Figure 10. 3: LID planning and implementation Approach

To achieve above objectives, a step-by-step process for LID design development is

described below:

STEP 1: Define Project Objectives and Goals

a. Identify the LID objectives for the entire project.

b. Determine the goals and feasibility for water quality, water quantity, peak runoff
control, and on-site use of storm water.
c. Determine project character/aesthetic. Identify the baseline principles from
which LID design decisions will be made by defining the LID technologies that
support the concept and visual aesthetic.
d. Prioritize and rank basic objectives.

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STEP 2: Analysis and Site Evaluation

A site evaluation will facilitate LID design development by providing infrastructural,

contextual, cultural, and community clues that will assist in the development of a LID
program.
a. Conduct a detailed investigation of the site through collected materials such as
drainage maps, utilities information, soils maps, land use plans, and aerial
photographs.
b. Perform an on-site evaluation highlighting opportunities and constraints, such
as pollutant hot spots, potential disconnects from Combined Sewer Overflows,
slopes etc. Make note of potential LID practices and areas where water quality
and quantity controls could be installed.

STEP 3: Create Overlay

a. Classify the land use on the project site.

b. Review the proposed architectural plan to identify buildings and structures,
open or vegetated space, parking lots, parking lot islands, side yards, vegetated
strips adjacent to sidewalks, and buffer areas.
c. Create an overlay that identifies opportunities for LID devices.

STEP 4: Develop LID Control Strategies

a. Develop a list of LID control strategies that potentially fulfill the objectives.
Determine the appropriate number of LID controls needed. Identify specific LID
technologies for the project site and determine how to integrate them, keeping
in mind the optimum location, to meet their design objectives.
b. Specify LID technologies for each land use component.

STEP 5: Design LID Master Plan

a. Sketch a design concept that distributes the LID devices uniformly around the
project site. Keep in mind that some LID technologies can be used to capture
storm water from adjacent impervious areas.
b. Develop a master plan that identifies all key control issues (water quality, water
quantity, water conservation) and implementation areas.
c. Finalize the plan.

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STEP 6: Develop Schedule, Funding, Construction, and Implementation Plans

The development process is not a linear or static process but one that is dynamic and
adaptable.

STEP 7: Evaluate Success or Modify Design

Developing a storm water management program using LID principles and practices is
a dynamic process. Evaluate the design to see if it meets project storm water
management objectives.

10.2.3 Sustainable Drainage System (SuDS)

Sustainable drainage systems aim towards maintaining or restoring a more natural

hydrological regime, such that the impact of urbanisation on downstream flooding and
water quality is minimised. Originally, SuDS were introduced primarily as single
purpose facilities however this has now evolved into more integrated systems which
serve a variety of purposes, including habitat and amenity enhancement.

SuDS involve a change in our way of managing urban run-off from solely looking at
volume control to an integrated multi-disciplinary approach which addresses water
quality, water quantity, amenity and habitat. These are referred to as the four pillars of
SuDS design as shown in Fig 10.4.

Figure 10.4: SuDS Design Principles

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10.2.3.1 Objective of SuDS

Sustainable drainage systems (SuDS) are a natural approach to manage drainage in

and around properties and other developments. SuDS work by slowing and holding
back the water that runs off from a site, allowing natural processes to break down
pollutants. Following two main objective of SuDS are:

1. Minimise the impacts of urban runoff by capturing runoff as close to source as

possible and then releasing it slowly
2. Reduces pollutants in the surface water by settling out suspended solids

10.2.3.2 Steps for Design & Implementation of SuDS

SuDS Design can be primarily categorized in three types for implantation purposes:
i. Source control manage storm water runoff as close to its source as possible,
typically on site. Typical SuDS options include: green roofs, rainwater
harvesting, permeable pavements and soak ways.
ii. Site control measures manage the surface water run-off from larger areas,
such as part of a housing estate, major roads or business parks. The run-off
from larger areas can be channeled to a site control measure using swales
(shallow drainage channels) or filter drains. Typical SuDS options include: bio-
retention areas, filter strips, infiltration trenches, sand filters and swales.
iii. Regional control measures downstream of source and site controls deal with
the gathered run-off from a large area. These systems use the same principles
as smaller scale SuDS, but can cope with larger volumes of water. Rainwater
that passes through small SuDS can feed into larger SuDS which deal with the
gathered run-off from a wide area. It is best to connect the flows between SuDS
components with swales, filter drains or ditches and avoid the use of pipes.
Typical SuDS options include: constructed wetlands, detention ponds and
retention ponds.

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The SuDS planning process is schematically explained in Fig 10.5.

Figure 10.5: SuDS planning process

As the treatment train progresses, the number of interventions decrease, but their
individual size increases. For example the source controls could be each house having
a rainwater tank, the local control may be 5 houses ‘share’ a wet swale, and the
regional control may be that 50 houses ‘share’ a wetland. The treatment train is shown
in the Figure 10.6:

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Source: http://www.uwm.uct.ac.za/uwm/suds/principles
Figure 10.6: SuDS Treatment Train

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The successful achievement of sustainable urban drainage does not solely rely on the
use of engineered techniques to control and treat runoff. ‘Good housekeeping’
measures, such as safe storage and handling of oils and chemicals, street sweeping
and control of sediment run-off from construction sites are an essential component
of SuDS. Public awareness is also an important factor in ensuring the successful
implementation of sustainable drainage practices.

10.2.3.3 Benefits of SuDS

The benefits of SuDS are:

 Preventing water pollution

 Slowing down surface water run-off and reducing the risk of flooding
 Reducing the risk of urban flooding during heavy rain
 Recharging groundwater to help prevent drought
 Providing valuable habitats for wildlife in urban areas
 Creating green spaces for people in urban areas.

SuDS are very flexible and there are a number of ways that they can applied to provide
great drainage that are both value for money and inspirational.

10.2.4 Storm water Management and Road Tunnel (SMART tunnel)

SMART tunnel is a multipurpose tunnel that doubles up as roadway for vehicles and
a channel to get rid of storm water. The main objective of this tunnel is to solve the
problem of flash floods and also to reduce traffic jams. There are two components of
this tunnel, the storm water tunnel and motorway tunnel. The storm function of the
SMART tunnel is to divert flood water caused by heavy rain into a bypass tunnel under
the motorway tunnel. If the rains continue and flooding gets worse the motorway tunnel
is closed to vehicles - allowing water to flow through both the traffic and bypass
tunnels. The tunnel project is implemented in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Japan, Dubai
etc.

10.2.5 Decentralized Innovative intervention in storm water drainage designs

Storm water runoff control at decentralized level is of immense use and not only meets
the local requirement of water for domestic uses but also can recharge ground water
and minimize investment in storm water drainage infrastructure. In addition, it can
contribute immensely to prevent frequent flooding in low lying areas. Decentralized

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innovative interventions that may be integrated in design / incentivize to realize above

mentioned benefits are given in Table 10.2:

Table 10. 2: Decentralized Innovative intervention in storm water drainage

designs

Design element Description and objectives Example

Residential
Rooftop Rainwater Element to collect rainwater
harvesting from roofs and use for non-
potable water uses

Permeable Permeable surface that rains

pavement through voids between solid
parts of the pavement to
infiltrate rainwater from
pavements residential areas

Rain garden Element vegetated to infiltrate

rainwater from roofs

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Design element Description and objectives Example

Infiltration trench Stone-filled trench to infiltrate
rainwater from roofs and
pavements residential areas

Soakaway Sub-surface structure to

infiltrate rainwater from roofs

SIDEWALK
Rain garden Element vegetated to infiltrate
rainwater from sidewalk areas

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Rill Open vegetated channel to

transport rainwater to
infiltration areas

STREET
Channel Channel to transport rainwater
to infiltration areas

Permeable Permeable surface that drains

pavement through voids between solid
parts of the pavement to
infiltrate rainwater from
sidewalk areas

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Infiltration trench Stone-filled trench to infiltrate

and store rainwater from roads

Pervious Pervious surface that drains

Pavement through voids between solid
parts of the pavement to
infiltrate rainwater

Parking
Modular pavement Modular surface to infiltrate
rainwater from the parking
surface

Infiltration trench Stone-filled trench to infiltrate

rainwater from parking surface

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Bioretention Depression backfilled with a

soil mixture with vegetation to
improve water quality from the
parking surface

Open space, flood plain, green infrastructure and infiltration area

Modular pavement Modular surface to infiltrate
rainwater

Natural pavement Natural surface to infiltrate

rainwater

Swale Vegetated area to transport

and infiltrate rainwater

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Filter drain Gravel trench to drain

rainwater

Infiltration basin Depression with vegetation

area to infiltrate rainwater

Wetland Retention pond with aquatic

vegetation to treat rainwater

Retention pond Artificial pond to store water

and release it slowly

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Bioretention Depression backfilled with a

soil mixture with vegetation to
retain rainwater

Other spaces – Spaces between infrastructures

Infiltration basin Depression with vegetation to
infiltrate
rainwater

Natural retention Slope area with vegetation to

infiltrate
rainwater

Above decentralized options are given to sensitize the users about their importance in
local planning in the city and at individual household level and community level.
However, detail design of each of these decentralized options to be carried out under
guidance of experts and also based on the type designs available in typical Manuals
like CGWB and CPWD etc.

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CHAPTER 11: CONSTRUCTION OF STORM WATER DRAINS

11.1 General

This chapter describes the method of construction of storm water channels and
conduits such as laying and jointing of storm water conduits, and construction of storm
water drains, types of construction materials. Construction of manholes and other
appurtenant structures etc. has also been described.

11.2 Implementation of the project

Before the implementation of any project, the following prerequisites are mandatory:

i. Administrative approval
ii. Expenditure sanction
iii. Technical sanction
iv. Availability of funds

No work should normally be commenced or any liability thereon incurred until an

administrative approval has been obtained, a properly prepared detailed estimate has
been technically sanctioned and where necessary expenditure sanction has been
accorded and allotment of funds made.

The execution of a project/work has two stages, viz. the ‘Pre-construction stage’ and
the ‘Construction stage’. The following activities are involved in these stages:

11.2.1 Pre-construction stage

Following prerequisites are mandatory before the construction work is taken up for the
execution of the project:

1. Requisition from the client

2. Preparation of site/soil data, and assessment of the feasibility of services such
as water supply, electricity, drainage, and sewerage, etc.
3. Approval of the preliminary plans by the client
4. Preparation of preliminary estimate
5. Approval of the preliminary estimate by the client
6. Preparation and submission of the plans to the Local Bodies for their approval

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7. Approval of plans by the Local Bodies

8. Preparation of preliminary structural design
9. Preparation of structural drawings
10. Preparation of detailed working drawings
11. Preparation of detailed estimates for laying of storm water channels/conduits and
all services (civil, electrical and mechanical)
12. Preparation of NIT and call of pre-qualification applications, wherever applicable
13. Selection of contractors from the pre-qualification applications wherever
applicable
14. Call of tenders and pre-bid conference wherever applicable
15. Receipt/Opening of tenders
16. The decision on tender and award of work

11.2.2 Construction stage

1. Execution of work and contract management.

2. Completion of work.
3. Testing and commissioning.
4. Completion certificate from Local Body, including fire clearance.
5. Handing over to the client.
6. Settlement of accounts

11.3 Construction of Storm water conduits

Steps involved in the construction of storm water flexible and rigid pipe are as follows:

1. Removal of pavement and disposal of excavated materials from the ground.

2. Trench excavation.
3. Sheeting and bracing of the sides of the trenches wherever necessary to support
the sides against caving.
4. Dewatering the trenches where necessary.
5. Protection of underground Services
6. Bedding, Laying, and Jointing of Conduits
7. Backfilling of trenches
8. Removal of sheeting or bracing

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11.3.1 Removal of pavement

The removal of pavement is often necessary as the first step in conduit construction.
It may be done by hammer and chisel or mechanically with pneumatic hammer fitted
with various cutting tools. Excavated material should be safely disposed of.

11.3.2 Trench Preparation

11.3.2.1 Dimensions

The width of a conduit trench depends on the soil condition, type of side protection
and the working space required at the bottom of the trench for smooth installations.
Increase in width over the required minimum would unduly increase the load on pipe
and cost of road restoration. Considering all above factors, the minimum trench width
is specified as per Table 11.1.

11.3.2.2 Excavation

Excavation of conduit trenches shall be in straight lines as much as possible and to

the correct depths and gradients as specified in drawings. However, because of
inherent flexible property, these pipes can also be laid at a very wide and smooth
curvatures without transitional manholes. Instead of conventional manholes, the
specified fittings such as tees and bends, etc. can be used at transitions.
Table 11. 1: Minimum Trench Widths

Sl No. Pipe Diameter (mm) Trench Width (m)

i) 75 to 200 0.6
ii) 250 0.7
iii) 300 0.8
iv) 400 0.9
v) 600 1.2
vi) 800 1.3
vii) 900 1.6
viii) 1000 1.8
ix) 1200 2.0

Excavated spoils shall not be deposited in the near proximity to prevent the collapse
of the side of the trenches. The sides of the trench shall, however, be supported by
shoring (where necessary) to ensure proper and speedy excavations and concurrently
ensuring necessary protections to contiguous structures. In the event, the presence of
groundwater is likely to cause instability in soil conditions. A wellpoint system may be

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adopted for lowering of groundwater table below the requisite trench bed level. If
excavation is made deeper than necessary the same shall be filled and compacted.

11.3.2.3 Shoring/Mild steel sheet piling

The protective shoring works shall be strong enough to prevent caving in of trench
walls or subsidence of contiguous areas adjacent to the trench. For wider and deeper
trenches, a system of wall plates (wales) and struts of heavy timber section is
commonly used as per the requisite structural design. In non-cohesive soils with high
groundwater table, continuous interlocking mild steel sheet piling may be necessary
to prevent excessive soil movements due to groundwater percolation. Such sheet
piling shall extend 1.5 m below the trench bottom unless the lower soil strata are
adequately cohesive.

11.3.2.4 Underground services

The underground public and private utility services exposed due to the excavation
shall be effectively supported under the guidance of the owners of such services.

11.3.2.5 Dewatering

Conduit installation trenches shall be adequately dewatered for the placement of pipe
at proper gradient till the pipe is integrated through socket and spigot joint/coupler
assembly with the already laid segment.

11.3.2.6 Floatation of Flexible pipe

Precautions are to be taken to arrest floating of installed conduit segments against

buoyant forces in case of sudden accumulation of water in the trench. The diameter
wise minimum cover necessary to counteract the buoyant forces is given in Table 11.2.
For exceptional cases of the higher level of groundwater, additional anchoring at equal
intervals would be necessary.

Table 11. 2: Required minimum cover to prevent floatation

Nominal Diameter Minimal Cover

Sl No.
mm mm
(1) (2) (3)
i) 75 65
ii) 100 77
iii) 150 102
iv) 200 127
v) 250 178
vi) 300 368

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Nominal Diameter Minimal Cover

Sl No.
mm mm
vii) 400 505
viii) 600 711
ix) 900 1067
x) 1050 1219
xi) 1200 1372
NOTE- Computation is based on the pipes being completely empty, water table
at the ground surface, solid density of 2083 kg/m3 and a soil friction angle
appropriate for most sand/ gravel mixture. The average of the inside and outside
diameters was used to determine solid and water displacement.

11.3.3 Pipe Bedding for rigid pipes

Where storm water conduits have to be laid in soft underground strata or in reclaimed
land, the trench shall be excavated deeper than what is ordinarily required. The trench
bottom shall be stabilized by the addition of coarse gravel or rock. In case of very bad
soil, the trench bottom shall be filled in with cement concrete of appropriate grade. In
the areas subject to subsidence, the pipe should be laid on suitable supports or
concrete cradle supported on piles. In the case of cast-in-situ, an RCC section with
both transverse and longitudinal steel reinforcement shall be provided when
intermittent variations in soil bearing capacity are encountered. In case of long
stretches of very soft trench bottom, soil stabilization shall be done either by rubble,
concrete or wooden crib.

11.3.3.1 Type of Bedding

The type of bedding (granular, concrete cradle, full concrete encasement, etc.) would
depend on the soil strata and depth at which pipe is laid. The load due to backfill
superimposed load (live load) and the three-edge-bearing strength of pipe (IS: 458)
are the governing criteria for selection of appropriate bedding factors. Factor of safety
is taken as 1.5
The type of bedding to be used depends on the bedding factor, and the matrix of type
of bedding for different diameters and different depths has been tabulated in Table11.3
and Table 11.4.

Table 11. 3: Type of bedding for storm water conduits

Bedding
Factor Type of Bedding
Up to 1.9 Class B Granular (GRB)
1.9 - 2.8 Class Ab: Plain Concrete Cradle(PCCB)
Class Ac : Reinforced Concrete cradle (RCCB) with 0.4 %
2.8 - 3.4 Reinforcement
> 3.4 Class Ad : Reinforced concrete arch with 1.0% reinforcement

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Table 11. 4: Selection of bedding for different depths and different diameters

Bedding type for cover Bedding type for cover

Diameter Diameter
depth in m depth in m
up up
2.5- 3.5- 5.0- 2.5- 3.5- 5.0-
mm to mm to
3.5 5.0 6.0 3.5 5.0 6.0
2.5 2.5
400 Ab Ab Ab Ac 1400 B Ab Ab Ab
500 Ab Ab Ab Ab 1500 B Ab Ab Ab
600 B Ab Ab Ab 1600 B Ab Ab Ab
700 B Ab Ab Ab 1800 B Ab Ab Ab
750 B Ab Ab Ab 2000 B Ab Ab Ab
800 B Ab Ab Ab 2200 B Ab Ab Ac
900 B Ab Ab Ab 2400 B Ab Ab Ac
1000 B Ab Ab Ab 2600 B Ab Ab Ac
1200 B Ab Ab Ab 2800 B Ab Ab Ac

11.3.3.2 Classes of Bedding for Trench Conditions

Four classes, A, B, C, and D of bedding used most often for pipes in trenches are
illustrated in Figure 11.1. Class A bedding may be either concrete cradle or concrete
arch. Class B is bedding having a shaped bottom or compacted granular bedding with
a carefully compacted backfill. Class C is ordinary bedding having a shaped bottom or
compacted granular bedding but with a lightly compacted backfill. Class D is one with
a flat bottom trench with no care being taken to secure compaction of backfill at the
sides and immediately over the pipe and hence is not recommended.

Class B or C bedding with compacted granular bedding is generally recommended.

The shaped bottom is impracticable and costly and hence is not recommended.

The pipe bedding materials must remain firm and not permit displacement of pipes.
The material has to be uniformly graded or well graded. Uniformly graded materials
include pea gravel or one-size materials with a low percentage of over and undersized
particles.

Well-graded materials containing several sizes of particles in stated proportions,

ranging from a maximum to minimum size coarse sand, pea gravel, crushed gravel,
crushed screenings, can be used for pipe bedding.

Fine materials or screenings are not satisfactory for stabilizing trench bottoms and are
difficult to compact in a uniform manner to provide proper pipe bedding.

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Well-graded material is most effective for stabilizing trench bottom and has a lesser
tendency to flow than uniformly graded materials. However, uniformly graded material
is easier to place and compact above pipes.

Figure 11.1: Classes of bedding

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11.3.4 Bedding of Flexible pipe

a) Normally, even for the maximum combined loading (wheel load + backfill), any
form of cement concrete structural bedding would not be necessary.
b) For maintenance of conduit slopes, the initial backfill envelops with sand or
gravel (as computed through structural design of buried flexible conduit) over a
single BFS would be sufficient.
c) In the event, anchorage becomes imperative the transverse concrete
anchorage blocks spaced at a suitable interval shall also act as chairs for
defining and maintaining the conduit slopes.

11.3.5 Laying of Rigid Storm water conduit

In laying pipe, the centre of each manhole shall be marked by a peg. Two wooden
posts 100 mm x 100 mm and 1800 mm high shall be fixed on either side at nearly
equal distance from the peg or sufficiently clear of all intended excavation. The sight
rail, when fixed on these posts, shall cross the centre of manhole. The sight rails made
from 250 mm wide x 40 mm thick wooden planks and screwed with the top edge
against the level marks shall be fixed at distances more than 30 m apart along the pipe
alignment. The centre line of the pipe shall be marked on the sight rail. These vertical
posts and the sight rails shall be perfectly square and planed smooth on all sides and
edges. The sight rails shall be painted half white and half black alternately on both the
sides and the tee heads and cross pieces of the boning rods shall be painted black.
When the conduits converging to a manhole come in at various levels, there shall be
a rail fixed for every different level.

The boning rods with cross-section 75 mm x 50 mm of various lengths shall be

prepared from wood. Each length shall be a certain number of meters and shall have
a fixed tee head and fixed intermediate cross pieces, each about 300 mm long. The
top edge of the cross pieces shall be fixed at a distance below the top edge equal to,
the outside dia. of the pipe, the thickness of the concrete bedding or the bottom of the
excavation, as the case may be. The boning staff shall be marked on both sides to
indicate its full length.

The posts and the sight rails shall in no case be removed until the trench is excavated,
the pipes are laid, jointed and the filling is started.

When large pipelines are to be laid or where sloped trench walls result in top-of-trench
widths too great for practical use of sight rails or where soils are unstable, stakes set
in the trench bottom itself on the pipeline, as a rough grade for the pipe is completed,
would serve the purpose.

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11.3.6 Laying and Jointing of Flexible pipe

11.3.6.1 Laying

11.3.6.1.1 For shallow trenches

Place the pipe manually on the initial backfill envelope directly.

11.3.6.1.2 Deep trenches with shoring/mild steel sheet Piling

a) Make the trench reasonably free from groundwater and other liquids.
b) Place the pipe on the top-level cross-struts of the timber shoring/mild steel sheet
piling framework.
c) Dismantle one/two cross struts and lower the pipe to the immediate lower layer of
the cross struts and re-fixes the struts immediately.
d) In the same manner, reach up to the initial backfilling and place the pipe at proper
slope.
e) Ensure anchorage, if any, after laying.

11.3.6.2 Jointing

Various methods for jointing such as regular coupler made by the online process,
spigot and sockets are used. The moulded socket will have a suitable internal surface
with profiles ribs for insertion of the next pipe into it. The socket end of the pipe to be
inserted will have corrugated outer layer. On first valley segment of corrugated pipe
(destined to be pushed into the coupler) one elastomeric rubber ring needs to be
placed which is pushed into the coupler socket. This provides sufficient gripping lock
and leak-proof joint. A similar system is also used for fabricated accessories or
moulded fittings required such as tee, bends, elbows, reducer end caps for the
purpose of installation of the system related to drainage/sewerage. For quality
connections following steps are to be ensured, failing which the performance aspects
are to be severely compromised:

a) The non-coupler end needs to be thoroughly cleared and shall be free from any
foreign material.

b) Use a clean rag or brush to lubricate the non-coupler end with lubricant.

c) Clean and lubricate the coupler end of the pipe to be laid in a similar manner.

d) Lubricate the exposed gasket in the same manner with pipe lubricant.

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e) Keep the lubricated non-coupler end free from dirt, backfill material, and foreign
matter so that the joint integrity is not compromised.

f) Push the coupler into non-coupler and align properly. Always push coupler end into
the non-coupler end. For smaller diameter pipes simple manual insertion shall be
sufficient. In every methodology, it should be ensured that the coupler end is
adequately ‘homed’ within non-coupler end to ensure installation and tight joining
seal. Therefore, prior to insertion always place a homing mark on appropriate
corrugation of the non-coupler end.

11.3.6.2.1 Jointing different pipe types or sizes

Sewerage/ drainage system often encounters connecting pipes of different

materials/sizes, etc. The fittings or adapters specifically designed for the purpose are
available.
A selection of fittings designed to make the transition from one material directly to
another is also available. In few cases, fitting may need to be used in combination with
separate manufacturer’s gasket or coupler to give proper effect to the transition.

11.3.6.3 Manholes and Catch Pit Connections

Brick masonry manholes can also be used at changes in pipe material, size, grade,
direction, and elevation. Manufacturer specified pre-fabricated appurtenant structures
made of thermoplastic materials shall also be available for onsite user-friendly
installations. The similar methodology shall be followed for integration of catch pits.

11.3.6.4 Conduit Connections

Other connecting lines shall be integrated with the already laid system in the same
manner as of original pipelines.

11.3.6.5 Type of pipe material and jointing of storm conduits (rigid pipe)

11.3.6.5.1 Reinforced Cement Concrete Pipes (R.C.C Pipes)

The reinforced cement concrete pipes (IS:458-1988) are non-pressure pipes available
under three classifications of NP2, NP3, NP4 That are commonly used in storm water
conduits under appropriate loading conditions.

The R.C.C. pipes shall be laid in position over either concrete cradle or on the plain
cement concrete bedding, 150 mm plain cement concrete (1:3:6) with carefully packed
backfill of earth soil or dug material if suitable. The abutting faces of the pipes being
coated by means of a brush with bitumen in liquid condition. The wedge-shaped
groove at the end of the pipe shall be filled with sufficient quantity of either special

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bituminous compound or sufficient quantity of cement mortar of 1: 3. The collar shall

then be slipped over the end of the pipe and the next pipe butted well against the
plastic ring by appliances so as to compress roughly the plastic ring or cement mortar
into the grooves. Care is taken to see that concentricity of the pipes and the levels are
not disturbed during the operation. Spigot and socket (S&S) R.C.C. Pipes shall be
laid with pipe joints caulked with tarred gasket in one length for each joint and
sufficiently long to entirely surround the spigot end of the pipe, The gasket shall be
caulked lightly home but not so as to occupy more than a quarter of the socket depth,
The socket shall then be filled with a mixture of one part of cement and one part of
clean fine sand mixed with just sufficient quantity of water to have a consistency of
semi-dry condition and a fillet shall be formed round the joint with a trowel forming an
angle of 45 degrees with the barrel of the pipe. Rubber gaskets may also be used for
jointing.

11.3.6.5.2 Cast –In Situ Reinforced Concrete Pipes

For conduit sizes beyond 2 m internal diameter cast-in-situ concrete sections shall
generally be used, the choice depending upon the relative costs worked out for the
specific project. The concrete shall be cast in a suitable number of lifts usually two or
three. The lifts are generally designated as the invert, the sidewall and the arch.

11.3.6.6 Type of pipe material and jointing of storm conduits of Flexible pipe

11.3.6.6.1 HDPE Pipes

PE pipes are manufactured in three grades namely LDPE, MDPE, HDPE. HDPE pipes
are commonly used in storm water conduits. HDPE pipes are manufactured in India
conforming to (IS-4984-1995). They are available in standard length in6.0m and
12.0m. The installation of HDPE pipes should conform to IS 7634 part 2: 1975.Bedding
materials may be dug materials, imported materials, or as per design class of bedding
given in foregoing section. The pipes are joined either in butt fusion welding,
electrofusion welding or mechanical joints such as flange joints, telescopic rubber
gasket joint, compression joint, etc. Manufacturer’s jointing procedure may also be
followed.

11.3.6.6.2 UPVC Pipes

These pipes are manufactured in India conforming to IS:4985-1988. They are

available in a standard length of 6.0m. Pipes are manufactured under various pressure
classifications such as class 1, class 2, class 3, and class 4. Installation of pipe should
conform to IS:7634 part 3: 1975. Bedding may of dug materials, processed granular
materials or as per designed bedding as mentioned in foregoing sections. Jointing of

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pipes may be carried out by three methods such as 1) PVC solvent welded joints 2)
Flanged joint 3) Push-fit type rubber ring joint.

11.3.6.6.3 Glass fiber reinforced plastic pipes (GRP PIPES)

GRP pipes are now manufactured in India conforming to IS: 12709: 1994. Standard
lengths of pipe in 6.0 m, 9.0 m, and 12.0 m are available. Bedding may be dug
materials, imported materials or as per design is given in foregoing section. Jointing
of GRP pipes is carried out by one of the following methods as per site requirement:

i. Socket and spigot gasket joint- provided with grooves either on the socket or in the
spigot to retain an elastomeric gasket that shall be the sole element of the joint to
provide water tightness

ii. Coupling joints- coupling with rubber gasket placed on each side are often used
for jointing GRP pipes

iii. Mechanical coupling- Mechanical flexible couplings made of C/I, D/I, Steel are also
used for GRP to GRP or GRP to other pipe joints

11.3.6.6.4 Structured Wall PE pipe

The IS 16098 (Part I), IS 16098 (Part II) and EN 13476 also cover the performance
requirements for the respective materials. These pipes are manufactured with
externally corrugated wall configuration i.e. Double Wall (smooth inside layer &
annular Corrugated outside wall) PE Pipes hereinafter called DWC PE Pipes. The
pipes are integrated with coupler (socket) ends and joined through extremely user-
friendly Push-fit jointing system without application of any foreign material.

11.3.6.7 Backfilling of the Trenches of Rigid pipes

Backfilling of the storm water conduit trench is a very important consideration in

conduit construction. The method of backfilling to be used varies with the width of the
trench, the character of the material excavated, the method of excavation and the
degree of compaction required. In developed streets, a high degree of compaction is
required to minimize the settlement while in less important streets, a more moderate
specification for backfill may be justified. In open country, it may be sufficient to mound
the trench and after natural settlement return to re-grade the areas.

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11.3.6.8 Construction of Backfill Envelope and Backfilling of the Trenches of

Flexible pipe

These pipes and well-compacted backfill envelope work together to support soil and
traffic load.
In general, material used for the construction of the backfill envelope around the pipe
comprises the following:

a) Initial backfill
b) Side fill
c) Top backfill

The material for backfill envelop shall be as per the structural design of flexible buried
conduit. It can be the same material that was removed in the course of excavation or
it can be fine sand/coarse sand/gravel depending on the overburden and
superimposed load, but it should not be the concrete which invariably induces
undesired rigidity in the system.

The remaining portion of backfilling shall be the materials that were removed in the
course of excavation. These materials shall consist of clean earth and shall be free
from large clod or stone above 75 mm, ashes, refuse and other injurious materials.
After completion of laying of pipes etc. first, the backfill envelope shall be constructed
as per design around pipe. Voids must be eliminated by knifing under and around pipe
or by some other technique and compacted with necessary watering, either by hand
rammers or compactors to a possible maximum level of proctor density.

Backfilling shall start only after ensuring the water tightness test of joints for the
concerned conduit segments. However, a partial filling may be done keeping the joints
open. Precautions shall be taken against floatation as per the specified methodology
and the minimum required cover.

11.3.6.9 Removal of sheeting or bracing

Sheeting driven below the spring line of a storm water conduit shall be withdrawn
slowly at a time as the back-filling progresses. To avoid any damage to buildings,
cables, gas mains, water mains, sewers, etc. near the excavation or to avoid
disturbance to the conduit already laid, portions of the sheeting may be left in the
trenches.

11.3.7 Storm water conduit appurtenant Structures

Appurtenant structures besides of storm water conduit system consist Manholes,

storm water inlet structures, siphons, flap gates, outfall structures, etc. which are
essential for the proper functioning of the storm drainage system. Therefore this

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section discusses these structures giving general description with specific emphasis
on the features considered necessary for appropriate design.

11.3.7.1 Manhole

Manholes are openings constructed along conduit alignment whose primary function
is to provide convenient access to the storm drainage system for inspection and
maintenance. They also serve as a flow junction and can provide ventilation and
pressure relief to the storm drainage system. They are of several configurations like
rectangular and circular type as illustrated in figure 11.2 and 11.3. For large conduits
access shafts are generally provided in circular shape and suitable size of openings
to allow a workman with cleaning equipment without difficulty.

11.3.7.2 Construction of Manholes

The manholes shall be constructed simultaneously with the conduit line. The manholes
shall have 20 mm thick cement plaster in cement mortar 1:3 The foundation of
manholes shall be 15 cm thick cement concrete of appropriate grade and thickness
may be increased to 30 cm when subsoil water is encountered, the projection of
concrete being 10 cm on all sides of the external face of the brickwork. The floor of the
manholes shall be in cement concrete of appropriate grade. Concrete half channel
pipes of the required size and curve shall be laid and embedded in cement concrete
base to the same line and fall as the conduit. Both sides of the channel pipes shall be
benched up in concrete and rendered smooth in 20mm thick cement mortar and
formed to a slope of 1 in 10 to the channel. Bricks on edge shall be cut to a proper
form and laid around the upper half at all the pipes entering or leaving the manhole, to
form an arch. All round the pipe there shall be a joint of cement mortar 12mm thick
between the pipe and tile bricks. The ends of the pipes shall be built-in and neatly
finished off with cement mortar. The masonry shaft or the manhole shall be provided
on the top with a heavy airtight cast iron frame and cover conforming to IS:1726 or any
other approved type of frame and cover. Where the depth of the manhole exceeds
90cm below the surface of the ground, steps of cast iron or of any other approved
material shall be built into the brickwork. The distance between the two consecutive
steps shall not be more than 40cm. The top at manhole shall be flush with the finished
road level (IS: 4111 Part I - 1967 Manholes).

The entire height of the manhole shall be tested for water-tightness by closing both
the incoming and outgoing ends of the conduit and filling the manhole with water. A
drop in water level not more than 50mm per 24 hours shall be permitted. In case of
high subsoil water, it should be ensured that there is no leakage of groundwater into
the manhole by observing the manhole for 24 hours after emptying it.

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11.3.7.3 Location of Manholes

Manholes are constructed at every change in alignment, gradient and size as well as
at the start of all conduits and branches and at every junction of two or more small-
size conduits. Nevertheless, junction chamber is a special design of underground
chamber used to join two or more large storm water drain. This type of structure is
usually required where storm drains are larger than the size that cannot be
accommodated by standard manholes. Junction chamber by definition do not need to
extend to the ground surface, however it is recommended that riser structure be used
to provide surface access.

11.3.7.4 Spacing of Manholes

Criteria for the spacing of manholes have been developed in response to storm drain
maintenance requirements. At a minimum, manhole should be constructed at the
following points in storm drain system;

a. Where two or more storm drains meet.

b. Where pipe sizes change.
c. Where the change in alignment occurs.
d. Where a change in grade occurs.
In addition, manholes may be located at intermediate points along straight runs in
accordance with the criteria mentioned in the following table. However individual
agencies may have limitations on spacing of manholes due to maintenance
constraints:

Table 11. 5: Recommended Maximum spacing of Manhole

Recommended maximum spacing

Pipe size (mm)
(m)
300-600 diameter 40
700-1050 diameter 100
1000-1400 diameter 150
1500 and above diameter 300

Manholes should be constructed in accordance with standard drawings as required.

Location of manholes in roadway reserves may be preferred as follows;

I. Roadside
II. Median strips
III. Centre of road pavement

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11.3.7.5 Drop-in Manhole

Where conduits of different characteristics are connected, transitions occur. The

difference may be flow, area, shape, grade, alignment and conduit material with a
combination of one or all characteristics. The vertical drop may be provided only when
the difference between the elevations is more than 60 cm, below which it can be
avoided by adjusting the slope in the channel and in the manhole connecting the two
inverts. The following invert drops are recommended.

Table 11.6: Recommended invert Drop-in Manhole

S.No. Diameter Invert drop

1 For conduits less than 400mm half the difference in dia
2 400mm to 900 mm 2/3 the difference in dia
3 Above 900 mm 4/5 the difference in dia

11.3.7.6 Shape and Size of the Manhole

Manholes are constructed directly over the centre line of the conduit. They are
rectangular, circular or square in shape. They should be of a size that facilitates
cleaning and inspection of conduits.

a. Rectangular Manhole

The minimum internal size of rectangular manhole between internal faces should be

 For depth less than 0.90 m, 900 mm × 800mm.

 For depth from 0.9 m and up to 2.5 m, 1200 mm × 900mm

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Figure 11. 2: Rectangular Manhole

b. Circular Manhole

Circular manhole is stronger and preferred over rectangular or square manholes.

These can be provided for all depths from 0.9 m upwards. They are constructed
straight down in a lower portion and slanted on top portion to narrow down the top
opening so that it fits with the size of diameter of cover and frame as shown in the
figure 11.3. The internal diameter of the circular manhole should be kept
corresponding to the depth as follows:

I. For depths above 0.9m and up to 1.65m – 900mm dia

II. For depths above 1.65m and up to 2.30m- 1200mm dia
III. For depths above 2.30 and up to 6.0m- 1500mm dia
IV. For depths above 6.0m and up to 9.0m – 1800mm dia

The manhole should be oriented in a manner so that workers enter into it while facing
traffic.

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Figure 11. 3: Circular Manhole

c. Drop Manholes

Drop manholes are used to connect storm water drains at significantly different levels
and should be used where the level difference is greater than 600 mm.

The drop manhole can be provided by means of

A. Vertical drop in the form of a downpipe constructed inside/outside the well of

manhole
B. A gradual drop in the form of cascade or ramp
C. A cascade is preferred for drain larger than 450 mm diameter. Downpipe is suitable
for drains less than 400 mm diameter. When downpipes are used, the following
recommendations are made:

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a. Proper anchoring of the downpipe at the bottom in the form of 900 pipe bend
surrounded by concrete should be provided
b. T branch at the top fitted with a flap valve inside the manhole should be
made to avoid splashing

Figure 11. 4: Drop Manhole

11.3.7.7 Cover and Frame of Manhole

Manhole cover and frame are designed to provide adequate strength to support
superimposed loads, provide a good fit between cover and frame. For safeguarding
against unauthorised tampering, the manhole cover should be bolted or secured with
some locking mechanism. The size of the manhole should be such that there is a clear
opening of not less than 560 mm diameter when cast iron cover and frame is used.
They should confirm to IS 1726 (part 1-7). The frames of the manhole should be firmly
embedded in correct alignment and level plain cement concrete on the top of the
masonry. After completion of work manhole cover should be sealed by means of thick
grease.

Heavy reinforced cement concrete cover with suitable lifting arrangement may also be
used instead of C.I. manhole cover. Fiber-reinforced plastic covers (FRP) may be used
wherever such covers are available.

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11.3.7.8 Access Steps in Manhole

Steps are provided for conveniently accessing the floor of the manhole for inspection
and cleaning. The steps should be corrosion resistant. Steps coated with epoxy or
fabricated from rust-resistant material such as stainless steel or aluminium coated with
bituminous paint are preferable. Steps made from reinforcing steel are not
recommended. It is suggested by certain agencies to eliminate the use of steps with
reason to avoid the danger of rust damages steps as well as unauthorised access to
manhole. Besides, it is said that maintenance personnel shall use their own ladder for
inspection or cleaning. The spacing of the steps should be maintained approximately
300-400mm and should be fixed staggered in order to have ease in ascent and
descent. Cat ladder should be used in manhole deeper than 4.25 m or where manhole
is frequently entered. Step iron and ladder should start at not more than 600mm below
cover level and continue to benching.

11.3.7.9 Intermediate Platform

Manhole deeper than 4.25 m from the cover level should be provided with intermediate
platforms at regular intervals. The headroom between platforms should not be less
than 2.0 m. The size of the platforms should be 800 mm × 1350 mm. The platform
should be fitted with handrail and safety chains at the edge to protect workers against
falling down.

11.3.7.10 Inverts and benching

The inverts should be curved to the radius of the pipe and carried up in flat vertical
surfaces and should match the cross-sections & bends and gradient of the respective
storm water drains. The benching should be plain surface sloping gently down towards
the drains. A gradient of the benching of 1 in12 may be provided. The socket end of
the pipe should be cut off and should not project inside the manhole.

The crown of the incoming and outgoing conduit should be kept at same level and
necessary slope should be given in the invert drain of the manhole chamber preferably
1 in 10. The manhole should be safeguarded against uplift groundwater pressure as
well as against entry of groundwater. U shaped small channels should be constructed
integrally with concrete base of the manhole chamber to carry the flow in conduit. The
side of channel should be kept equal to the diameter of the largest conduit. Where
more than one conduit enters the manhole the channel should be smoothly curved to
carry adequately the peak flow. The pipe joints should be kept outside the manhole
chamber and the inlet and outlet pipe should be made flush with internal face of the
manhole chamber. The inlet and outlet pipes built with the wall of the manhole should
be properly protected with cement concrete cover round the pipes against crushing of
wall loads. Inside and outside brick surface of manhole should be plastered 1:3 cement
mortar and inside surface should be finished smooth with neat cement punning.

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Whenever sub-soil water is encountered a rich mix of plaster with waterproofing

chemical compound may be used.

11.3.7.11 Outfall Structure

Outfall conduit is supported with a brick wall generally of 425 mm thick in 1:3 cement
mortar at the point of disposal to a river or stream. The outfall conduit should project
100 - 150 mm inside the bank of river/stream. To protect the bank against erosion, it
is necessary to pave the bank 2 m on either side from the point of disposal with cement
concrete block providing toe wall and apron to safeguard against slipping of revetment
as well as the erosion of the bed of the river/stream.

11.3.7.12 Inverted Syphon

Inverted siphon or depressed pipe which should stand full even without any flow and
shall run with pressure above atmosphere on account of being depressed below the
hydraulic grade line. Its purpose is to carry the storm water flow under an obstruction
such as a stream or depressed highway and to regain the permissible elevation after
crossing the obstruction to maintain gravity flow or pumping whichever is feasible.
Siphons can consist of single or multiple barrels however it is recommended that a
minimum of two barrels should be provided as shown in the fig.11.5.

Following criteria may be considered in designing siphons

a) Self-flushing velocities should be provided under a wide range of flows.

b) Hydraulic losses should be minimized.
c) Provisions for cleaning should be made.
d) Sharp bends should be avoided.
e) the rising portion of the siphon should not be made too steep as to make it difficult
to flush deposits
f) There should be no change in pipe diameter along the length of the siphon.
g) Provision for drainage should be considered.
h) Head should be sufficient to cover the entry, exit and friction losses and should
develop not less 1.0 m/s self-cleansing velocity.
i) Inlet and outlet chamber should have sufficient room for entry for cleaning and
maintenance of siphons.
j) Provision should be made for isolating the individual pipe of the siphon to
facilitate cleansing.
k) Proper bypass arrangement should be provided for inlet chamber.

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Figure 11. 5: Inverted siphon with minimum two barrels

11.3.7.13 Over Flow Device

At times it is needed to separate sewage flows from storm water either from a channel
or pipe in order to divert the sewage flows to treatment plants instead of disposing with
storm water that may cause hazardous pollution problem. Combined sewage systems
are generally equipped with such overflow device to get rid of heavy storm water flow
during wet seasons.

a. Leaping Weir

Leaping weir is the most common device that is formed by gap in the invert of a sewer
through which the dry weather flow or sewage falls and over which portion of all storm
water leaps over to overflow pipe. Leaping weirs have the advantage of operating as
regulator without moving parts but they offer the disadvantage of depositing grit in the
low flow channel. However it is desirable to design the weirs with moving crests to
make the opening adjustable.

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Figure 11.6: Leaping weir

b. Intercepting Conduits

The above device is invariably used to intercept sewage from storm flows and convey
through intercepting conduits to waste water plants for treatment.

Delhi Jal Board has recently executed intercepting sewer project to intercept sewage
from storm water drains flowing to Yamuna River in order to control heavy pollution of
the river.

11.3.7.14 Multi-Functional storm and Sewer Drains

In most of new layouts the septic tank and open drains on road sides for storm water
are a matter of routine and invariably the septic tank effluent is discharged into the
drain which complicates the environmental hazard in rainy seasons. The twin drain
system can stall the pollution by containing the septic tank effluents, which can be
collected and provided with treatment in a decentralised manner. Till a sewer system
is provided, this can be got solved in the interim period by adding one more drain
integrally side by side of storm water drain and this serving as dedicated closed sewer.
Further elaborate details can be seen in clause 8.4.4 in chapter 8 Decentralised
Sewerage System in Part- A – Engineering, CPHEEO Manual on Sewerage and
Sewage Treatment Systems 2013. For such new layouts, it will be useful if the bye-
laws can be strengthened to mandate the twin drain instead of the roads drain alone,
which is anyway mandated by the Town and Country planning act.

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11.4 Storm water Open Channel

Storm water drains are surface drains which are constructed as open or covered
drains with a suitable gradient to carry the storm water flows from the catchment to the
safe disposal point. Drainage in the urban context is classified as given below:

Tertiary drains: In urban catchments, tertiary drains collect storm water from sub-
zones and convey to the secondary drains.

Secondary drains: These drains collect storm water from tertiary drains and zones.
They discharge the storm water into the primary drains.

Primary Drains: In urban catchments, primary drains are main drains that collect
storm water from secondary drains and discharge to the safe disposal point.

11.4.1 Construction of Storm Water Drains

This section discusses the construction of surface drains such as tertiary, secondary
and primary drains. The tertiary drains are generally small drains that are constructed
in rectangular section whereas; secondary and primary drains are larger drains that
are normally constructed in the trapezoidal section.

General preparation of works as given in section 11.3 should be followed as

applicable. Drains are generally either of masonry or RCC construction. The general
construction description of masonry and RCC drains are given as follows:

11.4.1.1 RCC drains

Tertiary drains are usually constructed in rectangular section either of masonry or

reinforced cement concrete. Where it is proposed to construct precast RCC drain, the
same should not be less than 50mm thick and should be reinforced with 3 longitudinal
bars of 6mm diameter and 2 crossbars of same size in 0.6 m length and mould should
be removed after 48 hours then they shall be kept well watered for a fortnight and after
this watering shall be discontinued and the drain should be left to cure for another
fortnight before laying. The ground should be kept to the exact shape and slope at
which drains are to be laid and the trench will be watered and rammed.

11.4.1.2 Brick Drains

Brick drains can also be constructed of bricks. The brickwork shall be in cement mortar
1:3 and plastered smooth with cement plaster of 1:2, 20 mm thick. A change in the

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alignment of the brick drain shall be on a suitable curve conforming to the surface
alignment of the road.

11.4.1.3 Rectangular Section

In congested urban areas, small or medium drains are constructed in a rectangular

section covered with suitable RCC slabs to protect against dumping of solid waste
from the local residents. Rectangular drains are normally constructed in hilly regions
due to space crunch.

11.4.1.4 Trapezoidal section

Primary and secondary drains that normally carry a considerable quantity of storm
flows are constructed in trapezoidal section. Especially outfall channels that
sometimes carry entire storm flows from the catchment are designed in larger sections
that often resemble irrigation channels. In such cases it is preferable to economize the
cost by constructing earthen channels with cement concrete lining.

11.4.2 Kerb and Gutter

Gutters are provided at both edges of pavement all along the length for collecting
rainwater from the pavement. They are constructed in triangular section and are
generally in RCC. The details of gutter design are given in Chapter 5.

11.4.3 Construction Procedures of Storm Water Drains

The construction of storm drains is described as follows.

Step1: Marking of Alignment - The surveyor marked out the alignment for the trench
to be dug.

Step 2: Digging/Excavation - The surveyor marks out the depth and width of the
trench as per size and design requirement to be excavated with a mechanical
excavating machine.

Step 3: After excavation concrete blinding is done - Blinding is done on the surface
area in order to correct any irregularities in the level of the bed of the excavated
surface, and to provide a smooth, level and regular surface to receive the concrete
base. It’s usually ±50 mm depending on the rate of regularity of the surface area. The
blinding is a mass concreting and it’s advisable to spread to cover entire width of the
excavated trench.

Step 4: Reinforcement (iron Rod) positioning - Reinforcement (spaced as

designed) is placed into position on the blinded surface but positioned at the centre of

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the base with the aid of concrete biscuit to create a concrete cover. There should be
25 – 30 mm concrete cover between the reinforcement and the base.

Step 5: Laying of concrete base on the blinded surface and the positioned
reinforcement - A guiding panel is placed into position to for laying of the concrete
base in order to achieve uniform alignment base edge, thickness and width, and also
to manage concrete material while pouring. The base is cast with the U shape
reinforcement bottom in between the concrete base achieving concrete cover below
and above.

Step 6: After setting and drying of the concrete base, next is to position the side
wall panel formwork - The floor base is marked to give the required internal width
where the panel will be positioned. The panel wall spacing and wall height is as per
requirement of design; the panel is lubricated, clipped and prepared to accept the
Concrete. After casting, and setting, the panel is removed and concrete cured.

Step 7: In order to avoid settlement, backfilling and compaction of the backfilling

should done immediately

11.4.4 Covering of Drains

Secondary and tertiary drains constructed in congested sectors of the urban area
should be covered with precise RCC slabs of suitable size wherever needed. RCC
Slabs in smaller lengths capable of lifting by 1 – 2 persons are precast with lifting
hooks. After proper curing these slabs are placed over the drain and joined with
cement plaster. When the drains are required to be cleaned, these slabs can be
removed easily at suitable intervals and cleaning operation can be done. Even
secondary and primary drains of larger section, it will be uneconomical to cover them
instead they can be fenced along their edges or small parapet may be constructed to
protect children or men falling in them. However, if resources permit ULB may
undertake to cover such drains if it is deemed expedient in favour of public welfare.

11.4.5 Box Drains

RCC box drains are constructed along

drainage reserve of heavy vehicular traffic.
These drains are designed to withstand
vehicular load and carry the large storm water
volume to the safe disposal point. Street inlets
are provided between 15 – 30 m interval in
order to admit storm water in the box drain.
They are laid 200 – 300 mm below ground
level in suitable gradient having access holes
Figure 11. 7: Box drain

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at an interval of 30 m to facilitate cleaning etc. A typical figure of a box drain is shown

in figure 11.7.

11.5 Drainage standards of Flyovers

The entire rainwater on the carriageway of flyover should be drained through efficient
down take pipes or pipes embedded in piers to the adjacent drains constructed below
on the pavement. The size of pipe may be designed according to storm runoff with
minimum pipe size of 100 mm. Caution should be exercised not to allow straight drop
of water from flyover to road surface below, which results in disruption of traffic and
damage to road pavement.

11.5.1 Drainage at Foot of Flyovers

The longitudinal gradient of a ramp of flyovers is usually up to 3 percent or even more

and the cross slope will be about 2 percent. The majority of rainwater flows rapidly in
longitudinal direction rather than cross slope resulting in very large quantity of water
reaching the valley curve area where it meets ground-level road. This junction should
be provided with finger plate drain across the pavement. The valley junction should be
engineered in such a way that even below road pavement should have downward
longitudinal gradient towards valley junction, so that entire rainwater from flyover can
be efficiently discharged into the drain at the edge. The estimated runoff for design of
the drains section can be calculated using Rational formula for a given design rainfall
intensity.

11.6 Vehicular Subways

Drainage of vehicular subways should be

efficiently planned at its conception stage
itself. Most preferable system of drainage
shall be by gravity. The entire surface
drain of subway should be taken to the
lowest level and a suitable grating
provided across full width of road. Typical
subway drainage is shown in Figure 11.8.
The grating should have a disposal
chamber which will collect the storm water
and dispose it to the nearby storm water
drain either by gravity or by pumping if
Figure 11. 8: Subway Drainage
required. In case of larger subways, two
inlets can be provided at both ends of box-
approach ramp junctions. The gratings shall be at least 10 m away from the deck to
minimize ascending water during rains in the box portion. The estimated runoff for

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design of the drains section can be calculated using Rational formula for a given
design rainfall intensity.

11.7 Culverts

Some regions along plain consist of vast flat without any deep and defined drainage
channels in it. When the rain falls, the surface water moves in some direction in a wide
sheet of nominal depth. So long as this movement of water is unobstructed, no
damage may occur to property or crops. But when a road embankment is thrown
across the country intercepting the natural flow, water ponds up on one side of it. Relief
has then to be afforded from possible damage from this ponding up by taking the water
across the road through causeways or culverts. In such flat regions, the road runs
across wide but shallow dips and, therefore, the most straightforward way of handling
the surface flow is to provide suitable dips (i.e., causeways) in the longitudinal profile
of the road and let water pass over them. After we have decided that a culvert has to
be constructed on a road lying across some such country, we proceed to calculate the
discharge by using one of the runoff formulae, having due regard to the nature of
terrain and the intensity of rainfall

Culverts may be required over wide storm water channels 6 m wide or less across
road alignments wherever necessary. Design and construction of such culverts may
be referred to IRC SP:13-2004 ‘Guidelines for the Design of Small Bridges & Culverts’.

11.8 Safety and Social Safeguard

The need for safety precautions in any specific project area must be recognized and
observed before and during construction activities. The following care should be taken:

1. Any construction will draw onlookers, especially children. Onlookers should be

kept away from the operating equipment and from the edges of excavations.

2. Traffic must be diverted and or controlled at all times unless permission has been
received from the proper authority to completely close a road or divert the traffic.

3. Emergency vehicles must not be delayed.

4. Vehicular access to homes and places of business should be maintained. If this

is not possible, the occupant should be apprised of the situation by the Contractor
or the Engineer. It is an absolute necessity that good relations be maintained with
the general public.

5. When leaving the project at night, no unnecessary obstructions to traffic should

be left behind, such as earth lumps from the trench excavation or sections of pipe
that encroach on the roadway.

6. All necessary barricades for the construction close to traffic need to be made.

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7. Provision of warning signs 150 meters in advance of any place on the project
where the operations interfere with the use of the road by crosses or coincides
with an existing road.

8. The construction area of the project should be properly lighted.

a) Signs, Signals, and Barricades

I. Before starting any job in a street or other traffic area, study the work area and
plan your work
II. Traffic may be warned by high-level signs well ahead of the job site
III. Traffic cones, signs or barricades to be arranged around the work, and
signboards to direct the traffic
IV. Whenever possible place your work vehicle between the working site and the
oncoming traffic
V. Use fluorescent jacket while working along roads
VI. Construction area should be barricaded so that unauthorized persons
especially children may not enter within the construction site. Light signals
should be placed also during night time

11.9 Completion of Works

1. The administrative Department/Ministry shall be kept informed at regular

intervals about the stages of progress of work so that the client’s observations, if
any, could be responded to before the work is completed.
2. On completion of the work, the Administrative Department/Ministry should be
intimated of the same and formal handing over arranged in writing. Reasonable
advance intimation of completion of the work should be given to the concerned
Department to enable them to make arrangements for taking over.
3. Completion plans of the project, including all services, should be prepared and
submitted along with the completion report showing the expenditure incurred on
the project.

11.10 Procedures for Handing Over

On satisfactory completion of works a joint inspection should be carried out to ensure

that works are completed in accordance with the standard design and maintenance
requirement laid down in this manual. Before the issue of completion certificate, a
handing over inspection report should be submitted ensuring that all outstanding works

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are completed. Within three months of issue of completion certificate and prior to the
end of maintenance period a joint inspection should again be carried out to check if
further works are required and that all outstanding or remedial works have been
completed. Besides, during the planning and design stages a design memorandum
should be prepared so that design parameters, handing over requirement or partial
handing over arrangements of large projects can be agreed by maintenance
authorities. If unforeseen problems are encountered during construction and changes
have to be made, the maintenance authority should be consulted so that the changes
may be incorporated. On completion changes made should be incorporated in the
design memorandum before handing over charge of completed works. Reference may
also be made to project administrative procedures and the relevant technical
memoranda if any, for details of handing over and taking over procedures.

11.10.1 Procedure for handing Over in Dry Conditions

All conduit lines, channels and culverts, etc. to be handed over should be inspected in
dry conditions wherever possible. In the case where the pipes, culverts or channels
have to be commissioned prior to handing over (e.g. due to the requirement to maintain
the existing flow or staged completion) and a temporary diversion of flow is not
feasible, an additional inspection should be arranged prior to the commissioning. In
certain circumstances, closed-circuit television (CCTV) survey of the pipes and
internal faces of the manholes showing each connection pipe before commissioning
can be adopted as an alternative to the joint inspection but prior agreement with the
respective operation and maintenance authorities may be obtained.

11.10.2 Handing over Drainage Records

After handing over the works as per procedures outlined, the following documents
should be submitted as soon as possible, but no later than 3 months under any
circumstance:
a) As-built drawings, in hard-copy and electronic format, if applicable
b) Hydraulic and structural design calculations, in electronic format, if available
c) Construction records including major acceptance tests, material quality records,
product specifications and warranties
d) O & M manual and system manual
e) Maintenance manual for slope embankment
f) Inventory of the drainage system with suitable numbering for the various parts of
the system on GIS platform

In the event that as-built drawings are not available at the time of the handing over
inspection, marked-up prints of the working drawings showing the final amendments

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and the extent of works to be handed over should be provided. Records of material
quality and acceptance tests should also be available for scruti

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Part A: Engineering Design REFERENCES

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Arkansas Community Design Center, Fayetteville, North Carolina, United
States.
19. A.P. Moser, R.K. Watkins, and R.R. Bishop, “The Structural Response of Buried
PVC Pipe” , Utah State University, 1972

232
Part A: Engineering Design REFERENCES

20. Handbook of PVC pipe Design and Construction, by Uni – Bell, 2012
21. Sediment problems in urban areas, Circular 601- E, By: Harold P. Guy, 1970
22. Mahoning Country, Drainage & Erosion and Sedimentation Control Manual
23. Urban Drainage Design Manual by Federal Highway Administration, Second
Edition, 2001
24. Storm Water Drainage Manual, City of Columbus, Ohio, 2006
25. A conceptual guidelines on Planning and Design of Drainage in hilly Area, IIT
Guwahati, 2012
26. Storm Water and Crossings, Tasmanian Coastal works Manual
27. Virginia Erosion and Sediment Control field manual Virginia DEQ 1995
28. Design and Construction of sanitary and storm sewers – Water Pollution control
Federation Washington DC USA
29. Hydraulic Manual of Texas Highway Department
30. Handbook for flood protection anti erosion and river training works, C.W.C Govt.
of India
31. Developing Improved methodologies for MSL Trend examination by P. Watson
University of New Southwards
32. Sea level change along the Indian coast by A.S. Unikrishnan & others
33. Sea level change along Indian coast Impacts & vulnerability A. S. Unikrishnan,
National Institute of oceanography Goa
34. A study on regional sea level variation along the Indian coast by Piyali
Choudhary, Dr. Mnasa Raiyari Behra
35. Code of Practice on Surface water Drainage, Singapore, Dec 2011
36. Storm Drainage Manual, Govt. of Hong Kong, 2000
37. Urban Storm Water Management Manual for Malaysia, MSMA 2 nd Edition
38. Drainage Manual, State of Florida, Department of Transportation, 2008
39. Queensland Urban Drainage Manual, Third Edition, 2013
40. Drainage Manual, The South African National roads Agency Limited, 5th Edition,
2006
41. IRC SP 050: Guidelines on Urban Drainage (First Revision), 2013
42. Planning criteria for Water Sensitive Urban Design M. I. Rodríguez, M. M.
Cuevas, G. Martínez & B. Moreno; Department of Urban and Regional
Planning, University of Granada, Spain, Department of Construction and
Engineering Projects, University of Granada, Spain Department of Urban and

233
Part A: Engineering Design REFERENCES

Regional Planning, University of Granada, Spain Department of Construction

and Engineering Projects, University of Granada, Spain
43. Publication O FHWA – NH 1 -0 -096 June 2008 Hydraulic Engineering Circular
No 25 Up Dept of Transportation Federal Highway Administration
44. Storm Water Guidelines EPB 322, January 2014
45. www.susdrain.org
46. IS Code 16098 (Part I), 2013 - Structured-Wall Plastics Piping Systems for Non-
Pressure Drainage and Sewerage — Specification
47. IS Code 16098 (Part II), 2013 - Structured-Wall Plastics Piping Systems for
Non-Pressure Drainage and Sewerage — Specification
48. Rain water Harvesting and Conservation Manual, CPWD, MoHUA, Govt. of
India, July 2019
49. Manual on Artificial Recharge of Ground Water, CGWB, Ministry of Water
Resources, Govt. of India, September 2007

50. Water Sensitive Urban Design in the UK –Ideas for built environment
practitioners - a scoping study (CIRIA project RP976)
51. Low-Impact Development Design Strategies, An Integrated Design Approach,
Prepared by: Prince George’s County, Maryland Department of Environmental
Resources Programs and Planning Division, June 1999
52. National Disaster Management Guidelines, Govt. of India, 2007
53. Open Channel Hydraulics by Ven Te Chow, 2009
54. CPHEEO, MoUD, “Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment”, (1993)
55. CPHEEO, MoUD, “Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment”, (2013)
56. CPHEEO, MoUD, “Manual on Water Supply & Treatment”, (1999)
57. Low Impact Development Handbook “Stormwater Management Strategies”
Department of Public Works, 2014
58. UDOT Storm water Quality Design Manual, June 2018
59. SUDS, or Sustainable Drainage Systems, published by CIRIA (2007)
60. Water Sensitive Urban Design Technical Manual, Greater Adelaide Region,
Technical Manual – July 2009

234
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

CONTENTS
APPENDIX A 2.1 ..................................................................................................................... A-1
CHECKLIST FOR SUBMISSION & SCRUTINY OF DETAILED PROJECT REPORT .............. A-1
APPENDIX A 4.1 ................................................................................................................... A-25
EXAMPLE ON PARTIAL AREA EFFECT ............................................................................... A-25
APPENDIX A 4.2 ................................................................................................................... A-28
EXAMPLE ON TIME-AREA-METHOD ................................................................................... A-28
APPENDIX A 4.3 ................................................................................................................... A-31
EXAMPLE ON UNIT HYDROGRAPH METHOD .................................................................... A-31
APPENDIX A 5.1 ................................................................................................................... A-35
EXAMPLE ON CRITICAL DEPTH.......................................................................................... A-35
APPENDIX A 5.2 ................................................................................................................... A-37
DETAILS OF STANDARD SIZED STEPPED CHANNELS ..................................................... A-37
APPENDIX A 5.3 ................................................................................................................... A-39
GEOMETRIC ELEMENTS FOR CIRCULAR CHANNEL SECTIONS ..................................... A-39
APPENDIX A 5.4 ................................................................................................................... A-44
VALUES FOR COMPUTATION OF CRITICAL DEPTH IN TRAPEZOIDAL CHANNEL ......... A-44
APPENDIX A 5.5 (A) ............................................................................................................. A-46
NOMOGRAM FOR MANNING’S FORMULA .......................................................................... A-46
APPENDIX A 5.5 (B) ............................................................................................................. A-47
NOMOGRAM FOR MANNING’S FORMULA .......................................................................... A-47
APPENDIX A 5.5 (C) ............................................................................................................. A-48
NOMOGRAM FOR HAZEN WILLIAMS FORMULA................................................................ A-48
APPENDIX A 5.5 (D) ............................................................................................................. A-49
NOMOGRAM FOR HAZEN WILLIAMS FORMULA................................................................ A-49
APPENDIX A 5.6 ................................................................................................................... A-50
MOODY DIAGRAM FOR OPEN CHANNEL FLOW ............................................................... A-50
APPENDIX A 5.7 ................................................................................................................... A-51
MANNING’S ROUGHNESS COEFFICIENT FOR OVERLAND FLOW ................................... A-51
APPENDIX A 5.8 ................................................................................................................... A-52
EXAMPLE ON DESIGN OF STORM WATER DRAINS.......................................................... A-52
APPENDIX A 5.9 ................................................................................................................... A-54
SWMM MODEL DESCRIPTION AND CASE STUDY ............................................................ A-54
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

APPENDIX A 2.1
CHECKLIST FOR SUBMISSION & SCRUTINY OF DETAILED PROJECT REPORT
(STORM WATER DRAINAGE) (SWD)

(to be filled in and certified by the highest city –level Officials, both technical and administrative, such as Chief Engineer/City
Engineer/ Municipal Commissioner)

Instructions:

1. The DPR shall be formulated as per the guidelines are given in Manual of Storm Water Drainage Systems published by the
Ministry and as per the Department procedures.
2. DPR shall be technically sanctioned by the Competent Authority the State Govt./ULB before forwarding it to the Ministry.
3. Each and every page has to be signed at the bottom by the officials.
4. Each field has to be filled in appropriately as ‘yes’, ‘no’, ‘not required’, ’not done’, ‘not used’ etc. No field has to be left blank.
Give explanatory comments wherever 'no' is indicated.
5. Non- definite entries such as ‘will be done later’, ‘will be furnished later’ etc. will not be accepted.

CERTIFICATE:

This is to certify that the undersigned have read the contents of the checklist fully and have responsibly made the entries true
to the best of knowledge and understanding. In case the information furnished in the checklist enclosed is found to be incorrect
for any reason, whatsoever, the undersigned may be held liable for disciplinary action as per applicable Government rules.

Certified that
(i) The designs and drawings have been approved by the Competent Authority.
(ii) The detailed estimates and cost estimates are as per the current schedule of rate and/or rate analysis and
latest Pro-forma invoices (current market rates).
(iii) The DPR has been technically sanctioned by the Competent Authority in the State Govt./ULB.

Signed: Signed:
Name: Name:

A-1
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

CHECKLIST FOR SUBMISSION & SCRUTINY OF DPR

(STORM WATER DRAINAGE SYSTEM)

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
1. GENERAL COMPONENTS
1.1 Name of the town/city/District/State for which scheme has been formulated with name of
the scheme
(a) Name of the City/Town:
(b) Name of the District:
(c) Name of the State :
(d) Name of the Scheme:
1.2 Date of DPR appraised by State Level Nodal Agency (SLNA) and whether a copy of
appraisal report (duly authenticated by the competent authority) has been forwarded with
DPR.
(a) Date of appraisal:
(b) Name of the appraisal agency:
(c) Original Estimated cost:
(d) Appraised cost:
(e) Major comments/observations made by appraisal agency.
1.3 Whether the commitment to launch the scheme immediately after approval of Govt. of
India / Administrative approval of the scheme is appended in DPR.

A-2
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
1.4 (a) Whether Project formulation justification (need for the project) has been furnished in
DPR. Please justify the need of the project.
Justification:
(b) Whether the executive summary of the project is furnished in the DPR

1.5 Whether linkages of this scheme have been established with other ongoing Storm water
drainage schemes being funded by the Central/State Govt./other agencies if any. Please
furnish the details.
1.6 Whether the map showing administrative and political jurisdiction of the project area has
been given in DPR.
The area within Municipal limit : ……… sq.km.
The extent of area considered in the DPR : ……….sq.km.
Additional area (beyond Municipal limit) considered in the DPR and justify the reasons:
……..sq.km
1.7 Whether the land use pattern of the city/town/ project area as per the approved Master
Plan has been given in DPR.
1.8 Whether the DPR including the design, drawings, cost estimates, analysis of rates has
been authenticated by Competent Authority of State Govt./ ULB and Quasi-Technical
sanction of DPR / Technical & Financial Verification Certificate has been attached with
DPR
1.9 In case any proposed pumping main for storm drainage lines is crossing Railway line/
Highway & their bridge (wherever applicable), whether the clearance from concerned
authority such as State Pollution Control Board (SPCB), Highways, PWD, Railways has
been obtained and copies of the permission and their estimate for the same has been
provided in DPR.
If not, the present status of action initiated may be furnished below.

A-3
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
1.10 Whether the provision for separate electric feeder line to the storm water pumping stations
(to take care of frequent power failure and voltage fluctuation problem) from HT line and
an agreement between Electricity Department and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) has been
furnished in the DPR
1.11 Whether the commitment from the Electricity Department for un-interrupted power supply
(for pumping stations) is obtained
1.12 Whether the topographic map of the city/town/project area on GIS has been given in
DPR/Zone wise maps to scale showing all streets.
1.13 Whether soil investigation report – borehole logs at least at a grid of 1 km x 1 km or
Geological Survey Data has been forwarded with DPR.
1.14 Whether Contour map of the project area has been annexed with the DPR.
1.15 Whether resolution from the ULB for meeting the regular expenditure on O&M of the storm
water drainage system is enclosed in DPR.
2. ENGINEERING COMPONENTS
2.1 Storm water drainage network detailing
The total length of drain & other infrastructure
(Total length and drains which are in good condition and can be integrated with proposed
planned drainage system):
Tertiary drain : ........Km (total) .............KM (drains in good condition)
Secondary drain : ........Km (total) ..............KM (drain in good condition)
Primary drain : ........Km (total) ..............KM (drain in good condition)
SWD Pumping Stations: Nos....... Capacity of Pumps............Length of Pumping
Mains........... Km
Proposals for Rehabilitation
Tertiary drain : ........Km

A-4
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
Secondary drain : ........Km
Primary drain : ........Km
SWD Pumping Stations: Nos....... Capacity of Pumps............Length of Pumping
Mains........... Km
Proposals for new construction
Tertiary drain : ........Km
Secondary drain : ........Km
Primary drain : ........Km
SWD Pumping Stations: Nos....... Capacity of Pumps............Length of Pumping
Mains........... Km
2.2 Total length of road : .........Km

2.3 Please furnish various project components (major components)

2.4 Project Area and population

(i) Please furnish the details of city/project area,

(a) Area of the town/city (municipal limit): ……………….Sq. km

(b) Extent of the project area considered in the DPR: ………………..sq. km

(c) Additional Area(beyond the municipal limit) considered in the DPR:……sq.km

(d) No. of Households (as per 2001 and 2011 census):

(ii) Whether population projection has been adopted as per CPHEEO Manual and given in
DPR

A-5
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof

(a) City population

As per 2001 Census :…………..lakhs

As per 2011 Census : ……………lakhs
Initial stage : ………… lakhs +floating population (if any)----------lakh
(…………….AD)
Intermediate stage : ………… lakhs+ floating population (if any)----------lakh
(……………….AD)
Ultimate stage : ………… lakhs+ floating population (if any)----------lakh
(………………AD)

Population growth rate adopted: ………. %/ year

(based on the past 5-6 decadal growth rate)
Demographic Method adopted and justification :
(b) Whether the population projection has been made in consonance with the
Developmental Master Plan
(c) Project Area
Initial stage : ………… lakhs
Intermediate stage : ………… lakhs
Ultimate stage : ………… lakhs
Population growth rate adopted: ………. %/ year
(based on the past 5-6 decadal growth rate)
(d) No. of wards (within municipal limit) : …………

A-6
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
2.5 Whether the development master plan with land use pattern, identification of existing and
future roads/streets, water bodies such as lakes and ponds, natural drains and rivers has
been furnished for the urban agglomeration
2.6 If yes, give the master plan year.
If no, give present status of master plan preparation;
2.7 Land use patterns, present and proposed preferably on shapefile format
Master Plan City/ULB Area Project Area
Present Proposed Present Proposed Present Proposed
Master Master Area Area Area Area
Land Use Plan: Plan: ........ ........ ........ ........
Year Year ....... (Year (Year (Year (Year
....... ........ ........ ........ ........
Total Area Hectares ......... ......... ......... ......... ....... .........
(Ha)
% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Residential Ha
area %
Area under Ha
Roads>3m %
wide
Area under Ha
Roads & %
streets <3
m wide
Ha

A-7
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
Markets %
(wholesale,
vegetable,
grain, other
Area under Ha
Railways, %
Airports
Institutional Ha
Area %
Industrial Ha
Area %
Green, Ha
open, park, %
an
agricultural
area
Lakes, Ha
Ponds %
Natural Ha
drains, sub- %
drain,
nallahs,
rivers

Give Coefficients of Imperviousness adopted for design for various land uses:

A-8
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
Land use classification Coefficient of Coefficient of
Imperviousness as per Imperviousness as per
Manual / Derived DPR
Residential 0.60 to 0.75
Roads, paved surface of 1.00
footpaths
Commercial 0.70 to 0.90
Paved markets 1.00
Unpaved markets 0.40 to 0.70
Mixed type markets 0.40 to 0.90
Mixed Development 0.60 to 0.90
Industrial 0.60 to 0.90
Institutional 0.60 to 0.90
Large establishments
PSUs 0.60 to 0.90
Railways 0.60 to 0.90
Airports 0.60 to 0.90
Lakes, ponds 1.00( considering FSL)

A-9
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
2.8 List out all-natural drains in the city/project/master plan area. Give the names (IDs)and
length
Natural storm water drains preferably on GIS maps (use additional sheets if required):

S Name / ID Length, Km
No

2.9 Give width-wise detailing of natural storm water drains(use additional sheets if required):

S No Width Length, Km
Upto 2m
>2m upto 5m
>5m upto 10m
>10m upto 30m
>30m(give further widths if necessary)
2.10 Whether the storm water drainage network has been divided into basins, sub-basins,
catchments and overlaid on the development master plan? Give details.

A-10
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
2.11 Demarcating of zones and subzones as per the map of the project area (use additional
sheets if required):
Whether the Master Plan Area/Project Area has been Yes/No
divided into catchments and sub-catchments for Storm
Water Management
Total no. of catchments (storm water drainage Zones)
Name/No. of catchment (zones) 1 2 3 etc
Area under catchment (various zones), Ha.
No. of sub-catchments (sub-zones) under each zone
Describe boundaries of each catchment (use separate
pages) Ridge/Road/Rly. Line etc.
Give name/no. of each sub-catchment, its boundaries
and arial extent (use separate pages)
Give land-use classification for each catchment and
sub-catchment with totals ((use additional sheets if
required))
Whether Catchment areas which are out of municipal
limit likely to contribute in the project area has been
taken into account
2.12 Details of each sub-catchment (use additional sheets if required):

Name/ID No of sub-catchment
Total area
Define boundaries
Land use classification

A-11
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
Area under...... Residential
..........Roads etc.
...........Institutional
...........Industrial
...........Lakes/Ponds
...........Any other (add rows)
Total of above
Name/ID of the main drain of sub-catchment
Total length of the main drain
Width-wise length of the main drain (proposed)
<2m
>2m – upto 5m
>5m- 10 m
>10m-30m
>30m
Total of above

Whether boundary of main drain demarcated and protected Yes/No

Length of main drain protected
Length of main drain not protected
Action, if any for full protection
Whether drain outfall free or obstructed?
Invert level of drain outfall
Invert at outfall

A-12
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
at + 30m
at +60m
at +90m
at +120m : etc
Storm water disposal body
HFL
Normal water level
Bed level
Whether drain trained/untrained
Trained length
Untrained length
Any constrictions like culvert
Identify each such culvert
Drain -- Bed surface material & condition
Manning’s ‘n’ value

Sidewalls material & condition

‘n’ value
Combined ‘n’ value at every multiple o.1 m depth of flow
2.13 Coefficient of Roughness for use in Manning’s Formula:

(in the DPR column, fill values only for the material used and mark others as ‘not used’)

A-13
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
Type of Material ‘n’ as per ‘n’ as per
Manual DPR
Design
1 Salt-glazed Stoneware a) Good 0.012
Pipes b) Fair 0.015
2 Cement Concrete a) Good 0.013
Pipes(with collar joints) b) Fair 0.015
3 Spun Concrete Pipes (RCC & PSC) with socket & 0.011
spigot joints (Design value)
4 Masonry a) Neat Cement Plaster 0.018
b) Sand & cement plaster 0.015
c) Concrete –steel troweled 0.014
d) Concrete – Wood troweled 0.015
e) Brick in good condition 0.015
f) Brick in rough condition 0.017
g) Masonry in bad condition 0.020
5 Stone Work a) Smooth dressed Ashlar 0.015
b) Rubble set in cement 0.017
c) Fine, well-packed gravel 0.020
6 Earth a) Regular surface in good 0.020
condition
b) In ordinary condition 0.025
c) With stones and weeds 0.030
d) In poor condition 0.035
e) Partially obstructed with 0.050
debris or weeds

A-14
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
7 Steel a) Welded 0.013
b) Riveted 0.017
c) Slightly tuberculated 0.020
d) With spun cement mortar 0.011
lining
8 Cast Iron a)Unlined 0.013
b)With spun cement mortar 0.013
lining
9 Asbestos 0.011
Cement
10 Plastic (smooth) 0.011
2.14 Whether the authenticated data of autographic rainfall data for the project area for the last
25 to 30 years or more has been obtained from India Meteorological Department and
furnished in the DPR? Whether it has been analysed as described in the CPHEEO Storm
Water Drainage Manual and the intensity – duration – frequency (IDF) curve for the project
area has been drawn? Give details as per the model below:

2.15 Rainfall Data & Analysis (use additional sheets if required):

No. of years of autographic rainfall

Data from IMD(India Meteorological Department)
Whether autographic rainfall data analysed and arranged in duration
(minutes) and intensity (mm/hr)
Duration-wise compilation of rainfall data (refer Manual)
Frequency of storms of different duration

A-15
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
Total no. of rainfall events of 5 min duration (arranged in ascending
intensity)
Similarly, events of 10 min duration (arranged in ascending
intensity)
Similarly, events of 15 min duration
20 min duration
30 min duration
40 min duration
60 min duration
90 min duration
120 min duration
150 min duration
180 min duration, etc

Storm Frequency (or Storm Return Period / Flooding design interval):

Storm As per
Land Use Classification frequency as DPR
per Manual Design
a)Residential Areas
i) Peripheral areas Twice a year
ii) Central and comparatively high priced Once a year
areas
b)Commercial and High-priced areas Once in 2
years

A-16
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
Analysis of Frequency of Storms (Rainfall Events)(Historical data)

Duration No. of storms of particular duration of the intensity(mm /hr) given below
of rainfall, or more during the data period
in 20 30 35 40 45 50 60 Etc.
minutes
5
10
15
20
30
40
60
90
120
150
180
etc

Time (Duration) – Intensity values of storms from the step curve(for use in log-log graph)

i ’(mm/hr) t (min)
20
30

A-17
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
35
40
45
50
55
60
Derived values of i & t from log-log graph of above table.
i = a/tn
Derived value of ‘a’ =
Derived value of ‘n’ =
Storm Intensity Equation
i = a/tn
i = ..........

Time of concentration:

0.994 (1.1−𝐶)𝐿0.5
𝑡𝑜 = 𝑆 0.333

Where,
𝑡𝑜 =Time of surface flow (in minutes)
C = Rational Method runoff coefficient
L = Length of surface flow (m)
S = Surface Slope, in percentage (%)

A-18
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
Note: If slope (S) is expressed as a ratio, then the formula to be applied is

0.218 (1.1 − 𝐶)𝐿0.5

𝑡𝑜 =
𝑆 0.333

Whether the IDF (Intensity-Duration-Frequency) curve has been drawn –Yes/No

2.16 Whether Best Management Practices like Rainwater Harvesting and Innovative Practices
are given in DPR?
2.17 Whether the provision of the land/land acquisition for the SWD pumping station/mains,
SWD network, if any, has been made as per 30 years requirement and future expansion
in the DPR
(a) Total requirement of land for:
SWD Pumping Station : ………… Hectares
Laying of SWD pumping mains : ………… Hectares
SWD network : ………… Hectares
Total : ………… Hectares
Whether land in possession with Implementing Agency : Hectares
(b) Whether Govt. land is yet to be transferred to the Implementing Agency and specify
time required for transfer : ……..Hectare, ……… months
(c) Whether private land under acquisition and time required for acquisition:
……..Hectare,
……… months
(d) Status of action initiated for transfer of Govt. land and acquisition of private land
(please specify) :

A-19
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
2.18 Whether all components of storm water drainage system such as inlets, catch pits, SWD
pipelines/drains, points of confluence and natural drains with outfalls have been designed
as per the CPHEEO Manual and detailed drawings have been provided in the DPR
2.19 Give Design values and infrastructure proposals for each component(use additional
sheets)
2.20 Whether the Computer-Aided Design of SWD system has been furnished in DPR. Please
enclose design input files (sheets) and output files (sheets) separately
2.21 Whether the rising main of SWD system, if any, has been designed for catchment flows
with respect to time of concentration and checked for a minimum velocity of 0.6 m/s and
maximum velocity of 3 m/s?
2.22 Whether node spacing while designing have been adopted as per CPHEEO Manual?
2.23 Whether the designs of SWD pipes/drains have been checked for a minimum self-cleaning
velocity of 0.6 m/s by providing proper slope
2.24 Whether surge/water hammer analysis for rising main has been calculated and furnished
in the DPR
2.25 Whether the provision for rising main units, wherever needed, such as thrust blocks, anchor
blocks, expansion joints, scour/drain valves, air/vacuum releases valves and surge
protection devices have been provided in the DPR
2.26 Whether drawings to scale of L-sections of SWD drains/pipelines with all details such as
ground level, crown level, invert level, depths of excavation, bedding details etc., have been
furnished in DPR
2.27 Whether the configuration of the pumps proposed in SWD/drainage pumping stations is in
conformity with the general guidelines of CPHEEO Manual for conveying maximum design
flood, need for standby and operational capability above high flood level (HFL)

A-20
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
2.28 Whether the pipe material has been selected considering the topography, efficiency in
service, ease of laying and economy in DPR
Whether bedding conditions for different reaches of the proposed SWD pipelines/drains
2.29 have been designed in the DPR as per CPHEEO Manual with reference to soil
characteristics
Class A Bedding: Length proposed .........Km in soils of .........................................
Classification
Class B Bedding: Length proposed .........Km in soils of ..................................................
Classification
Class C Bedding: Length proposed .........Km in soils of ..................................................
Classification
2.30 Whether a detailed note on performance of existing SWD/drainage network and pumping
station, if any has been furnished in the DPR
2.31 Whether SWD system has provision for flood diversion to water bodies and for enabling
ground water recharge
2.32 Whether the ULBs certificate to the effect that no municipal sewage shall be discharged
into the SWD system has been provided in the DPR
2.33 Whether Bill of Qualities (BOQ) and cost estimates of individual components of drainage
system prepared as per latest SOR and copy of latest Schedule of Rates (SOR) and Pro-
forma invoices have been annexed with DPR.
(a) Schedule of Rates adopted (please specify the year): ------------year
(b) In case the SOR adopted is old, please specify the cost index for escalation approved
by State Govt.
(c) Any price escalation proposed in cost estimates as notified by State Govt.
(d) Whether analysis of rate has been worked out for all the items and appended with
DPR

A-21
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
(e) Whether Bill of Quantities of individual component has been furnished in DPR
(f) Whether lump sum(LS) provision for any item has been proposed, please specify
Whether detailed drawing, estimation & detailed BOQ for ancillary works such as boundary
2.34 wall/fencing, approach & internal road, external electrification, buildings, site
development/landscaping etc. has been provided in the DPR for any SWD Pumping Station
Give the General Abstract Cost Estimate and Component-wise or package-wise Abstract
Cost Estimate: (use additional sheets if required)
2.35 Whether provision for DG set has been made in the DPR to tide over interruptions in power
supply, if any
2.36 If yes, whether the calculations to arrive at the capacity of the same has been mentioned
in the technical reports
2.37 Whether provision for road restoration has been made as per CPWD/ State PWD/ Urban
Local Body norms
2.38 Give the List of Tender Packages made for ‘notice inviting tender’ (Use additional sheets if
required) . Furnish the title-wise Tender packages and their value.
2.40 Calculate service level benchmark as per MoUD. Please furnish SLB.
Sl. Indicator Before After Benchmark
No. implementation implementation
of the project of the project
1. Coverage 100%
2. Incidence of 0 numbers
waterlogging

2.41 Whether project implementation period of project has been furnished in DPR
Specify the implementation period:…………..year

A-22
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
2.42 Whether detailed BAR Chart and PERT/CPM network showing implementation schedule
has been furnished in DPR
2.43 Whether Internal rate of return (IRR) / Economic rate of return (ERR) has been furnished
in DPR
2.44 Whether traffic diversion/ control arrangements for public and workers’ safety, arising out
of construction phase of storm water drainage works have been furnished in the DPR
2.45 Whether Institutional and financial status of Project Executing Agency (PEA) has been
reported in DPR
Whether Operation & Maintenance cost and revenue generation details (O & M Framework
2.46 – existing & proposed) has been furnished in DPR
(a) Existing tariff / cess / charges (in Rs.):
Residential --
Commercial --
Institutions --
Industries --
(b) Proposed tariff/cess/charges (in Rs.)
Residential --
Commercial --
Institutions --
Industries --
(c) Annual O & M cost (Rs. in lakhs)
(i) Existing (last 5 years) 1 2 3 4 5

A-23
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ etc. in the

column below
S. No Description If Yes, give Page No./DPR
volume reference. If No,
reasons thereof
(ii) Proposed

(d) Annual Revenue (Rs. in lakhs)

2.47 (i) Existing (last 5 years) 1 2 3 4 5

(ii) Proposed

2.48 Whether Environmental and social problems (if applicable) has been furnished in DPR
2.49 Whether provision has been made @ 0.5% of the project cost in the DPR for capacity
building of ULBs for further O&M of the scheme after taking over the scheme from
implementing agency. Please furnish the action plan for conducting capacity building
programme. The action plan must specify specific actions such as the number of officials
to be deployed in the project post-commissioning, their designations, qualifications and
training proposed to be given.
2.50 Whether Rehabilitation and Resettlement plan (if applicable) has been given in DPR
2.51 Whether all the hard copies of the DPR furnished along with soft copies/
2.52 Period of completion of the project

Signed: Signed:
Name: Name:
Designation: Designation:

A-24
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

APPENDIX A 4.1
EXAMPLE ON PARTIAL AREA EFFECT

Case 1

A sub-catchment has following properties:

Catchment A Catchment B

Run off Coefficient C 0.6 0.9

Time of concentration 30 min 5 min

Area 0.6 km2 0.2 km2

A storm event of 10 years Return Period having 90 Min duration rainfall results
following intensities:

 5 min – 200 mm/hr

 30 min – 60 mm/hr

Find out peak runoff from the catchment for by rational method.

Solution (a)
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐼 𝐴
𝐶1 𝐴1 +𝐶2 𝐴2 +𝐶3 𝐴3 +.………
Weighted average C = 𝐴1 +𝐴2 +𝐴3 ……..
0.9∗0.2+0.6∗0.6
= 0.2+0.6
= 0.675
𝐼 = 60 𝑚𝑚/ℎ𝑟

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

A+B = (0.2 + 0.6) km2 = 0.8 km2

K = 1/3.6
Q = (0.675*60*0.8)/3.6 = 9.0 m3/ sec

Solution (b)
𝑄=𝐶𝐼𝐴
C = 0.9
𝐼 = 200 mm/hr
A = 0.2 km2
K = 1/3.6
Q = (0.9*200*0.2)/3.6 = 10.0 m3/ sec

Maximum of the above two values shall be taken. Therefore Q = 10.0 m3/ sec

Case II

A sub-catchment has following properties:

Catchment A Catchment B (contributory)

Run off Coefficient C 0.6 0.9

Time of concentration 60 min 10 min

Area 1.0 km2 0.3 km2

A storm event of 10 years Return Period having 90 Min duration rainfall results
following intensities:

 10 min – 130 mm/hr

 60 min – 40 mm/hr

Find out peak runoff from the catchment for by rational method.

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Solution (a)
Flow for Catchment A for time of concentration of 60 min
𝑄=𝐶𝐼𝐴
K = 1/3.6
Q1 = (0.6 × 40 × 1)/3.6 = 6.67 m3/ sec

Flow for Catchment B for time of concentration of 60 min

Q2 = (0.9 × 40 × 0.3)/3.6 = 3 m3/ sec
Total Flow at Outlet = Q1+ Q2 = 6.67 + 3 = 9.67 m3/ sec

Solution (b)

Flow for Catchment B for Time of concentration 10 min

𝑄=𝐶𝐼𝐴
K = 1/3.6
Q1 = (0.9*130*0.3)/3.6 = 9.75m3/ sec

A-27
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

APPENDIX A 4.2
EXAMPLE ON TIME-AREA-METHOD

PROBLEM:

Construct the runoff hydrograph for 10 hectare catchment where total time of
concentration is 15 minutes. The time distribution of rainfall and corresponding
losses are given below. Use time area method to develop the hydrograph.

Time Rainfall depth Infiltration and Effective

(minutes) (mm) other losses rainfall(mm)
(mm)
0 0 0 0
3 11.4 1.5 9.9
6 15.9 0 15.9
9 9.1 0 9.1
12 6.8 0 6.8
15 2.3 0 2.3

SOLUTION:

Draw isochrones approximately sub dividing the catchment for 3, 6, 9, 12, and 15
minutes travel time period considering total time of concentration. Measure areas
between adjacent isochrones and tabulate cumulative time areas as follows.

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Time (Minutes) Cumulative area

Area in m2
0 0
3 27000
6 50000
9 69000
12 85000
15 100000

Runoff generated from each catchment due to incremental effective rainfall amount is
calculated reaching the outfall.

Travel time of each zone is 3 minutes. Rainfall occurs over the entire catchment in
three minutes interval as shown with losses as given in the above table taken as I 1, I2,
I3, I4, I5.

Now in first 3 minutes interval, I1 rainfall has fallen over the entire catchment and
therefore after 3 minutes interval the output discharge at outlet is contributed by sub-
catchment A1 from rainfall I1.And hence, discharge q1 = A1 * I1

Similarly, I2 rainfall has fallen in second 3-minute interval, the discharge A2*I1 and A1*I2
reach simultaneously at the outlet, q2= A2 * I1 +A1 * I2

Similarly by lagging and adding q3 = A3 *I1 + A2 *I2 + A1 * I3

q4 = A4 *I1 + A3 *I2 + A2 * I3 + A1 * I4
q5 = A5*I1 + A4 * I2 + A3 * I3 + A2 * I4 + A1 * I5

After lapse of 15 minutes the rain stops and rainfall generated by I 1 is entirely drained
out at the outlet.

Rest of the incremental rainfalls falling over the sub-catchment subsequently reach
the outlet point as given by lagging and adding sub-catchments flows hereunder.

q6 = A5*I2 + A4*I3 + A3*I4 + A2*I5

q7= A5*I3 + A4*I4 + A3*I5
q8= A5*I4+A4*I5
q9= A5 * I5
q10 = 0

For computing if q in m3/s, A, area between isochrones in m2, incremental rainfall, I, in

mm and time interval, t, in minutes then,

q = 0.001 *I*A/ 60*t

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

The total discharges after each successive interval are shown in the following table:

Time in Effective Area of Runoff generated by effective rainfall in m3/sec Hydrograph

minutes Rainfall sub- In m3/s
in mm catchment
in m2
Effective Effective Effective Effective Effective
Rainfall Rainfall Rainfall Rainfall Rainfall
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 9.9 27000 1.48 0 1.48
6 15.9 23000 1.26 2.39 0 3.65
9 9.1 19000 1.04 2.03 1.37 0 4.44
12 6.8 16000 0.88 1.68 1.16 1.02 0 4.75
15 2.3 15000 0.82 1.42 0.96 0.87 0.34 4.41
18 0 0 0 1.33 0.81 0.72 0.29 3.15
21 0 0 0 0 0.76 0.61 0.24 1.61
24 0 0 0 0 0 0.57 0.20 0.77
27 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.19 0.19
30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Hydrograph is drawn as shown below.

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

APPENDIX A 4.3
EXAMPLE ON UNIT HYDROGRAPH METHOD

PROBLEM:

A park garden in Nagloi area of Delhi city covering an area of 10 hectare drains at a
single outlet as shown in the figure given below. It is proposed to drain out the storm
water from the park from its outlet point to the nearest big Nallah by laying RCC pipe
approximately 500.0 m in length. Design the size of pipe and determine the peak flow
at the outlet of the catchment.

SOLUTION:

Given, the ordinates of unit hydrograph of the catchment and design hyetograph of
the effective rainfall.

Unit hydrograph ordinates

Time 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
(min)

Discharge 0 0.336 0.829 1.009 1.079 1.002 0.715 0.366 0.175 0.043 0
in m3/sec

Design Hyetograph of effective rainfall

Time in minutes Rainfall in cm
0 0
3 0.99
6 1.59
9 0.91
12 0.68
15 0.23

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 Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Computation of DRH for the garden catchment

Time Ordinates DRH for DRH for DRH for DRH DRH DRH of the
(Min) of UH in 0.99 1.59 0.91cm for for catchment
m3/s cm ERH cm ERH in 0.68cm 0.23 (Col.
in m3/s ERH in m3/s ERH in cm 3+4+5+6+7)
m3/s m3/s ERH in in m3/s
m3/s
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 0.336 0.3326 0 0 0 0 0.3326
6 0.829 0.8207 0.5342 0 0 0 1.3549
9 1.009 0.9989 1.3181 0.3057 0 0 2.622
12 1.079 1.0682 1.6043 0.7543 0.2284 0 3.655
15 1.002 0.9919 1.7156 0.9181 0.5637 0.6772 4.266
18 0.715 0.7078 1.5931 0.9818 0.6861 0.1906 4.159
21 0.366 0.3623 1.1368 0.9118 0.7337 0.232 3.376
24 0.175 0.1732 0.5819 0.6506 0.6813 0.2481 2.335
27 0.043 0.0425 0.2782 0.333 0.4862 0.2304 1.37
30 0 0 0.0683 0.1592 0.2488 0.1644 0.64
33 0 0 0 0.0391 0.119 0.0841 0.242
36 0 0 0 0 0.0292 0.0402 0.069
39 0 0 0 0 0 0.0098 0.009
42 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Basic principles of theory and application of unit hydrograph to generate DRH may be
referred in chapter 4.In accordance with theory of linear response that is if the rainfall
excess in a duration ‘D’ hour is ‘r’ times the unit depth (1 cm), the ordinate of the
resulting hydrograph will be ‘r’ times the corresponding ordinate of ‘D’ hour unit
hydrograph. The table shows the ERH depth of subsequent interval multiplied by the
unit hydrograph ordinates in column 2 by subsequently lagging as per time interval
which is evident from the above table of computation. DRH of the park – garden is
drawn and given below:

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Peak flow at the outlet of the garden (from above hydrograph) = 4.266m3/sec

Using Manning formula and taking a value of ‘n’ 0.013 it is computed that pipe of
diameter 2000 mm having a slope of 1 in 1220 shall have following hydraulic
characteristics:

Q (full) = 4.35 m3/sec

V (full) = 1.38m/sec
Q (design) =4.266 m3/sec
V (design) = 1.58 m/sec

Therefore the above design of RCC pipe is adopted for conveying the peak flow of
storm water to the receiving water of the big Nallah.

Computation:

𝑨𝟓/𝟑 ∗ 𝑺𝟏/𝟐
𝑸𝒇 =
𝒏 ∗ 𝒑𝟐/𝟑

Where, 𝑄𝑓 : Full section flow in the conduit

A : Cross-section of the conduit
S : Bed slope

Substituting the values of pipe and slope parameters as given above

1
3.141.66 ∗ (1220)1/2
Qf =
0.013 ∗ 6.262/3

= 4.354 m3/sec

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Vf = 4.354/3.14 = 1.38 m/sec

From Table 5.5 of Chapter 5

Q (design)/ Qf = 0.97, then, v(design)/ Vf =1.14, d(design)/D(full)= 0.8

Hence v (design) = 1.38*1.14 =1.58 m/sec approximately

Depth of flow = 0.8*2 = 1.60 m

A-34
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

APPENDIX A 5.1
EXAMPLE ON CRITICAL DEPTH

PROBLEM:
Calculate the critical depth and the corresponding specific energy for a discharge of
5.0 m3/sec in the following channels:
a) Rectangular Channel B = 2.0 m
b) Triangular Channel m = 0.5
c) Trapezoidal Channel B = 2.0 m; m = 1.5
d) Circular Channel D = 2.0 m
Solution:
Rectangular Channel:
𝑄 5.0
𝑞= = = 2.5 m3/s/m
𝐵 2.0

3 𝑞2 3 2.52
𝑦𝑐 = √ = √ = 0.860 𝑚
2𝑔 2 × 9.81

𝐸𝑐
= 1.5 ; 𝐸𝑐 = 1.290 𝑚
𝑌𝑐

For Triangular Channel,

5 2𝑄 2 5 2 × 52
𝑦𝑐 = √ 2 = √ = 1.828 𝑚
𝑔𝑚 9.81 × 0.52

𝐸𝑐
= 1.25 ; 𝐸𝑐 = 2.284 𝑚
𝑌𝑐

For Trapezoidal Channel,

𝑄𝑚3/2 0.5 × 1.53/2

Ψ= = = 0.51843
√𝑔𝐵 5/2 √9.81 25/2

Using Appendix 5.4, corresponding values:

𝑚𝑦𝑐
ξ= = 0.536
𝐵

𝑌𝑐 = 0.715 𝑚

𝐴𝑐 = (2.0 + 1.5 × 0.715) × 0.715 = 2.197 m2

5
𝑉𝑐 = = 2.276m/sec
2.197

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

𝑣𝑐2
𝐸𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐 + = 0.715 + 0.264 = 0.979 𝑚
2𝑔

Circular Section

𝑄 5
𝑍= = = 1.5964
√𝑔 √9.81

𝑍 1.5964
2.5 = 22.5
= 0.2822
𝑑0
𝑦
Computing value from Appendix 5.4: = 0.537
𝑑𝑜

𝑦𝑐 = 1.074 𝑚

A-36
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

APPENDIX A 5.2
DETAILS OF STANDARD SIZED STEPPED CHANNELS

A-37
 Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

DESIGN CHART FOR STANDARD SIZED STEPPED CHANNELS

Recommended Minimum Length of Standard Sized Stepped Channels (metres)

Nominal Channel gradient, α (degrees)

size of
channel, 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
W(mm)
300 3.3 3.2 3.1 3.0 3 3.0 3.0 3.0 3 3.0
375 5.1 5 4.8 4.7 4.5 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.3
450 5.5 5.4 5.2 5.1 4.8 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.6
525 6.0 5.8 5.7 5.4 5.2 5.0 5.0 5.0 5 5.0
600 6.4 6.3 6.1 5.8 5.6 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3
675 7.3 7.2 6.9 6.6 6.3 6.1 6.0 6.0 6 6.0
750 7.8 7.6 7.3 7.0 6.7 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.3
900 8.6 8.4 8.1 7.8 7.4 7.0 7.0 7.0 7 7.0

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

APPENDIX A 5.3
GEOMETRIC ELEMENTS FOR CIRCULAR CHANNEL SECTIONS

do=diameter R=hydraulic radius

y=depth of flow T=top width

A=water area D=hydraulic depth

P=wetter perimeter Z=A√𝐷=section factor for critical-flow computation

y/do A/do2 P/do R/do T/do D/do Z/do2.5 AR2/3/do2.5

0.01 0.0013 0.2003 0.0066 0.1990 0.0066 0.0001 0.0000

0.02 0.0037 0.2838 0.0132 0.2800 0.0134 0.0004 0.0002

0.03 0.0069 0.3482 0.0197 0.3412 0.0202 0.0010 0.0005

0.04 0.0105 0.4027 0.0262 0.3919 0.0268 0.0017 0.0009

0.05 0.0147 0.4510 0.0326 0.4359 0.0336 0.0027 0.0015

0.06 0.0192 0.4949 0.0389 0.4750 0.0406 0.0039 0.0022

0.07 0.0242 0.5355 0.0451 0.5103 0.0474 0.0053 0.0031

0.08 0.0294 0.5735 0.0513 0.5426 0.0542 0.0069 0.0040

0.09 0.0350 0.6094 0.0574 0.5724 0.0612 0.0087 0.0052

0.10 0.0409 0.6435 0.0635 0.6000 0.0682 0.0107 0.0065

0.11 0.0470 0.6761 0.0695 0.6258 0.0752 0.0129 0.0079

0.12 0.0534 0.7075 0.0754 0.6499 0.0822 0.0153 0.0095

0.13 0.0600 0.7377 0.0813 0.6728 0.0892 0.0179 0.0113

0.14 0.0668 0.7670 0.0871 0.6940 0.0964 0.0217 0.0131

0.15 0.0739 0.7954 0.0929 0.7141 0.1034 0.0238 0.0152

0.16 0.0811 0.8230 0.0986 0.7332 0.1106 0.0270 0.0173

0.17 0.0885 0.8500 0.1042 0.7513 0.1178 0.0304 0.0196

0.18 0.0961 0.8763 0.1042 07684 0.1252 0.0339 0.0220

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

y/do A/do2 P/do R/do T/do D/do Z/do2.5 AR2/3/do2.5

0.19 0.1039 0.9020 0.1152 0.7846 0.1324 0.0378 0.0247

0.20 0.1118 0.9273 0.1206 0.8000 0.1398 0.0418 0.0273

0.21 0.1190 0.9521 0.1259 0.8146 0.1472 0.0460 0.0301

0.22 0.1281 0.9764 0.1312 0.8285 0.1546 0.0503 0.0333

0.23 0.1365 1.0003 0.1364 0.8417 0.1662 0.0549 0.0359

0.24 0.1449 1.0239 0.1416 0.8542 0.1696 0.0597 0.0394

0.25 0.1535 1.0472 0.1466 0.8660 0.1774 0.0646 0.0427

0.26 0.1623 1.0701 0.1516 0.8773 0.1850 0.0697 0.0464

0.27 0.1711 1.0928 0.1566 0.8879 0.1926 0.0751 0.0497

0.28 0.1800 1.1152 0.1614 0.8980 0.2004 0.0805 0.0536

0.29 0.1890 1.1373 0.1662 0.9075 0.2084 0.0862 0.0571

0.30 0.1982 1.1593 0.1709 0.9165 0.2162 0.0921 0.0610

0.31 0.2074 1.1810 0.1755 0.9250 0.2242 0.0981 0.0650

0.32 0.2167 1.2025 0.1801 0.9330 0.2322 0.1044 0.0690

0.33 0.2260 1.2239 0.1848 0.9404 0.2404 0.1107 0.0736

0.34 0.2355 1.2451 0.1891 0.9474 0.2486 0.1172 0.0776

0.35 0.2450 1.2661 0.1935 0.9539 0.2568 0.1241 0.0820

0.36 0.2546 1.2870 0.1978 0.9600 0.2652 0.1310 0.0864

0.37 0.2642 1.3078 0.2020 0.9656 0.2736 0.1381 0.0909

0.38 0.2739 1.3284 0.2061 0.9708 0.2822 0.1453 0.0955

0.39 0.2836 1.3490 0.2102 0.9755 0.2908 0.1528 0.1020

0.40 0.2934 1.3694 0.2142 0.9798 0.2994 0.1603 0.1050

0.41 0.3032 1.3898 0.2181 0.9837 0.3082 0.1682 0.1100

0.42 0.3132 1.4101 0.2220 0.9871 0.3172 0.1761 0.1147

0.43 0.3229 1.4303 0.2257 0.9902 0.3262 0.1844 0.1196

A-40
Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

y/do A/do2 P/do R/do T/do D/do Z/do2.5 AR2/3/do2.5

0.44 0.3328 1.4505 0.2294 0.9928 0.3352 0.1927 0.1245

0.45 0.3428 1.4706 0.2331 0.9950 0.3446 0.2011 0.1298

0.46 0.3527 1.4907 0.2366 0.9968 0.3538 0.2098 0.1348

0.47 0.3627 1.5108 0.2400 0.9982 0.3634 0.2186 0.1401

0.48 0.3727 1.5308 0.2434 0.9992 0.3730 0.2275 0.1452

0.49 0.3827 1.5508 0.2467 0.9998 0.3828 0.2366 0.1505

0.50 0.3927 1.5708 0.2500 1.0000 0.3928 0.2459 0.1558

0.51 0.4027 1.5908 0.2531 0.9998 0.4028 0.2553 0.1610

0.52 0.4127 1.6108 0.2561 0.9992 0.4130 0.2650 0.1664

0.53 0.4227 1.6308 0.2591 0.9982 0.4234 0.2748 0.1715

0.54 0.4327 1.6509 0.2620 0.9968 0.4340 0.2848 0.1772

0.55 0.4426 1.6710 0.2649 0.9950 0.4448 0.2949 0.1825

0.56 0.4526 1.6911 0.2676 0.9928 0.4558 0.3051 0.1878

0.57 0.4625 1.7113 0.2703 0.9902 0.4670 0.3158 0.1933

0.58 0.4723 1.7315 0.2728 0.9871 0.4786 0.3263 0.1987

0.59 0.4822 1.7518 0.2753 0.9887 0.4902 0.3373 0.2041

0.60 0.4920 1.7722 0.2776 0.9798 0.5022 0.3484 0.2092

0.61 0.5018 1.7926 0.2797 0.9755 0.5144 0.3560 0.2146

0.62 0.5115 1.8132 0.2818 0.9708 0.5270 0.3710 0.2199

0.63 0.5212 1.8338 0.2839 0.9656 0.5398 0.3830 0.2252

0.64 0.5308 1.8546 0.2860 0.9600 0.5530 0.3945 0.230.

0.65 0.5404 1.8755 0.2881 0.9539 0.5666 0.4066 0.2358

0.66 0.5499 1.8965 0.2899 0.9474 0.5804 0.4188 0.2407

0.67 0.5594 1.9177 0.2917 0.9404 0.5948 0.4309 0.2460

0.68 0.5687 1.9391 0.2935 0.9330 0.6096 0.4437 0.2510

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

y/do A/do2 P/do R/do T/do D/do Z/do2.5 AR2/3/do2.5

0.69 0.5780 1.9606 0.2950 0.9250 0.6250 0.4566 0.2560

0.70 0.5872 1.9823 0.2962 0.9165 0.6408 0.4694 0.2608

0.71 0.5964 2.0042 0.2973 0.9075 0.6572 0.4831 0.2653

0.72 0.6054 2.0264 0.2984 0.8980 0.6742 0.4964 0.2702

0.73 0.6143 2.0488 0.2995 0.8879 0.6918 0.5100 0.2751

0.74 0.6231 2.0714 0.3006 0.8773 0.7104 0.5248 0.2794

0.75 0.6318 2.0944 0.3017 0.8660 0.7296 0.5392 0.2840

0.76 0.6404 2.1176 0.3025 0.8542 0.7498 0.5540 0.2888

0.77 0.6489 2.1412 0.3032 0.8417 0.7710 0.5695 0.2930

0.78 0.6573 2.1652 0.3037 0.8285 0.7394 0.5850 0.2969

0.79 0.6655 2.1895 0.3040 0.8146 0.8170 0.6011 0.3008

0.80 0.6736 2.2143 0.3042 0.8000 0.8420 0.6177 0.3045

0.81 0.6815 2.2395 0.3044 0.7846 0.8686 0.6347 0.3082

0.82 0.6893 2.2653 0.3043 0.7684 0.8970 0.6524 0.3118

0.83 0.6969 2.2916 0.3041 0.7513 0.9276 0.6707 0.3151

0.84 0.7043 2.3186 0.3038 0.7332 0.9606 0.6897 0.3182

0.85 0.7115 2.3462 0.3033 0.7141 0.9964 0.7098 0.3212

0.86 0.7186 2.3746 0.3026 0.6940 1.0354 0.7307 0.3240

0.87 0.7254 2.4038 0.3017 0.6726 1.0784 0.7528 0.3264

0.88 0.7320 2.4341 0.3008 0.6499 1.1264 0.7754 0.3286

0.89 0.7380 2.4655 0.2996 0.6258 1.1800 0.8016 0.3307

0.90 0.7445 2.4981 0.2980 0.6000 1.2408 0.8285 0.3324

0.91 0.7504 2.5322 0.2963 0.5724 1.3110 0.8586 0.3336

0.92 0.7560 2.5681 0.2944 0.5426 1.3932 0.8917 0.3345

0.93 0.7612 2.6061 0.2922 0.5103 1.4918 0.9292 0.3350

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

y/do A/do2 P/do R/do T/do D/do Z/do2.5 AR2/3/do2.5

0.94 0.7662 2.6467 0.2896 0.4750 1.6130 0.9725 0.3353

0.95 0.7707 2.6906 0.2864 0.4359 1.7682 1.0242 0.3349

0.96 0.7749 2.7389 0.2830 0.3919 1.9770 1.0888 0.3340

0.97 0.7785 2.7934 0.2787 0.3412 2.2820 1.1752 0.3322

0.98 0.7816 2.8578 0.2735 0.2800 2.7916 1.3050 0.3291

0.99 0.7841 2.9412 0.2665 0.1990 3.9400 1.5554 0.3248

1.00 0.7854 3.1416 0.2500 0.0000 ~~ ~~ 0.3117

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

APPENDIX A 5.4
VALUES FOR COMPUTATION OF CRITICAL DEPTH IN TRAPEZOIDAL
CHANNEL

𝛏 𝚿 𝛏 𝚿 𝛏 𝚿 𝛏 𝚿 𝛏 𝚿

0.100 0.0333042 0.330 0.2256807 0.560 0.5607910 0.790 1.0469124 1.020 1.6962526

0.105 0.0359281 0.335 0.2314360 0.565 0.5697107 0.795 1.0592476 1.025 1.7122746

0.110 0.0386272 0.340 0.2372580 0.570 0.5787019 0.800 1.0716601 1.030 1.7283798

0.115 0.0414006 0.345 0.2431469 0.575 0.5877645 0.805 1.0841500 1.035 1.7445682

0.120 0.0442474 0.350 0.2491026 0.580 0.5968989 0.810 1.0967174 1.040 1.7608400

0.125 0.0471671 0.355 0.2551252 0.585 0.6061050 0.815 1.1093625 1.045 1.7771953

0.130 0.0501588 0.360 0.2612149 0.590 0.6153829 0.820 1.1220854 1.050 1.7936343

0.135 0.0532222 0.365 0.2673716 0.595 0.6247330 0.825 1.1348861 1.055 1.8101570

0.140 0.0563565 0.370 0.2735954 0.600 0.6341551 0.830 1.1477649 1.060 1.8267635

0.145 0.0595615 0.375 0.2798865 0.605 0.6436496 0.835 1.1607219 1.065 1.8434541

0.150 0.0628365 0.380 0.2862449 0.610 0.6532164 0.840 1.1737572 1.070 1.8602288

0.155 0.0661812 0.385 0.2926706 0.615 0.6628558 0.845 1.1868709 1.075 1.8770877

0.160 0.0695953 0.390 0.2991638 0.620 0.6725678 0.850 1.2000631 1.080 1.8940310

0.165 0.0730784 0.395 0.3057246 0.625 0.6823525 0.855 1.2133341 1.085 1.9110589

0.170 0.0766302 0.400 0.3123531 0.630 0.6922102 0.860 1.2266838 1.090 1.9281713

0.175 0.08022504 0.405 0.3190493 0.635 0.7021409 0.865 1.2401125 1.095 1.9453685

0.180 0.0839387 0.410 0.3258133 0.640 0.7121448 0.870 1.2536203 1.100 1.9626506

0.185 0.0876950 0.415 0.3326452 0.645 0.7222220 0.875 1.2672072 1.105 1.9800176

0.190 0.0915190 0.420 0.3395452 0.650 0.7323725 0.880 1.2808735 1.110 1.9974698

0.195 0.0954105 0.425 0.3465132 0.655 0.7425966 0.885 1.2946192 1.115 2.0150072

0.200 0.0993694 0.430 0.3535495 0.660 0.7528944 0.890 1.3084445 1.120 2.0326299

0.205 0.1033955 0.435 0.3606541 0.665 0.7632659 0.895 1.3223496 1.125 2.0503382

0.210 0.1074887 0.440 0.3678272 0.670 0.7737114 0.900 1.3363344 1.130 2.0681321

0.215 0.1116488 0.445 0.3750688 0.675 0.7842309 0.905 1.3503992 1.135 2.0860117

0.220 0.1158757 0.450 0.3823789 0.680 0.7948246 0.910 1.3645441 1.140 2.1039771

0.225 0.1201694 0.455 0.3897579 0.685 0.8054926 0.915 1.3787693 1.145 2.1220286

0.230 0.1245297 0.460 0.3972056 0.690 0.8162350 0.920 1.39330747 1.150 2.1401661

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

𝛏 𝚿 𝛏 𝚿 𝛏 𝚿 𝛏 𝚿 𝛏 𝚿

0.235 0.1289566 0.465 0.4047224 0.695 0.8270520 0.925 1.4074607 1.155 2.1583899

0.240 0.1334500 0.470 0.4123082 0.700 0.8379437 0.930 1.4219272 1.160 2.1767000

0.245 0.13890098 0.475 0.4199631 0.705 0.8489102 0.935 1.4364745 1.165 2.1950965

0.250 0.1426361 0.480 0.4276873 0.710 0.8599516 0.940 1.4511026 1.170 2.2135797

0.255 0.1473287 0.485 0.4354810 0.715 0.8710681 0.945 1.4658118 1.175 2.2321496

0.260 0.1520877 0.490 0.4433441 0.720 0.882598 0.950 1.4806020 1.180 2.2508063

0.265 0.1569130 0.495 0.4512768 0.725 0.8935269 0.955 1.4954734 1.185 2.2695499

0.270 0.1618046 0.500 0.4592793 0.730 0.9048694 0.960 1.5104263 1.190 2.2883806

0.275 0.1667625 0.505 0.4673517 0.735 0.9162875 0.965 1.5254606 1.195 2.3072986

0.280 0.1717868 0.510 0.4754940 0.740 0.9277813 0.970 1.5405765 1.200 2.3263038

0.285 0.1768773 0.515 0.4837063 0.745 0.9393510 0.975 1.5557742 1.205 2.3453965

0.290 0.1820342 0.520 0.4919889 0.750 0.9509966 0.980 1.5710537 1.210 2.3645767

0.295 0.172575 0.525 0.5003418 0.755 0.9627183 0.985 1.5864153 1.215 2.3838447

0.300 0.1925471 0.530 0.5087651 0.760 0.9745163 0.990 1.6018590 1.220 2.4032004

0.305 0.1979031 0.535 0.5172590 0.765 0.9863907 0.995 1.6173849 1.225 2.4226440

0.310 0.2033256 0.540 0.5258236 0.770 0.9983415 1.000 1.6329932 1.230 2.4421757

0.315 0.2088145 0.545 0.5344589 0.775 1.0103690 1.005 1.6486840 1.235 2.4617956

0.320 0.2143700 0.550 0.5431652 0.780 1.0224732 1.010 1.6644574 1.240 2.4815037

0.325 0.2199920 0.555 0.5519425 0.785 1.0346543 1.015 1.6803135 1.245 2.5013003

0.330 0.2256807 0.560 0.5607910 0.790 1.0469124 1.020 1.6962526 1.250 2.5211853

Where,
3
𝑄𝑚2 𝑚𝑦𝑐
Ψ= 5 And, ξ =
𝐵
√𝑔𝐵2

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

APPENDIX A 5.5 (A)

NOMOGRAM FOR MANNING’S FORMULA

Source-“Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment Systems”, CPHEEO, 2013

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

APPENDIX A 5.5 (B)

NOMOGRAM FOR MANNING’S FORMULA

Source-“Sewerage Manual”, CPHEEO, 2013

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

APPENDIX A 5.5 (C)

NOMOGRAM FOR HAZEN WILLIAMS FORMULA

FOR MAINS FLOWING FULL AND C VALUE OF 100

(For discharges from 100 to 100000 lpm)

For other values of C, the velocity and discharge will be directly proportional.

Example-Find the discharge and velocity of a sewer of diameter 300 mm flowing full
slope of 1 in 100 and a Hazen Williams C value of 130

Answer-From the nomogram, V = 0.75 m/s and discharge = 5,700 lpm. For C value
of 130, V = 0.75 × 130 / 100 = 0.98 m/s & discharge = 5,700 × 130 / 100 = 7,400 lpm

Source: Sewerage Manual”, CPHEEO, 2013

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

APPENDIX A 5.5 (D)

NOMOGRAM FOR HAZEN WILLIAMS FORMULA

FOR MAINS FLOWING FULL AND C VALUE OF 100

(For discharges from 1000 to 1000000 lpm)

For other values of C the velocity and discharge will increase pro-rata.
Example-Find the discharge and velocity of a sewer flowing full of diameter 1,200
mm, slope of 1 in
1,000 and a Hazen Williams C value of 130
Answer-From the nomogram, V = 0.95 m/s and discharge = 63,000 lpm. For C value
of 130,
V = 0.95 × 130 / 100 = 1.24 m/s & discharge = 63,000 × 130 / 100 = 81,900 lpm

Source: “Sewerage Manual”, CPHEEO, 2013

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

APPENDIX A 5.6
MOODY DIAGRAM FOR OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

APPENDIX A 5.7
MANNING’S ROUGHNESS COEFFICIENT FOR OVERLAND FLOW

Source Ground Cover n Range

Crawford and Smooth asphalt 0.01
Linsley (1966)a Asphalt of concrete paving 0.014
Packed clay 0.03
Light turf 0.20
Dense turf 0.35
Dense shrubbery and forest litter 0.4
Engman (1986)b Concrete or asphalt 0.011 0.010-0.013
Bare Sand 0.010 0.01-0.016
Graveled surface 0.02 0.012-0.03
Bare clay-loam (eroded0 0.02 0.012-0.033
Range (natural) 0.13 0.01-0.32
Bluegrass sod 0.45 0.39-0.63
Short grass prairie 0.15 0.10-0.20
Bermuda grass 0.41 0.30-0.48
Yen (2001) c Smooth asphalt pavement 0.012 0.010-0.015
Smooth impervious surface 0.013 0.011-0.015
Tar and sand pavement 0.014 0.012-0.016
Concrete pavement 0.017 0.014-0.020
Rough impervious surface 0.019 0.015-0.023
Smooth bare packed soil 0.021 0.017-0.025
Moderate bare packed soil 0.030 0.025-0.035
Rough bare packed soil 0.038 0.032-0.045
Gravel soil 0.032 0.025-0.045
Mowed poor grass 0.038 0.030-0.045
Average grass, closely clipped 0.050 0.040-0.060
sod
Pasture 0.055 0.040-0.070
Timberland 0.090 0.060-0.120
Dense grass 0.090 0.060-0.120
Shrubs and bushes 0.120 0.080-0.180
Business land use 0.022 0.014-0.035
Semi-business land use 0.035 0.022-0.050
Industrial land use 0.035 0.020-0.050
Dense residential land use 0.040 0.025-0.060
Suburban residential land use 0.055 0.030-0.080
Parks and lawns 0.075 0.040-0.120
aObtained by calibration of Stanford Watershed Model.
bComputed by Engman (1986) by kinematic wave and storage analysis of

measured rainfall-runoff data.

cComputed on basis of kinematic wave analysis.

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

APPENDIX A 5.8
EXAMPLE ON DESIGN OF STORM WATER DRAINS

Design a system of storm water drains for residential colony situated in Safdurjang,
New Delhi shown in Figure based on the Rational Formula for the estimation of
peak runoff.

Basic Data and Assumptions

 Minimum velocity in drains : 0.8 mps

 Rainfall intensity = consider 5 year storm as the area is central and high
priced.
 Use Table 3.7 for the record of rainfall intensity and frequency of rainfall.

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Design of Open Channel Drain

Drain Area of tc time of concentration Runoff (Q)

Location of Drain Ground Profile
No Catchment m3/hr Velocity (mps)
(min)
Intensity Manning' Upper Lower
Design Upper Lower

Contributary Area
Weighte Runoff Runoff

Slope of Ground
of s Length of Slope of Proposed Fall in end end

Time of (to) inlet

Junction from

Total tc = to + tf
Time of flow in
Overland flow
d Runoff Coeff. (Q) Dia (m) Discharge q/Q v/V d/D end invert end invert

Level (1 in )
Junction to

Length (m)
rainfall Coefficien Drain (m) Drain Dia Invert (m) Ground Ground
Manhole /

Total Area
Manhole /

coeff © “C” m3/sec m3/sec level Level

drain tf
Street

(mm/hr) t level Level

10CIA Design Actual
Velocity Velocity

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

1 MH 01 MH 02 2.5 2.5 2000 269.26 0.8 0.8 13.49 0 13.49 115.37 2307.5 0.641 0.013 100.000 1000 0.94 1.00 0.76 0.97 1.083 0.85 1.12 0.939 0.10 229.88 229.83 228.88 228.78
2 MH 02 MH 03 2.5 5 2000 269.26 0.8 0.8 13.49 1.539 15.03 112.25 4489.9 1.247 0.013 100.000 1000 1.205 1.300 1.525 1.15 1.281 0.82 1.11 0.927 0.10 229.83 229.78 228.78 228.68
3 MH 03 MH 04 2.5 7.5 2000 269.26 0.8 0.8 15.03 1.301 16.33 109.61 6576.3 1.827 0.013 100.000 1000 1.39 1.40 1.86 1.21 1.380 0.98 1.14 0.993 0.10 229.78 229.73 228.68 228.58
4 MH 04 MH 05 2.5 10 2000 269.26 0.8 0.8 16.33 1.208 17.53 107.15 8572.2 2.381 0.013 100.000 1000 1.54 1.60 2.65 1.32 1.490 0.90 1.13 0.960 0.10 229.73 229.68 228.58 228.48
5 MH 05 MH 06 2.5 12.5 2000 269.26 0.8 0.8 17.53 1.119 18.65 104.88 10487.9 2.913 0.013 100.000 1000 1.66 1.70 3.12 1.38 1.560 0.93 1.13 0.974 0.10 229.68 229.63 228.48 228.38
6 MH 06 MH 07 2.5 15 2000 269.26 0.8 0.8 18.65 1.068 19.72 89.47 10736.5 2.982 0.013 100.000 1000 1.67 1.70 3.12 1.38 1.565 0.96 1.14 0.983 0.10 229.63 229.58 228.38 228.28
7 MH 07 MH 08 2.5 17.5 2000 269.26 0.8 0.8 19.72 1.065 20.79 88.68 12415.1 3.449 0.013 100.000 1000 1.76 1.80 3.63 1.43 1.633 0.95 1.14 0.980 0.10 229.58 229.53 228.28 228.18
8 MH 08 MH 09 2.5 20 2000 269.26 0.8 0.8 20.79 1.021 21.81 87.92 14067.2 3.908 0.013 100.000 1000 1.85 1.90 4.20 1.48 1.680 0.93 1.13 0.973 0.10 229.53 229.48 228.18 228.08
9 MH 09 MH 10 2.5 22.5 2000 269.26 0.8 0.8 21.81 0.992 22.80 87.18 15692.9 4.359 0.013 100.000 1000 1.93 2.00 4.81 1.53 1.732 0.91 1.13 0.963 0.10 229.48 229.43 228.08 227.98
10 MH 10 Outfall 2.50 25.0 2000 269.26 0.8 0.80 22.80 2.405 25.20 85.39 17078.9 4.744 0.013 250.000 1000 1.99 2.00 4.81 1.53 1.751 0.99 1.14 0.994 0.25 229.43 229.30 227.98 227.73

Design of Closed Conduit

tc time of
Drain Location of Area of Ground Runoff
concentration Section
No Drain Catchment Profile (Q) m3/hr
(min)
Weight Runo Intensity Runoff Depth Upper Lower Upper Lower
Length Slope Fall in
Ground Level (1

Time of (to) inlet

Total tc = to + tf
Junction from

Time of flow in
Overland flow

ed ff of (Q) Manning's Depth with Width Velocity end end end end
Contributary
Junction to

of Drain of Area Section type Invert

Length (m)
Total Area
Manhole /
Manhole /

m3/se Coefficient (m) Freeboar (m) (m/s) Groun Ground invert invert
Slope of

Runoff Coeff rainfall

drain tf
Street

(m) Drain (m)

Area

coeff © . “C”
in )

(mm/hr) 10CIA c d Depth X d level Level level Level

Width

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
1 MH 01 MH 02 2.5 2.5 2000 269.26 0.8 0.8 13.49 0 13.49 115.37 2307.481 0.641 0.013 100.000 1000 0.56 0.76 1.11 0.62 Rectangular 0.76 X 1.11 1.04 0.10 229.88 229.83 228.88 228.78
2 MH 02 MH 03 2.5 5 2000 269.26 0.8 0.8 13.49 1.608 15.09 112.11 4484.287 1.246 0.013 100.000 1000 0.71 0.91 1.43 1.02 Rectangular 0.91 X 1.43 1.22 0.10 229.83 229.78 228.78 228.68
3 MH 03 MH 04 2.5 7.5 2000 269.26 0.8 0.8 15.09 1.362 16.46 109.34 6560.418 1.822 0.013 100.000 1000 0.82 1.02 1.65 1.35 Rectangular 1.02 X 1.65 1.35 0.10 229.78 229.73 228.68 228.58
4 MH 04 MH 05 2.5 10 2000 269.26 0.8 0.8 16.46 1.239 17.70 106.82 8545.957 2.374 0.013 100.000 1000 0.91 1.11 1.82 1.65 Rectangular 1.11 X 1.82 1.44 0.10 229.73 229.68 228.58 228.48
5 MH 05 MH 06 2.5 12.5 2000 269.26 0.8 0.8 17.70 1.159 18.85 104.47 10446.955 2.902 0.013 100.000 1000 0.98 1.18 1.96 1.92 Rectangular 1.18 X 1.96 1.51 0.10 229.68 229.63 228.48 228.38
6 MH 06 MH 07 2.5 15 2000 269.26 0.8 0.8 18.85 1.103 19.96 89.30 10715.404 2.977 0.013 100.000 1000 0.99 1.19 1.98 1.96 Rectangular 1.19 X 1.98 1.52 0.10 229.63 229.58 228.38 228.28
7 MH 07 MH 08 2.5 17.5 2000 269.26 0.8 0.8 19.96 1.096 21.05 88.48 12387.294 3.441 0.013 100.000 1000 1.04 1.24 2.09 2.18 Rectangular 1.24 X 2.09 1.58 0.10 229.58 229.53 228.28 228.18
8 MH 08 MH 09 2.5 20 2000 269.26 0.8 0.8 21.05 1.057 22.11 87.70 14031.249 3.898 0.013 100.000 1000 1.09 1.29 2.19 2.39 Rectangular 1.29 X 2.19 1.63 0.10 229.53 229.48 228.18 228.08
9 MH 09 MH 10 2.5 22.5 2000 269.26 0.8 0.8 22.11 1.024 23.13 86.93 15648.125 4.347 0.013 100.000 1000 1.14 1.34 2.28 2.60 Rectangular 1.34 X 2.28 1.67 0.10 229.48 229.43 228.08 227.98
10 MH 10 Outfall 2.50 25.0 2000 269.26 0.8 0.8 23.13 2.491 25.63 85.20 17039.859 4.733 0.01 250.000 1000 1.18 1.38 2.35 2.77 Rectangular 1.37 X 2.34 1.71 0.25 229.43 229.30 227.98 227.73

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

APPENDIX A 5.9
SWMM MODEL DESCRIPTION AND CASE STUDY
INTRODUCTION
The simulation of urban watershed and the management of its resources are
performed by developing different hydraulic and rainfall-runoff methods. The complex
behaviour of the urban system and their relations between the hydrological-hydraulic
processes need to be explained first as per hydrological cycle i.e., how runoff is
influenced by the considerable changes made in urban watershed characteristics.
Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) is a dynamic rainfall-runoff model used for
modelling quantity and quality of runoff for a single event or for a continuous storm in
urban areas (Rossman, 2005). Rossman (2005) further reported that in SWMM, the
study area is divided into number of small subareas which receives rainfall and
generates surface runoff. There are number of modules present in SWMM, which are
used to evaluate various elements of hydrological cycle. Mass balance principle and
nonlinear reservoir approach are used by SWMM to evaluate surface runoff.
Therefore, SWMM being a public domain model (provide here the link of the SWMM
site), is a good option to be used for design and evaluation of a storm water system in
an integrated manner.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OVERVIEW
For the analysis of the urban system, it is necessary to have a mathematical model
which represents the behavior of the systems. An overview of the theoretical
framework to the modelling software SWMM has been given and modelling
capabilities have been discussed in detail.
Rainfall-Runoff Routing
The flow is generated in SWMM by converting the excess rainfall into the overland
flow (runoff).
The surface runoff which is generated from subareas is approximated as nonlinear
reservoirs as shown in Figure. A.1.

Evaporation Rainfall

d Runoff (Q)
dp

Infiltration

Figure. A.1. Nonlinear Reservoir Model Scheme

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Continuity equation is coupled with Manning’s equation to establish nonlinear

reservoir. For subareas, continuity can be expressed as:
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑑
= 𝐴 ∗ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴 ∗ 𝑖 ∗ − 𝑄 (A.1)
𝑑𝑡

Where, V = A· d = water volume on the subarea, d = depth of water, t = time, A = sub-

catchment area, i* = excess rainfall and Q = runoff

Manning’s equation is used for generating outflow:

𝑊
𝑄= (𝑑 − 𝑑𝑝 )5/3 ∗ 𝑆 1/2 (A.2)
𝑛

Where, W = width of the sub-catchment in m, n = coefficient of Manning’s roughness,

dp = depression storage depth in mm, and S = slope of the sub-catchment in
percentage

Nonlinear differential equation is obtained by combining the above two equations. At

each time step, this nonlinear differential equation which is treated as nonlinear
reservoir equation, can be computed using simple finite difference approach and can
be estimated by:

𝑑2 −𝑑1 1 5/3
= 𝑖 ∗ 𝑊𝐶𝑂𝑁 [𝑑1 + 2 ∗ (𝑑2 − 𝑑1 ) − 𝑑𝑝 ] (A.3)
𝛥𝑡

𝑊∗𝑆 1/2
Where, 𝑊𝐶𝑂𝑁 =
𝐴∗𝑛

Infiltration

Mainly Green-Ampt (1911) or Horton (1933, 1940) are the two infiltration models used
in pervious area for calculating infiltration as explained below. Time as the function of
infiltration capacity is explained by Horton as:

𝑓𝑝 = 𝑓𝑐 + (𝑓0 − 𝑓𝑐 ) ∗ 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 (A.4)

Where, fp = soil infiltration capacity, fc = minimum or ultimate value of fp, f0 = maximum

or initial value of fp, t = storm starting time, and k = coefficient of decay.

The above equation is used to explain how the infiltration capacity decreases
exponentially during dense storm. Second model is the Green-Ampt equation which
is based on physical parameters. Mein Larson (1973) designed Green-Ampt equation
which is a two stage model. In first step, the amount of water, Fs infiltrates into the
surface till the surface becomes saturated is well predicted beforehand by the model.
After that, in second stage, Green-Ampt equation is used to predict the infiltration
capacity, fp. Thus,

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

𝑆𝑛 ∗𝐼𝑀𝐷
For 𝐹 < 𝐹𝑠 ∶ 𝑓 = 𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑠 = 𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 > 𝐾𝑠 (A.5)
−1
𝐾𝑠

𝑆𝑛 ∗𝐼𝑀𝐷
𝐹 ⩾ 𝐹𝑠 : 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑝 = 𝐾𝑠 [1 + ] (A.6)
𝐹

where, f = rate of infiltration, fp = capacity of infiltration, i = intensity of rainfall, F =

cumulative infiltration volume, Fs = cumulative infiltration volume required to cause
surface saturation, Su = average capillary suction at the wetting front, IMD = initial
moisture deficit for this event and Ks = hydraulic conductivity of saturated soil.

Moisture contents in the surface soil and amount of water infiltrated into the surface
are linked to infiltration.
Depression Storage
Viessman et al. (1977) explained that depression storage may or may not exist in the
subareas (both pervious and impervious); but if it exists then during storm, the
depression storage will be filled (volume of water) first, before the generation of
surface runoff. The volume of water collected in the depression storage is treated as
losses or “initial abstraction” which is caused by the occurrences like evaporation,
interception, surface ponding or surface wetting. In pervious area, depression storage
is also treated as infiltration by few other models. In pervious area, infiltration and
evaporation both take place, if depression storage is filled with water, it results into
fast refilling. Whereas in case of impervious area only evaporation takes place, if
depression storage is filled with water, it makes refilling process very slow.
Flow Routing
A conceptual overview of SWMM is shown in Figure. A.2. The figure shows the main
features of SWMM, i.e., how the inlet hydrographs is routed using conduit networks,
nodes and structure of flow divider of the drainage system to the outfalls.

Figure. A.2: SWMM Module Functional Scheme

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

As shown in Figure. A.2, SWMM computes conduits (pipes, channels), nodes

(manholes or junctions of conduits), orifices, weirs, detention storage (storage basins),
pumps (on-line or off-line pump station), and outfall structures (transverse with or
without tide gate, side-flow weir with tide gate, outfall with tide gate, free outfall without
tide gate).

Output from SWMM:

a) Represents the velocities and discharge hydrographs of any particular conduits

both in plotted and printed form;
b) Plot and print the water surface level and depth of flow of any junctions.

SWMM applies a link-node detailed explanation of the drainage system which

facilitates the distinct illustration of the physical model and the mathematical solution
of the Saint Venant equations (gradually-varied unsteady flow) which form the
mathematical source of the model. The network of conduit is like a chain of pipes or
channels which are joined at junctions or nodes. The transportation of flow takes place
between junction to junction in conduits. Length, cross-sectional area, roughness
coefficient, surface width and hydraulic radius are the properties related to conduits.
The properties like cross-sectional area, surface width and hydraulic radius are the
functions of the instant depth of flow. Discharge, Q is the main variable which depends
on the characteristics of the conduits. The output of the model provides the average
flow in every conduit, which is supposed to be constant over a time step. The model
also gives other output results like flow depth, velocity of flow in of the conduits.

Junctions are the storage elements, which are also known as nodes or manholes in
the physical drainage system. Surface area, volume and head are the properties
related to junctions. Head, H is the main variable which changes with respect to time,
but constant throughout the junction.

Inlet hydrographs as inflows and weir diversions as outflows occurs at the junctions of
the perfect drainage system. Volume of water in the half-conduit length is equivalent
at any time to the volume of water at the junctions when joined with any one junction.
Calculations of discharge and head are based on the nodal volume changes during a
known time step, Δt.

The simple differential equations for the storm flow issue derived from the steadily
varied, unsteady flow equations for open channels, are also known as the St. Venants’
or shallow water equations. Yen (1986) and Lai (1986) reported that the unsteady flow
continuity equation with surface area flow is treated as dependent variables as:
𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝑄
+ 𝜕𝑥 = 0 (A.7)
𝜕𝑡

where, A = area of cross sectional, Q = flow in conduit, x = distance along the

pipe/channel, and t = time.

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Lai (1986) gave the momentum equation as:

𝑄2
𝜕𝑄 𝜕( ) 𝜕𝐻
𝐴
+ + 𝑔𝐴 ∗ 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑔𝐴𝑆𝑓 = 0 (A.8)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

where, g = gravitational constant, H = z + h = hydraulic head, z = invert level, h = depth

of water, and Sf = friction (energy) slope.

In SWMM model, for the conduits, momentum equation is used; whereas, for the
junctions, special lumped continuity equation is used. Therefore, conduits converse
momentum and junctions converse continuity. Thus, the momentum equation is
coupled with the continuity equations to produce an equation, which solves laterally
every conduit at each time step
𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐻
+ 𝑔𝐴𝑆𝑓 − 2𝑉 𝜕𝑡 − 𝑉 2 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑔𝐴 𝜕𝑥 = 0 (A.9)
𝜕𝑡

where, Q = discharge along the conduit, V = conduit velocity, A = cross-sectional area

of the flow, H = hydraulic head (invert elevation plus water depth), and Sf = friction
slope.

Manning’s equation is used for friction slope, i.e.

𝑘
𝑆𝑓 = 𝑄 |𝑉| (A.10)
𝑔𝐴𝑅 4/3

where, n = Manning’s roughness coefficient, R = hydraulic radius, k = gn2, g =

gravitational acceleration.

Use of the absolute value on the sign on the flow term makes Sf a directional quantity
and ensures that the friction force always opposes the flow.

Dynamic flow equation (final finite difference form) is obtained, when solved for Qt+Δt
after substituting the value from equation A.9 to equation. A.10:
1 ΔA 𝐴2 −𝐴1 𝐻2 −𝐻1
𝑄𝑡_Δt = 𝑘Δt [𝑄𝑡 + 2𝑉̅ ( Δt ) Δt + 𝑉̅ 2 [( ̅ [(
)] Δt − gA )] Δt] (A.11)
1+ 4/3 𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
𝑅 |𝑉|

In the previous equation, V, R, and A are considered as weighted averages of the link
and values at time t, and (ΔA/Δt)t is the time derivative from the previous time step.
Qt+Δt, H2 and H1 are the basic unknowns in the equation (A.11). The various V, R, and
A, are all associated with Q and H. Thus, an additional equation is needed for linking
Q and H. This equation can be derived from the continuity equation at a junction:
𝜕𝐻 𝑄
= ∑𝐴𝑡 (A.12)
𝜕𝑡 𝑠𝑡

or in finite difference form

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

𝑄𝑡 Δt
𝐻𝑡+Δ𝑡 = 𝐻𝑡 + ∑ (A.13)
𝐴𝑠𝑡

where, As = junction surface area

To compute discharge of each of the conduits and head of each of the junctions, the
equation A.11 and A.13 can be solved at each time step Δt. The mathematical
combination of the above two equations is accomplished by the enhanced polygon or
by the revised Euler method (Rossman et al., 2004). The results obtained are
reasonably precise and steady when some limitations were considered (Rossman et
al., 2004). The equivalent half-step and full-step calculations for head are presented
below:

Half-step at node j: Time t+Δt/2

1
𝐻𝑗 (𝑡 + Δt/2) = 𝐻𝑗 (𝑡) + (Δt/2) {2 ∗ ∑[𝑄(𝑡) + 𝑄(𝑡 + Δt/2)] + ∑[𝑄(𝑡 + Δt/2)]} /𝐴𝑠𝑗 (𝑡)

(A.14)

Full-step at node j : Time t+Δt

1
𝐻𝑗 (𝑡 + Δt) = 𝐻𝑗 (𝑡) + Δt {2 ∗ ∑[𝑄(𝑡) + 𝑄(𝑡 + Δt)] + ∑[𝑄(𝑡 + Δt)]} /𝐴𝑠𝑗 (𝑡) (A.15)

The entire succession of discharge calculations in the conduits and head calculations
in the junctions are outlined as:

 Calculate half-step discharge at t+Δt/2 in every conduit, on the basis of earlier

full step values of head at linking junctions.
 Calculate half-step flow transfers by orifices, pumps and weir at time t+Δt/2 on
the basis of earlier full-step values of head at transfer junction.
 Calculate half-step head at every junction at time t+Δt/2 on the basis of average
of earlier full step and present half-step discharges in every joining conduit, and
above flow transfers at the present half-step.
 Calculate full-step discharge in every conduit at time t+Δt on the basis of half-
step heads at every linking junctions.
 Calculate full-step flow transfers among junctions at time t+Δt on the basis of
present half-step heads at every orifice, weir, and pump nodes.
 Calculate full-step head at time t+Δt for every junctions on the basis of mean of
earlier full-step and present full-step discharge, and above flow transfers at the
present full-step.

The conduit-junction computations can be protracted to take into account of devices

which avert sanitary sewage from the combined sewer system or reduce the storm
burden from the sanitary interceptors. In SWMM model, entire diversions are

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

supposed to occur at junctions and are controlled as inter-nodal transfer. Devices like
orifices, weirs (both side-flow and transverse), outfalls and pumps are treated as
exceptional flow regulator devices in SWMM.

Flow Regulator Devices

Devices like in-line and off-line behaves as a flow regulator devices which provides
the storage for storing excess runoff generated in the upstream, so as to mitigate as
well as lag the flow hydrograph from the area upstream. Routing is executed by normal
level-surface reservoir approach. Surcharge is not allowed in this type of storage.

Orifices

SWMM evaluates dropout or sump orifice and orifices at side outlet, by transforming
the orifices to an equivalent pipe. The transformation is prepared as follows. The
standard equation of orifice is:

𝑄0 = 𝐶0 𝐴√2𝑔ℎ (A.16)

where, C0 = coefficient of discharge, A = cross-sectional area of the orifice, g =

acceleration due to gravity, and h = the hydraulic head on the orifice.

When orifice is converted into a pipe, manning’s pipe flow equation and orifice
discharge equation is equated by the program, i.e.
2 1
1
𝐴𝑅 3 𝑆 2 = 𝐶0 𝐴√2𝑔ℎ (A.17)
𝑛

where, S = equivalent pipe slope.

Weirs

Flow over a weir is calculated by:

𝑎 𝑎
ℎ+𝑉 2 𝑉2
𝑄𝑤 = 𝐶𝑤 𝐿𝑤 [( ) − (2𝑔) ] (A.18)
2𝑔

where, Cw = coefficient of discharge, Lw = length of weir (transverse to overflow), h =

driving head on the weir, V = approach velocity, and a = weir exponent, 3/2 for
transverse weirs and 5/3 for side flow weirs

For the submerged weir, calculation of the flow is done as:

𝑄𝑤 = 𝐶𝑆𝑈𝐵 𝐶𝑤 𝐿𝑤 (𝑌𝑙 − 𝑌𝑐 )3/2 (A.19)

The coefficient of submergence, CSUB, is taken from Roessert’s Handbook of

Hydraulics. CSUB is a function of CRATIO which is defined as:
𝑌 −𝑌
𝐶𝑅𝐴𝑇𝐼𝑂 = 𝑌2 −𝑌𝑐 (A.20)
1 𝑐

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

In SWMM, the values are calculated spontaneously for CRATIO and CSUB and no initial
information is required. The weir acts as orifice, when the weir is surcharged and the
flow is calculated as:

𝑄𝑤 = 𝐶𝑆𝑈𝑅 𝐿𝑤 (𝑌𝑇𝑂𝑃 − 𝑌𝑐 )√2𝑔ℎ′ (A.21)

where, YTOP = distance to top of weir opening, h’ = Y1 – maximum (Y2, Yc), CSUR =
weir surcharge coefficient and Lw = length of weir (transverse to overflow).

The coefficient of weir surcharge, CSUR, is calculated spontaneously, when the weir
starts surcharging.

Pump stations

A pump station is theoretically characterized as either an in-line lift station or an off-

line junction which represents as reservoirs or wet-well, from where the water is forced
to other junction as per the planned rule curve in the system. Otherwise, the pumps
can use a 3 point pump curve (head versus pumped outflow) for in-line as well as for
off-line junction.

SWMM APPLICATIONS, LIMITATIONS AND ADVANTAGES

Advantages of SWMM Model

The key advantages of the SWMM software for catchment analysis are as follows:

i. Since its development in the early 1970’s, the SWMM hydraulic engine has
been widely used for modelling stormwater and wastewater in North America.
There are several other readily available software packages which use SWMM
engine as their basis. USEPA maintain the SWMM software. SWMM is a
globally well-accepted model.
ii. SWMM is open source software and is freely downloadable. The modeller or
the consultants have the right to modify the software as per their requirements,
without any need to purchase the software.
iii. The interface of SWMM is very simple and also has in-built data management
abilities. The model also has robust hydraulic performance.
iv. The SWMM model developed by USEPA, its user interface can be represented
in more user friendly forms in the software such as MIKE URBAN, H20MAP
SWMM, PCSWMM and XP-SWMM etc. More complex management of data,
presentation of results features are also available in this software.

Limitations of SWMM Model

There are several limitations in SWMM, which are listed below.

i. GIS Linkages - the SWMM model has no direct GIS linkages, i.e., not
compatible with GIS.

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

ii. Simulation Speed - As compared with the other hydraulic engines, the model
hydraulic engine is somewhat slower. Continuous up gradation is in process
which will improve the model performance steadily.

SWMM Model Applications

SWMM has been used widely worldwide by many researchers (for wastewater and
stormwater). Distinct applications comprises of:

i. Used in designing and classifying the dimensions of the drainage system

ii. Used for the sizing of detention services and their trappings for controlling the
flood control and also for safety of water quality.
iii. Used in natural channel systems for identification of the flood plain.
iv. For dual system, the model can reduce the overflows for planning proper control
policies.
v. In sanitary sewer, the effect of infiltration and inflow is estimated on overflows
vi. For the study of the allocation of waste load, the model generates non-point
source pollutant loadings
vii. To study the reduction in pollutant loading in wet weather, the model has the
capabilities to estimate the effectiveness of BMPs.

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

EXAMPLE - NETWORK 1

The objective of this section is to serve as a practical application guide for new SWMM
users who have already had some previous training in hydrology and hydraulics. It
contains two worked out examples that illustrate how SWMM can be used to model
some of the most common types of design problems encountered in practice.

This first example illustrates the procedure to build a hydrologic and hydraulic model
of an already built-up catchment, which is more usual case. It explains the procedure
of spatially dividing a catchment into smaller computational elements, called
subcatchments, and deliberates the characteristics of these subcatchments that
SWMM uses to convert rainfall into runoff. This example also considers flow routing of
runoff through the drainage pipes and channels contained within the catchment.

SYSTEM REPRESENTATION

SWMM is a distributed model, which means that a study area can be subdivided into
any number of subcatchments to best capture the effects of spatial variability in
topography, drainage pathways, land cover, and soil characteristics on runoff
generation. An idealized subcatchment is conceptualized as a rectangular surface that
has a uniform slope and a width W that drains to a single outlet channel as shown in
Figure B.1. Each subcatchment can be further divided into three subareas: an
impervious area with depression (detention) storage, an impervious area without
depression storage and a pervious area with depression storage. SWMM also models
a conveyance network as a series of nodes connected by links. Links control the rate
of flow from one node to the next and are typically conduits (e.g. open channels or
pipes) but additional controls such as orifices, weirs or pumps can also be
implemented. The nodes define the elevation of the drainage system and the time-
varying hydraulic head applied at the end of each link it connects. The flow conveyed
through the links and nodes of the model is ultimately discharged to a final node called
the outfall. Outfalls can be subjected to alternative hydraulic boundary conditions (e.g.
free discharge, fixed water surface, time varying water surface, etc.) when modelled
with Dynamic Wave.

In this example, a drainage system for a 750.28 ha urban catchment has been
modelled. The system layout is shown in the Figure B.1. The area is divided into 120
subcatchments. The network consists of 119 stormwater conduits, 1 pump and 118
junction nodes where flows from
subcatchments enter the system.The system discharges to an outfall into an
open drain, known as Najafgarh drain, in NCT of Delhi.

First step in this direction shall involve delineation of the area into subcatchments
draining various natural drains and evaluate the various properties for each of these
subcatchments to evaluate overland flow. The next step shall involve computation of
the flow corresponding to a specific storm event.

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Figure B.1. Example Network Component and Land use

BASINS Based Subcatchments Division Approach for SWMM

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) Better Assessment Science

Integrating point and Nonpoint Sources (BASINS) is a multipurpose model organised
to support environmental and ecological studies in a drainage basin. In this study, the
delineation capability of the BASINS model is used to delineate the sub-catchments
to be used in the SWMM model. Numerous GIS data layers such as land use, digital
elevation grids, and urban systems are needed to formulate the delineation and
capture various properties within the subcatchments. The digital elevation model is an
input to the BASINS to automatically delineate the subcatchments. These delineated
subcatchments are used in the SWMM model. BASINS package is already integrated
with the ArcGIS software and has recently developed a SWMM linkage as well. This
link would be a valuable tool for urban planners and watershed managers to estimate
the futuristic view of drainage system. The BASINS/SWMM Plugin is also useful in
combining with existing GIS shapefiles of subcatchments, conduits, and nodes, if
available for a present storm water system. Otherwise, the GIS layers of
subcatchments, conduits, and nodes may also be formed using the BASINS
watershed delineation and/or shapefile editing tools.

Subcatchment division

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

To divide the study area into subcatchment, 120 nodes were primarily identified based
on the natural watershed obtained from BASINS model, the subcatchments were then
delineated with the Thiessen polygons method which has the junction as its centre.
With this division, the basic parameters of every subcatchment could be derived
including area, width, average slope and rate of impervious area.

Project Setup

The first task is to create a new SWMM project which also enables certain default
options.

The workflow of the project is explained below:

 Launch EPA SWMM if it is not previously running and select File >> New from
the Main Menu bar to create a new project
 Select Project >> Defaults to open the Default Project.
 On the ID Labels, set the ID Prefixes as shown in Figure B.2. This will make
SWMM automatically label new objects.

Figure B.2. Default ID labelling

 On the Subcatchments section set the following default values: Dstore‐Imperv.

0.05, Dstore‐Perv 0.05, %Zero Imperv. 25, Infiltration Model - HORTON
 On the Nodes/Links section, set the Units to CMS
 Click OK to accept these adoptions
 Next, fix some map display selections so that IDs and symbols will be displayed.
 Select Tools>> Map Display to bring up the Map Options box (Figure B.3).
 Select the Subcatchments, set the Fill Style and the Symbol Size
 Then select the Nodes and set the Node Size

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

 Select the Annotation and check on the display ID labels for Subcatchments,
Nodes, and Conduits
 Finally select the Flow Arrow, select the Fancy arrow, and set the arrow size.
Click the OK button to accept these selections.

Figure B.3. Map Options dialog box

 The system is now ready to begin adding components (Subcatchments,

Conduits, Junction, Outfall etc.) to the Study Area Map.
 The first in line should be the subcatchments.
 Start by clicking the button on the Object Toolbar.

Move the mouse to the map where one of the corners of the subcatchment lies and
left click the mouse, do the same for the next corners and then right click the mouse
to close the shape that represent the subcatchment. This process allows the user to
adjust the automatically delineated subcatchments using the natural terrain with
respect to the manmade changes made/to be made to the natural system.

 Press the Esc key, if want to cancel the partially drawn subcatchment.
 Next, add in the junction and the outfall that comprise the drainage system.
 To begin adding junctions, click the button on the Object Toolbar
 Move the mouse to the position of junction and left click it. Do the same for other
junctions.

 To add the outfall, click the button on the Toolbar, move the mouse to
the outfall site on the map, and left click.
 At this point your map should look something like that shown in Figure B.4.

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Figure B.4. Subcatchments and nodes for the study area

 Now, add the storm sewer conduits that connect the drainage system nodes t
o one another. Begin with conduit first, which connects junction 1 to 2.
 Click the button on the Object Toolbar.
 Click the mouse on junction1 and move the mouse over to junction 2 and left
click to create the conduit.
 One could have cancelled the action by either right clicking or by striking the E
sc key
 Repeat this procedure for conduits 2 and so on.
 It is possible to draw a curved conduit by leftclicking at midway points where t
he path of the conduit changes before clicking on the end node.
 At this point the map should look something like that shown in Figure B.5.

Figure B.5. Subcatchments, nodes, Rain gage and Conduits for the study area

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

 Click the Rain Gage button on the Object Toolbar

 Move the mouse on the Study area Map to where the rain
gage is located and left click the mouse.
 If rain gage, subcatchment or node is out of position one can move it by doing
the following:
 If the button is not previously depressed, click it to place the map in Object
Selection mode.
 Click on the object to be relocated.
 Drag the object with the left mouse button held down to its new position. To re
style a subcatchment:
 With the map in Object Selection mode, click on the subcatchment’s centroid t
o select it.
 Then click the button on the Map toolbar to put the map into Vertex Se
lection.
 Select a vertex point on the subcatchment outline by clicking on it.
 Drag the vertex to its new position with the left mouse button held down.
 If required, more vertices can be added or deleted by right clicking the mouse.
When finished, click the button to return to object mode.
 This same process can also be used to reshape a conduit.

Setting Object Properties

 To change the value of a specific property for an object we must select the obj
ect into the Property Editor (Figure B.6).
 If the Editor is noticeable, then one can just click on the object or select it from
the Data page if the Browser Panel of the main window & the Editor is not
noticeable then we can make it appear by one of the following actions:
 Double-click the object on the map, or right click on the object and select
Properties from
the Popup menu, or select the object from the Data page of the Browser panel.
 Two key properties of the subcatchments that need to be set are the rain gag
e and the node of the drainage system.

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Figure B.6. Subcatchment inputs for the study area

 Since the outlet nodes vary by subcatchment, one must set them individually
as Type 1 in the Outlet field and press Enter.
 Similarly set the area, percent imperviousness and width as shown below.

Table B.1. Input data to the Subcatchment

N-
Conduit Rain N-Pervious
Outlet Area %Impervious Width %Slope Impervious
Name Gage (manning)
(manning)
C_1 1 40 27.95 24.41 616 0.831 0.012 0.156
C_2 1 48 5.22 16.65 521.4 1.138 0.012 0.167
C_3 1 25 34.9 27.61 609.5 0.277 0.012 0.152
C_4 1 16 2.24 63.94 80.9 0.001 0.012 0.150
C_5 1 82 0.2 39.73 127.1 3.386 0.012 0.150
C_6 1 52 39.54 23.75 52.2 1.228 0.012 0.156
C_7 1 30 28.53 7.36 568.5 0.485 0.012 0.164
C_8 1 27 8.99 22.77 610.8 0.346 0.012 0.127
C_9 1 34 26.32 8.31 604.6 0.683 0.012 0.159
C_10 1 90 0.83 63.18 170.8 4.239 0.012 0.150
C_11 1 45 7.3 25.81 614.6 1.084 0.012 0.157
C_12 1 39 37.96 36.26 605.6 0.829 0.012 0.157
C_13 1 36 27.04 21.8 606.2 0.749 0.012 0.154
C_14 1 50 13.72 6.68 670.4 1.206 0.012 0.167
C_15 1 106 1.53 18.56 175 6.591 0.012 0.159
C_16 1 107 1.04 65.25 208.9 5.259 0.012 0.153
C_17 1 101 2.15 26.84 176 5.699 0.012 0.150
C_18 1 102 1.62 60.36 191.7 6.109 0.012 0.151

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N-
Conduit Rain N-Pervious
Outlet Area %Impervious Width %Slope Impervious
Name Gage (manning)
(manning)
C_19 1 49 12.93 31.21 645.2 1.177 0.012 0.163
C_20 1 46 8.44 2.6 607.4 1.113 0.012 0.169
C_21 1 51 3.07 13.89 411.7 1.218 0.012 0.175
C_22 1 53 0.55 2.79 72.1 1.244 0.012 0.149
C_23 1 114 1.19 1.38 158.7 1.059 0.012 0.138
C_24 1 114 0.15 3.75 117 8.55 0.012 0.150
C_25 1 119 0.39 6.45 226.5 10.765 0.012 0.152
C_26 1 118 0.42 16.21 199.9 10.037 0.012 0.144
C_27 1 113 1.34 4.05 197.1 8.266 0.012 0.130
C_28 1 117 1.77 22.92 182.4 10.332 0.012 0.161
C_29 1 112 2.65 0.76 199.1 7.636 0.012 0.150
C_30 1 111 4.42 5.99 175.5 7.198 0.012 0.166
C_31 1 116 2.86 9.33 196.2 9.133 0.012 0.169
C_32 1 110 4.9 6.66 188.5 7.145 0.012 0.153
C_33 1 115 2.88 2.44 208.7 8.056 0.012 0.167
C_34 1 109 3.51 7.94 196.2 7.929 0.012 0.159
C_35 1 105 2.91 26.77 203.3 6.543 0.012 0.157
C_36 1 100 2.84 0.37 208.8 5.529 0.012 0.150
C_37 1 47 4.6 2.82 613.7 1.117 0.012 0.168
C_38 1 44 4.5 42.95 424.7 0.991 0.012 0.150
C_39 1 95 0.91 54.91 190.2 5.213 0.012 0.150
C_40 1 96 1.24 64 82.5 5.222 0.012 0.150
C_41 1 97 1.79 77.63 211.6 5.245 0.012 0.150
C_42 1 71 5.84 42.06 331.8 2.63 0.012 0.145
C_43 1 98 2.44 90.67 174.8 5.252 0.012 0.150
C_44 1 72 3.91 33.74 183.3 2.665 0.012 0.150
C_45 1 73 4.28 54.83 196 2.735 0.012 0.150
C_46 1 74 4.17 67.54 198 2.739 0.012 0.150
C_47 1 75 11.16 75.49 770.9 2.772 0.012 0.150
C_48 1 43 0.75 56.24 87.9 0.859 0.012 0.150
C_49 1 99 0.09 3.12 163.2 5.317 0.012 0.150
C_50 1 108 0.64 48.94 68 0.707 0.012 0.150
C_51 1 42 2.34 42.63 759 0.856 0.012 0.150
C_52 1 104 0.58 1.84 239 6.384 0.012 0.150
C_53 1 103 0.9 8.21 204.5 6.318 0.012 0.150
C_54 1 41 7.72 37.59 397.9 0.855 0.012 0.154
C_55 1 38 39.53 34.14 612.2 0.817 0.012 0.156
C_56 1 37 31.75 33.23 632 0.783 0.012 0.155
C_57 1 35 12.53 33.48 598.5 0.707 0.012 0.147
C_58 1 31 33.64 2.2 457.3 0.567 0.012 0.164
C_59 1 32 7.85 0.74 299.6 0.571 0.012 0.167
C_60 1 33 4.31 7 454.4 0.678 0.012 0.142

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N-
Conduit Rain N-Pervious
Outlet Area %Impervious Width %Slope Impervious
Name Gage (manning)
(manning)
C_61 1 86 0.43 32.77 133.7 3.792 0.012 0.150
C_62 1 87 0.18 20.18 84.9 3.941 0.012 0.150
C_63 1 62 5.18 45.55 238.7 1.818 0.012 0.153
C_64 1 88 0.86 42.69 264.7 4.097 0.012 0.150
C_65 1 89 0.88 77.86 229.6 4.106 0.012 0.150
C_66 1 63 7.9 24.2 224.3 1.874 0.012 0.157
C_67 1 64 7.13 44.33 91.5 1.885 0.012 0.150
C_68 1 65 5.55 41.69 164.3 1.971 0.012 0.151
C_69 1 91 0.37 38.46 177.7 4.354 0.012 0.150
C_70 1 92 0.45 37.56 191.1 4.711 0.012 0.150
C_71 1 66 7.7 27.04 321.4 2.067 0.012 0.152
C_72 1 67 7.26 44.26 193.1 2.101 0.012 0.151
C_73 1 93 0.31 31.56 214 4.772 0.012 0.150
C_74 1 68 5.66 63.5 73.3 2.128 0.012 0.150
C_75 1 94 0.47 43.32 168.5 4.841 0.012 0.150
C_76 1 69 5.03 50.3 323.6 2.226 0.012 0.150
C_77 1 70 4.84 60.91 239.6 2.521 0.012 0.150
C_78 1 83 0.57 71.36 172.1 3.506 0.012 0.150
C_79 1 84 1.52 50.06 166.3 3.611 0.012 0.150
C_80 1 85 1.1 47.42 179.2 3.674 0.012 0.150
C_81 1 60 1.45 40.96 198.7 1.612 0.012 0.166
C_82 1 61 2.46 32.56 164.8 1.785 0.012 0.151
C_83 1 59 0.65 51.12 268.9 1.549 0.012 0.150
C_84 1 81 0.25 56.77 215.8 3.222 0.012 0.150
C_85 1 58 2.2 62.18 148.1 1.412 0.012 0.151
C_86 1 57 5.82 57.47 212.6 1.403 0.012 0.152
C_87 1 80 0.36 21.83 145.8 3.093 0.012 0.150
C_88 1 79 0.21 54.05 179 3.047 0.012 0.150
C_89 1 56 4.31 22.47 178.1 1.375 0.012 0.152
C_90 1 78 0.27 45.24 176.4 3.007 0.012 0.150
C_91 1 55 6.68 39.76 167.5 1.352 0.012 0.156
C_92 1 54 3.02 34.62 209.2 1.324 0.012 0.150
C_93 1 77 0.31 31.62 62.5 2.903 0.012 0.150
C_94 1 76 0.33 10.23 176 2.818 0.012 0.150
C_95 1 28 45.5 12.62 648.9 0.383 0.012 0.156
C_96 1 29 9.43 0.4 623.9 0.401 0.012 0.165
C_97 1 26 9.79 14.57 598.6 0.311 0.012 0.125
C_98 1 24 31.2 30.43 678.2 0.273 0.012 0.157
C_99 1 23 7.64 32.51 605.6 0.256 0.012 0.150
C_100 1 1 2.65 41.25 33.3 0.001 0.012 0.150
C_101 1 2 1 0.69 97.7 0.001 0.012 0.150
C_102 1 3 0.7 59.75 94.2 0.001 0.012 0.150

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N-
Conduit Rain N-Pervious
Outlet Area %Impervious Width %Slope Impervious
Name Gage (manning)
(manning)
C_103 1 4 0.68 57.03 46.5 0.001 0.012 0.150
C_104 1 5 0.26 44.97 38 0.001 0.012 0.150
C_105 1 6 0.16 28.47 39.5 0.001 0.012 0.150
C_106 1 7 0.5 30.37 77.7 0.001 0.012 0.150
C_107 1 8 1.12 46.06 89.9 0.001 0.012 0.158
C_108 1 9 1.71 20.87 198.6 0.001 0.012 0.152
C_109 1 15 0.64 1.42 240.7 0.001 0.012 0.150
C_110 1 14 7.75 57.14 48.3 0.001 0.012 0.154
C_111 1 17 0.58 56.92 130.4 0.005 0.012 0.150
C_112 1 11 1.23 28.59 154.8 0.001 0.012 0.156
C_113 1 20 0.3 10.59 94.4 0.164 0.012 0.160
C_114 1 19 0.36 34.25 238.5 0.093 0.012 0.158
C_115 1 18 0.95 11.69 368.2 0.017 0.012 0.131
C_116 1 13 1.36 46.52 189.5 0.001 0.012 0.150
C_117 1 10 1.61 15.63 335.9 0.001 0.012 0.101
C_118 1 12 4.9 60.49 135.8 0.001 0.012 0.198
C_119 1 22 7.47 51.59 547.2 0.255 0.012 0.152
C_120 1 21 7.32 6.84 553.9 0.196 0.012 0.162
The junctions and outfall of the drainage system need to have invert elevations. As it was done
with the subcatchments, select each junction individually into the Property Editor and set its
Invert Elevation to the value shown below.

Table B.2. Input data to the Node and Outfall

Node Name Elevation Node Name Elevation Node Name Elevation

1 208.55 41 204.08 81 207.35
2 208.42 42 204.05 82 208.30
3 208.41 43 204.05 83 208.56
4 208.44 44 204.04 84 207.82
5 208.30 45 203.99 85 208.05
6 208.17 46 203.95 86 208.24
7 208.13 47 203.90 87 209.40
8 208.07 48 203.86 88 209.40
9 207.60 49 203.83 89 209.40
10 204.94 50 203.77 90 209.48
11 204.92 51 203.73 91 209.12
12 207.67 52 206.70 92 209.00
13 206.90 54 207.78 93 208.50
14 207.85 55 206.95 94 208.45
15 207.89 56 207.32 95 207.45
16 207.81 57 207.30 96 207.08
17 207.51 58 208.10 97 206.97
18 207.37 59 208.30 98 206.68

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Node Name Elevation Node Name Elevation Node Name Elevation

19 207.17 60 208.26 99 204.16
20 204.91 61 209.25 100 204.70
21 204.89 62 209.25 101 205.50
22 204.86 63 209.24 102 205.38
23 204.82 64 209.24 103 205.66
24 204.77 65 210.06 104 205.90
25 204.73 66 209.85 105 204.53
26 204.69 67 209.38 106 204.44
27 204.64 68 209.57 107 204.35
28 204.60 69 208.00 108 204.25
29 204.56 70 208.55 109 204.10
30 204.51 71 208.32 110 204.45
31 204.47 72 207.45 111 205.28
32 204.45 73 207.08 112 206.31
33 204.43 74 206.70 113 205.45
34 204.39 75 206.64 114 205.27
35 204.34 76 206.60 115 203.93
36 204.30 77 207.08 116 204.28
37 204.25 78 207.20 117 205.11
38 204.21 79 207.32 118 206.14
39 204.16 80 207.20 119 205.55
40 204.12 Outfall 203.32

Similarly update the link properties as shown below:

Table B.3. Input data to the Conduits

Conduit From To Length Roughness Conduit From To Length Roughness

Name Node Node Name Node Node
1 1 2 33.3 0.014 61 62 63 108.3 0.014
2 2 3 64.4 0.014 62 63 64 64.7 0.014
3 3 4 29.8 0.014 63 64 65 141.9 0.014
4 4 5 16.7 0.014 64 65 66 74.7 0.014
5 5 6 21.3 0.014 65 66 67 86.6 0.014
6 6 7 18.2 0.014 66 67 68 98.7 0.014
7 7 8 59.5 0.014 67 68 69 95.6 0.014
8 8 9 30.4 0.014 68 69 70 89.7 0.014
9 9 10 167.6 0.014 69 70 71 108.6 0.014
10 10 11 152.0 0.014 70 71 72 95.2 0.014
11 11 20 20.0 0.014 71 72 73 88.2 0.014
12 12 13 135.8 0.014 72 73 74 118.6 0.014
13 13 18 40.4 0.014 73 74 75 87.4 0.014
14 14 15 48.3 0.014 74 75 42 319.2 0.014
15 15 16 19.6 0.014 75 76 77 98.5 0.014

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Conduit From To Length Roughness Conduit From To Length Roughness

Name Node Node Name Node Node
16 16 17 61.2 0.014 76 77 78 104.0 0.014
17 17 18 69.1 0.014 77 78 79 83.6 0.014
18 18 19 47.0 0.014 78 79 80 91.8 0.014
19 19 20 37.1 0.014 79 80 81 112.0 0.014
20 20 21 288.0 0.014 80 81 82 102.1 0.014
21 21 22 305.0 0.014 81 82 83 95.5 0.014
22 22 23 242.0 0.014 82 83 84 89.7 0.014
23 23 24 363.0 0.014 83 84 85 80.3 0.014
24 24 25 310.0 0.014 84 85 86 126.1 0.014
25 25 26 300.0 0.014 85 86 87 59.8 0.014
26 26 27 300.0 0.014 86 87 88 25.2 0.014
27 27 28 310.0 0.014 87 88 89 108.1 0.014
28 28 29 310.0 0.014 88 89 90 178.2 0.014
29 29 30 300.0 0.014 89 90 91 75.5 0.014
30 30 31 310.0 0.014 90 91 92 36.6 0.014
31 31 32 150.0 0.014 91 92 93 191.4 0.014
32 32 33 150.0 0.014 92 93 94 6.7 0.014
33 33 34 300.0 0.014 93 94 95 169.6 0.014
34 34 35 310.0 0.014 94 95 96 99.1 0.014
35 35 36 290.0 0.014 95 96 97 27.8 0.014
36 36 37 326.0 0.014 96 97 98 98.9 0.014
37 37 38 298.7 0.014 97 98 43 391.9 0.014
38 38 39 308.3 0.014 98 100 101 108.2 0.014
39 39 40 298.6 0.014 99 101 102 71.0 0.014
40 40 41 297.5 0.014 100 102 103 102.2 0.014
41 41 42 136.2 0.014 101 103 104 98.6 0.014
42 42 43 15.1 0.014 102 104 42 42.1 0.014
43 43 44 146.3 0.014 103 105 106 101.5 0.014
44 44 45 299.9 0.014 104 106 107 98.7 0.014
45 45 46 309.8 0.014 105 107 108 100.3 0.014
46 46 47 310.0 0.014 106 108 99 98.6 0.014
47 47 48 300.0 0.014 107 99 43 6.5 0.014
48 48 49 229.9 0.014 108 100 109 103.9 0.014
49 49 50 389.9 0.014 109 109 110 96.8 0.014
50 50 51 299.8 0.014 110 110 111 87.7 0.014
52 52 54 126.3 0.014 111 111 112 87.7 0.014
53 54 55 87.5 0.014 112 112 113 101.7 0.014
54 55 56 80.0 0.014 113 113 114 60.4 0.014
55 56 57 122.7 0.014 114 114 51 10.7 0.014
56 57 58 82.9 0.014 115 105 115 99.9 0.014
57 58 59 94.8 0.014 116 115 116 97.9 0.014
58 59 60 97.1 0.014 117 116 117 97.9 0.014
59 60 61 83.3 0.014 118 117 118 99.5 0.014

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Conduit From To Length Roughness Conduit From To Length Roughness

Name Node Node Name Node Node
60 61 62 90.0 0.014 119 118 119 98.6 0.014
120 119 114 45.3 0.014

In order to deliver a rainfall input to the project, it is necessary to set the rain gage’s
properties.

 Chose Rain Gage 1 into the Property Editor and set the properties:
 Rain Format - Volume, Time Interval - 0.10, Data Source – TIMESERIES,
Series Name – Hyetograph.
 A time series named Rainfall will contain the 10 minute interval rainfall depth
that make up the storm.
 Thus a time series ‘Hyetograph’ object need to be created and populated with
data.

Steps to do this:

 From the Data Browser select the Time Series category.

 Click the button on the Browser to bring up the Time Series Editor dialog.
 Enter Rainfall in the Time Series Name field.
 Enter the values into the Time and Value columns.

Having completed the preliminary design of the example project, from the File menu
select the Save As option.

In the Save As dialog that appears, select a folder and file name in which to save this
assignment. Thus, at the end of this process the area has been mapped to represent
the natural and physical characteristics of the urban area in question. The next step is
to use all these characteristics to generate the runoff in response to a known rain storm
through the simulation process.

RUNNING A SIMULATION OF SWMM NETWORK

Initial Setting for Simulation of SWMM Network:

To analyze the performance of the drainage system, one needs to fix some options.

 From the Data Browser, select the Options category and click the but
ton.
 On the General page of the Simulation Options dialog (Figure B.7) that appears,
select flow routing method as Dynamic Wave.
 On the Dates page of the dialog, set the End Analysis time to 06:00:00 (6 hour
event)

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

 On the Time Steps page, set the Routing Time Step to 1 second.
 Set the Reporting time to 5sec and Wet weather and Dry Weather Runoff calc
ulation interval each to 1min.
 Click OK to close the Simulation Options dialog.

Figure B.7. Simulation Options

 With this, the model is now ready for performing simulation.

 To do so, select Project >> Run Simulation (or click the button).
 If there was a problem with the model, a Status Report will appear,
describing what errors happened.
 The Status Report covers useful summary about the outcomes of a simulation
run.
 To view the report select Report >> Status.
 Notice that the continuity errors for runoff and conduit routing are small (typica
lly <1%).
 The Node Flooding Summary (Table B.4) indicates that there was internal
flooding in the system at different nodes.

Table B.4. Node Flooding Results

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Node Hours Maximum Day of Hours of Total Flood

Flooded Rate CMS Maximum Maximum Volume
Flooding Flooding (10^6 ltr)
35 0.59 12.148 0 01:57 15.086
39 0.92 5.922 0 02:19 12.801
50 4.47 29.015 0 02:00 201.56
52 5.47 3.88 0 01:20 29.707
55 1.52 3.523 0 01:10 11.099
57 0.97 1.267 0 01:10 1.872
58 0.95 0.748 0 01:10 1.239
60 0.9 1.118 0 01:10 1.727
63 0.42 0.908 0 01:10 0.755
64 0.85 2.945 0 01:10 4.778
69 0.95 3.787 0 01:10 5.428
76 4.85 2.126 0 01:12 4.623
108 0.01 0.11 0 01:39 0.003
109 0.55 2.277 0 01:10 2.408
115 0.67 1.657 0 01:42 1.554

Displaying Results on the Map

Simulation outcomes can be viewed in colour coded style on the study area map.

To view a particular variable in this fashion:

 Select the Map page of the Browser.

 Select the variables to view for Subcatchments, Nodes, and Links from the dr
opdown boxappearing in the Themes. In Figure B.8, subcatchment runoff, node
total inflow and link depth at 02:11:08 have been selected for viewing.
 To display of a legend, select View >> Legends.
 To move a legend to another location, drag it with the left mouse button held d
own.
 To change the colour coding, select View >> Legends >> Modify.
 To view numerical values for the variables being displayed on the map, select
Tools >>Map Display Options and then select the Annotation page of the Map
Options Dialog.

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Figure B.8. Subcatchment runoff, node total inflow and link depth at 02:11:08

Analysis of a Time Series Plot

To produce a time series plot of a model simulation result:

 Select Report >> Graph >> Time Series.

 A Time Series dialog will appear. It is used to select the objects and variables to
be plotted. For this example, the Time Series Plot is used to graph the flow in
channel 46 (refer to Figure B.9):
 Select Links as the Object Category
 Select Flow as the Variable to plot
 Click on conduit 46 and then click
 Press OK to create the plot, which should look like as in Figure B.10.

Figure B.9. Data series selection

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Figure B.10. Time series plot of results (Flow in the conduit 46)

After a plot is created one can:

 customize its appearance by selecting Report >> Customize

 copy it to the clipboard and paste it into another application by selecting Edit >
> Copy To
 Print it by selecting File >> Print.

Seeing a Profile Plot: SWMM can produce profile plots, depicting water surface depth
variation all along the path of connected nodes and links.

To create such a plot for the links connecting junction 44 to the outfall
53 of this example, following steps can be taken:

 Select Report >> Graph >> Profile.

 Enter 44 in the Start Node field of the Profile Plot dialog (Figure B.11)
 Repeat the steps for node Outfall 53 in the End Node field of the dialog
 Click the Find Path button
 Click the OK button to create the plot, showing the water surface profile (Figur
e B.12)

Figure B.11. Profile Plot dialog box

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Figure B.12. Illustration of Profile Plot

Options: Resizing the Network.

In order to minimise the flooding, one of the options can be to make some
modifications to size and slope of the Links which can be worked out in an iterative
manner keeping in view the local constraints with respect to space and terrain.

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EXAMPLE - NETWORK 2

The objective of this example is to develop a simple surface drainage system using
the 5-year return period rainfall event. This example will demonstrate how SWMM’s
hydraulic elements and flow routing methods can be used to model this surface
drainage system of an undeveloped area. Figure C.1 shows a 223.57 ha natural
catchment area. This undeveloped area primarily comprises of agricultural land with a
sandy loam soil type.

Figure C.1. Example Network Component and Land use

SYSTEM REPRESENTATION

SWMM is a distributed model, i.e. a study area can be subdivided into any number of
irregular subcatchments to best capture the effect of topography, drainage pathways,
land cover, and soil characteristics on runoff generation. An idealized subcatchment
is conceptualized as a rectangular surface that has a uniform slope and a width W that
drains to a single outlet channel. Each subcatchment can be further divided into three
subareas: an impervious area with depression (detention) storage, an impervious area
without depression storage and a pervious area with depression storage. Only the
latter area allows for rainfall losses due to infiltration into the soil. SWMM models a
conveyance network as a series of nodes connected by links (Figure C.1). Links
control the rate of flow from one node to the next and are typically conduits. Nodes
define the elevation of the drainage system and the time-varying hydraulic head

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

applied at the end of each link it connects. The flow conveyed through the links and
nodes of the model is ultimately discharged to a final node called the outfall.

WATERSHED DELINEATION AND CHARACTERISTICS

Better Assessment Science Integrating point and Nonpoint Sources (BASINS)

automated Delineation tool delineated the basin into 9 sub-watersheds using the five
meter DEM (Figure C.1) with a total area of 223.57 ha. BASINS is a reliable tool for
digital watershed delineation. BASINS’ automated watershed delineation provided not
only sub watershed boundaries and area, but also basic information on watershed
characteristics, such as slope, stream reach length, area percentages of land use and
soil types. This catchment runoff is out falling into Mundela drain which is the sub drain
of Najafgarh drain in Delhi. The output of BASINS (Shapefile) was converted into
image file and it was used as backdrop image to placement of different features like
subcatchment, node outfall and conduits in the SWMM model.

Subcatchment Inputs

The hydrologic characteristics of a study area’s subcatchments are defined by the

following set of input parameters in SWMM:

Area: This is the area bounded by the each subcatchment boundary. Its value is
determined directly from maps or as BASINS output or by using SWMM’s Auto Length
tool when the subcatchment is drawn to scale on SWMM’s study area map.

Width: The width can be defined as the sub catchment’s area divided by the length of
the longest overland flow path that water can travel.

Slope: This is the slope of the land surface over which runoff flows and is the same
for both the pervious and impervious surfaces.

Imperviousness: This is the percentage of the subcatchment area that is covered by

impervious surfaces, such as roofs and roadways, through which rainfall cannot
infiltrate.

Roughness Coefficient: The roughness coefficient reflects the amount of resistance

that overland flow encounters as it runs off of the subcatchment surface. Since SWMM
uses the Manning equation to compute the overland flow rate, this coefficient is the
same as Manning’s roughness coefficient n.

Depression Storage: Depression storage corresponds to a volume that must be filled

prior to the occurrence of any runoff.

Percent of Impervious Area without Depression Storage: This parameter accounts

for immediate runoff that occurs at the beginning of rainfall before depression storage

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

is satisfied. By default the value of this variable is 25%, but it can be changed in each
subcatchment.

Infiltration Model: Three different methods for computing infiltration loss on the
pervious areas of a subcatchment are available in SWMM. They are the Horton, Green
Ampt and Curve Number models. There is no general agreement on which model is
best.

The parameters for this model include: Maximum infiltration rate: This is the initial
infiltration rate at the start of a storm. It is difficult to estimate since it depends on the
antecedent soil moisture conditions.

Minimum infiltration rate: This is the limiting infiltration rate that the soil attains when
fully saturated. It is usually set equal to the soil’s saturated hydraulic conductivity. It
has a wide range of values depending on soil type.

Decay coefficient: This parameter determines how quickly the infiltration rate
“decays” from the initial maximum value down to the minimum value. Typical values
range between 2 to 7 hr-1.

Precipitation Input:

Precipitation is the principal driving variable in rainfall-runoff-quantity simulation. The

volume and rate of stormwater runoff depends directly on the precipitation magnitude
and its spatial and temporal distribution over the catchment. Each subcatchment in
SWMM is linked to a Rain Gage object.

The SWMM model for the undeveloped site is depicted in Figure C.3. It consists of a
rain gage1 that provides precipitation input to the subcatchments whose runoff drains
to outfall node. Note that the undeveloped BASINS tool outputs has been used as a
backdrop image on which the subcatchments outline has been drawn. The SWMM
input for subcatchments is listed in the Table C.1 and Table C.2.

Various rain data formats that can be used in SWMM5 are:

(a) CUMULATIVE - the cumulative rainfall depth measured during each recording
interval

(b) INTENSITY - average rainfall rate over each recording interval and

(c) VOLUME - incremental rainfall depth in each recording interval.

In this example, Volume format is applied to a different subcatchment. The rainfall

hyetograph is shown in the Figure C.2 and developed SWMM model is shown in the
Figure C.3.

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Figure C.2 Rainfall Hyetograph

Figure C.3. SWMM Example Network 2

Table C.1. Input data to the Subcatchment

Name Rain Outlet Area % Width %Slope N N Pervious

Gage Impervious Impervious (manning)
(manning)
C_1 1 5 26.04 2 229.52 0.72 0.012 0.17
C_2 1 10 21.46 5 216.08 1.00 0.012 0.17
C_3 1 4 10.69 1 65.05 0.83 0.012 0.17
C_4 1 9 46.96 2 239.67 0.86 0.012 0.17
C_5 1 3 13.73 2 100.65 0.84 0.012 0.17
C_6 1 8 22.98 2 241.22 0.77 0.012 0.17

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Name Rain Outlet Area % Width %Slope N N Pervious

Gage Impervious Impervious (manning)
(manning)
C_7 1 2 9.54 2 118.66 0.99 0.012 0.17
C_8 1 7 37.11 2 291.40 0.90 0.012 0.17
C_9 1 1 35.03 22 245.46 1.20 0.011 0.17

Table C.2. Infiltration Inputs to the Subcatchment

Subcatchment Maximum Minimum Decay Dry

Infiltrations Infiltrations Coefficient Time
Rate Rate
C_1 4.25 0.4 3 2
C_2 4.25 0.4 3 2
C_3 4.25 0.4 3 2
C_4 4.25 0.4 3 2
C_5 4.25 0.4 3 2
C_6 4.25 0.4 3 2
C_7 4.25 0.4 3 2
C_8 4.25 0.4 3 2
C_9 4.25 0.4 3 2

Conduit Inputs:

The conduits are simply the reach that connects the subcatchments. Like the
subcatchment properties, BASINS tool and tables available in the SWMM manual can
be used to define conduit properties. The conduit properties considered in this project
are as follows:

 Shape
o Width
o Side slopes
o Depth
 Length
 Roughness

SWMM has available several default channel shapes, but a trapezoidal channel shape
was chosen because of its rough resemblance. To define the width of the channel, its
depth a trial and error procedure is adapted. A summary of the shape properties are
shown in the table below:

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Table C.3. Input data to conduits

Conduit From To Length Roughness Depth Width

Name Node Node
1 1 2 681.73 0.012 0.75 2.25
2 2 3 668.9 0.012 1.0 3.0
3 3 4 1065.48 0.012 1.0 3.0
4 4 5 987.49 0.012 1.0 3.5
5 5 6 393.75 0.012 1.0 4.0
6 7 2 384.36 0.012 0.7 2.1
7 8 3 282.95 0.012 0.7 2.1
8 9 4 536.05 0.012 0.75 2.25
9 10 5 175.04 0.012 1.0 3.0

The length property could be determined using the BASINS tool. Finally, the
roughness of the stream could be estimated with the help of a table of typical
roughness coefficient.

Junctions and Outfall Inputs

Only one junction property, the invert elevation, will be directly considered in this
Example. An option to define the maximum depth at the junction is available, but it
will be assumed that it is the same as the depth of the connecting conduit.
Furthermore, initial depth will be ignored since the results will centre only on the flow
from runoff and not base flow. The invert elevation is simply the elevation at the
junction measured from sea level. As has been mentioned previously, elevation data
are available from the DEM and can be easily input to SWMM.

Table C.4. Input data to the Node and Outfall

Node Name Elevation

1 212.570
2 211.950
3 211.342
4 210.374
5 209.476
7 212.300
8 211.599
9 210.861
10 209.635
Outfall 209.117

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

RUNNING SWMM TO SIMULATE THE NETWORK

Initial Setting for Simulation of the Network:

 To Analyzing the performance of the drainage system, it is

required to fix some options.
 From the Data Browser, select the Options category and click the but
ton.
 On the General page of the Simulation Options dialog that appears,
select flow routing method is Dynamic Wave.
 On the Dates page of the dialog, set the End Analysis time to 12:00:00.
 On the Time Steps page, set the Routing Time Step to 1 second.
 Set the Reporting time to 5sec and Wet weather and Dry Weather Runoff calc
ulation intervals each to 1min.
 Click OK to close the Simulation Options dialog.

Figure C.4. Simulation Options

 The model is now ready to run for simulation.

 To do so, select Project >> Run Simulation (or click the button).
 If there was a problem with the model, a Status Report will appear,
describing what errors happened.
 The Status Report covers useful summary data about the outcomes of a simul
ation run.
 To view the report select Report >> Status.
 Notice that the continuity errors for runoff and conduit routing are small (typica
lly <1%).

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

 The Node Flooding Summary indicates there was no internal flooding in the
system implying that the sizes selected are adequate.

Displaying Results on the Map

Simulation outcomes can be viewed in colour coded style on the study area map.

To view a particular variable in this fashion:

 Select the Map page of the Browser.

 Select the variables to view for Subcatchments, Nodes, and Links from the dr
opdown boxesappearing in the Themes. In Figure C.5, subcatchment runoff,
node lateral inflow and link flow have been selected for viewing at 02:16:25.
 To display of a legend, select View >> Legends.
 To move a legend to another location, drag it with the left mouse button held d
own.
 To change the colour coding, select View >> Legends >> Modify.
 To view numerical values for the variables being displayed on the map, select
Tools >> Map Display Options and then select the Annotation page of the
Map Options dialog.

Figure C.5. Subcatchment runoff, node lateral inflow and link flow at 02:16:25.

Analysis of Time Series Plot

To produce a time series plot of a model result:

 Select Report >> Graph >> Time Series.

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

 A Time Series dialog will appear. It is used to select the objects and variables
to be plotted.For this example, the Time Series Plot can be used to plot the flo
w in conduit no 1 to 6. (Refer Figure C.6):
o Select Links as the Object Category
o Select Flow as the Variable to plot
o Click on conduit 1 and then click on Add icon
o Repeat the same procedure for all conduits
o Press OK to create the plot, which should look like as in Figure C.7.

Figure C.6. Data series selection

Figure C.7. Time series plot of results (Flow in the conduit no 1 to 6)

After a plot is created one can:

 Customize its appearance by selecting Report >> Customize

 Copy it to the clipboard and paste it into another application by selecting Edit
>> Copy To

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

 Print it by selecting File >> Print.

Seeing a Profile Plot: SWMM can produce profile plots showing how water surface
depth varies all along the path of connected nodes and links.

To create profile plot for the links connecting junction 1 to the outfall 6 presented in
this example. To create this following steps need to be followed:

 Select Report >> Graph >> Profile.

 Enter 1 in the Start Node field of the Profile Plot dialog (Figure C.8.)
 Do the same for node Outfall 6 in the End Node field of the dialog.
 Click the Find Path button.
 Click the OK button to create the plot, showing the water surface profile (Figur
e C.9).

Figure C.8. Profile Plot dialog box

Figure C.9. Illustration of a Profile Plot

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Table C.5 provide the total rainfall, total runoff volume, peak runoff discharge and total
infiltrated volume for the design storm. These values came directly from the
Subcatchment Runoff Summary table that appears in the Status Report of a SWMM
run.

Table C.5. Outputs of Subcatchments (Total Precipitation, Total Infiltration, Total

Runoff and Peak Runoff)

Subcatchment Total Total Total Total Peak

Precipitation Infiltration Runoff Runoff Runoff
(mm) (mm) (mm) 10^6 ltr (CMS)
C_1 78.17 9.03 64.4 16.77 1.22
C_2 78.17 8.76 67.12 14.4 1.29
C_3 78.17 9.12 61.24 6.55 0.39
C_4 78.17 9.03 59.68 28.03 1.55
C_5 78.17 9.03 63.45 8.71 0.6
C_6 78.17 9.03 65.99 15.16 1.25
C_7 78.17 9.03 67.75 6.46 0.63
C_8 78.17 9.03 64.37 23.89 1.74
C_9 78.17 7.19 68.71 24.07 3.15

The model simulates the flow throughout the drainage system, and can display outputs
at any of the nodes or conduits in the drainage system. At each node, the depth, head,
lateral inflow and total inflow can be found over the duration of the rain event. The
outputs of the model are given in the Table C.6, Table C.7 and Table C.8.

Table C.6. Outputs of Nodes (Average depth, Maximum depth, Maximum HGL,
Hours of Maximum Depth and Maximum Reported Depth)
Node Type Average Maximum Maximum Day of Hours of Maximum
depth depth (m) HGL (m) Maximum Maximum Reported
(m) Depth (m) Depth (m) Depth (m)
10 JUNCTION 0.19 0.81 210.45 0 01:54 0.81
5 JUNCTION 0.33 0.97 210.44 0 01:57 0.97
9 JUNCTION 0.19 0.56 211.42 0 01:52 0.56
4 JUNCTION 0.3 0.94 211.31 0 01:58 0.94
3 JUNCTION 0.26 0.88 212.23 0 01:53 0.88
8 JUNCTION 0.14 0.67 212.27 0 01:50 0.67
2 JUNCTION 0.21 0.74 212.69 0 01:25 0.74
7 JUNCTION 0.16 0.53 212.83 0 01:50 0.53
1 JUNCTION 0.14 0.69 213.26 0 01:12 0.69
6 OUTFALL 0.24 0.82 209.94 0 01:58 0.82

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Part A: Engineering Design Appendices

Table C.7. Outputs of Nodes (Maximum Lateral Inflow, Maximum Total Inflow,
Hours of Maximum Inflow, Lateral Inflow Volume and Total Inflow Volume)

Node Type Maximum Maximum Day of Hours of Lateral Total

Lateral Total Maximum Maximum Inflow Inflow
Inflow Inflow Inflow Inflow Volume Volume
(CMS) (CMS) (CMS) (CMS) 10^6 ltr 10^6 ltr
10 JUNCTION 1.289 1.289 0 01:50 14.4 14.4
5 JUNCTION 1.223 10.429 0 01:55 16.8 143
9 JUNCTION 1.554 1.554 0 01:50 28 28
4 JUNCTION 0.391 8.205 0 01:52 6.55 113
3 JUNCTION 0.596 6.37 0 01:50 8.71 78.2
8 JUNCTION 1.251 1.251 0 01:50 15.2 15.2
2 JUNCTION 0.63 4.828 0 01:21 6.46 54.4
7 JUNCTION 1.737 1.737 0 01:50 23.9 23.9
1 JUNCTION 3.146 3.146 0 01:10 24.1 24.1
6 OUTFALL 0 10.409 0 01:58 0 143

Table C.8 lists the each conduit flow and velocity for the 5 year rain event. These
values are available from the Link Flow Summary table of SWMM’s Status Report.

Table C.8. Outputs of Nodes (Maximum Flow, Hour of Maximum Flow, Maximum
Velocity and Max/Full Depth)

Link Type Maximum Day of Hour of Maximum Max/Full

Flow Maximum Maximum Velocity Depth
(CMS) Flow (CMS) Flow (CMS) (m/sec)
1 CONDUIT 3.102 0 01:14 1.58 0.93
2 CONDUIT 4.648 0 01:25 1.61 0.81
3 CONDUIT 6.314 0 01:53 1.86 0.91
4 CONDUIT 8.09 0 01:58 1.9 0.95
5 CONDUIT 10.409 0 01:58 2.38 0.9
6 CONDUIT 1.72 0 01:51 1.04 0.88
7 CONDUIT 1.242 0 01:50 0.71 0.98
8 CONDUIT 1.511 0 01:52 1.11 0.87
9 CONDUIT 1.273 0 01:50 0.92 0.89
The flow peak through the most upstream conduit (conduit 1) is approximately 3.102
CMS. The flow peak through the middle segment (conduit 2) is approximately 4.648
CMS. The peak flow through the most downstream segment (conduit 5) is
approximately 10.409 CMS.

Conduit 1 gets lowest flow, because very small area drains into it. Conduit 2 gets
more flow than conduit 1, because flow in conduit 2 is summation of flow from
upstream catchment through conduit 1 and flow generated from its own catchment.
Since conduit 5 is the last conduit and gets contribution from all upstream catchments,
highest flow is observed in conduit 5.

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Part B: Operation & Maintenance

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... i

LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... iv

LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... v

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1

1.1 General .................................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Need for Operation and Maintenance .................................................................... 1

1.3 Type of Maintenance ............................................................................................. 1

1.4 Organization of Maintenance ................................................................................. 2

1.5 Basic considerations of O&M ................................................................................. 2

1.5.1 Environmental Considerations ........................................................................ 2

1.5.2 Budget ............................................................................................................. 2

1.5.3 Preventive Maintenance .................................................................................. 2

1.5.4 Workmanship and Quality of Equipment ......................................................... 3

1.5.5 Outsourcing of O&M ........................................................................................ 3

1.5.6 Key criteria for selection of O&M contractor .................................................... 4

1.5.7 Complaint and Redressal ................................................................................ 4

1.5.8 Do’s and Don’ts for Community ....................................................................... 4

CHAPTER 2:STORM WATER DRAINAGE SYSTEMS .................................................. 5

2.1 Components of Drainage system........................................................................... 5

2.2 Inspection and Maintenance of Surface Drainage System .................................... 5

2.2.1 Inspection and Examination ............................................................................ 5

2.2.2 Frequency of cleaning of drain ........................................................................ 7

2.2.3 Maintenance procedure................................................................................... 7

2.2.3.1 Desilting of Storm Water Drains ............................................................... 9

2.2.3.2 Measures for Effectiveness of desilting .................................................. 10

2.2.4 Safety of maintenance personnels ................................................................ 10

2.3 Inspection and Examination of Storm Water Conduits ......................................... 11

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Part B: Operation & Maintenance

2.3.1 Visual inspection of storm conduits ............................................................... 11

2.3.2 Manhole Visual Inspection ............................................................................ 12

2.3.3 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) Surveillance ............................................. 12

2.3.4 Maintenance of Records and Follow up Action ............................................. 13

2.3.5 Maintenance procedure................................................................................. 14

2.3.6 Desilting and cleaning of storm water conduits ............................................. 15

2.3.7 Conduit Rods ................................................................................................ 16

2.3.7.1 Rodding Machine with Flexible Conduit Rods ........................................ 16

2.3.7.2 Scraper ................................................................................................... 17

2.3.8 Conduit Rehabilitation ................................................................................... 17

2.3.8.1 Repair ..................................................................................................... 18

2.3.8.2 Non-structural lining ................................................................................ 18

2.3.8.3 Renewal.................................................................................................. 19

2.3.8.4 Rehabilitation Methods ........................................................................... 19

2.4 Safety Procedures ............................................................................................... 20

2.4.1 Safety requirement for working confined space ............................................ 20

2.5 Maintenance of Rising Mains ............................................................................... 21

CHAPTER 3:PUMPING STATION ................................................................................ 22

3.1 General ................................................................................................................ 22

3.2 Operation of the Pumps ....................................................................................... 22

3.3 Starting the Pumps .............................................................................................. 23

3.4 Preventive Maintenance of Pumping Machinery .................................................. 25

3.4.1 Daily Observations and Maintenance ............................................................ 27

3.4.2 Monthly Maintenance .................................................................................... 28

3.4.3 Quarterly Maintenance .................................................................................. 28

3.4.4 Annual Inspections and Maintenance ........................................................... 29

3.4.5 History Sheet................................................................................................. 30

3.5 Maintenance Schedule for Motors ....................................................................... 33

ii
Part B: Operation & Maintenance

3.5.1 Daily Maintenance ......................................................................................... 33

3.5.2 Monthly Maintenance .................................................................................... 33

3.5.3 Quarterly Maintenance .................................................................................. 34

3.5.4 Half Yearly Maintenance .............................................................................. 34

3.5.5 Annual Inspections and Maintenance ........................................................... 34

3.5.6 History Sheet................................................................................................. 35

3.6 Miscellaneous O&M Aspects ............................................................................... 35

3.6.1 Lubrication..................................................................................................... 35

3.6.2 Mechanical Seals .......................................................................................... 35

3.6.3 Bearings ........................................................................................................ 36

CHAPTER 4: STORM WATER RECHARGE STRUCTURES ...................................... 40

4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 40

4.2 Operational Data Requirements .......................................................................... 40

4.2.1 Water Level Measurement ............................................................................ 41

4.2.2 Water Quality Measurement.......................................................................... 42

4.3 Preventive Maintenance ...................................................................................... 42

4.3.1 Maintenance of Surface Recharge Structures .............................................. 42

4.4 Potential Problems............................................................................................... 42

4.4.1 Suspended Material ...................................................................................... 42

4.5 Maintenance of Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting System .................................... 44

4.5.1 Tips for Maintenance of the RRHS ................................................................ 44

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Part B: Operation & Maintenance

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. 1: Complaint Format .......................................................................................... 4

Table 2. 1: Inspection sheet for storm water drain ........................................................... 6

Table 2. 2: Deficiencies and remedies forstorm water drains .......................................... 8

Table 2. 3: Preliminary inspection for Manholes &Conduits........................................... 11

Table 2. 4: Inspection sheet for manhole ....................................................................... 13

Table 2. 5: Inspection sheet for storm conduit ............................................................... 14

Table 3. 1: Typical Pumping Station Operation Log ...................................................... 28

Table 3. 2: Annual Inspection of Pumping Station ......................................................... 30

Table 3. 3: Recommended maintenance for pumping equipment ................................. 31

Table 3. 4: Troubleshooting: Pumps .............................................................................. 36

iv
Part B: Operation & Maintenance

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2. 1: Shovels and Spades..................................................................................... 9

Figure 2. 2: Cleaning of drains in Mumbai ....................................................................... 9

Figure 2. 3: Robotic Excavator in Chennai ...................................................................... 9

Figure 2. 4: Typical CCTV Equipment ........................................................................... 13

Figure 2. 5: Power rodding operation ............................................................................ 16

Figure 2. 6: Rodding heads ........................................................................................... 17

Figure 2. 7: Pipe bursting process ................................................................................. 19

v
Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 1
Introduction

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

Operation & Mainenance (O & M) of storm water drainage system consists of the optimum
use of labour, equipment and materials to keep the system in good condition so that it
can accomplish efficiently its intended purpose during entire period of its design life.

1.2 Need for Operation and Maintenance

The lack of attention to the important aspect of O & M leads to deterioration of the useful
life of the system necessitating premature replacement of many system components. As
such, even after creating the assets by investing millions of rupees, they are unable to
provide the services effectively to the community for which they have been constructed.

Some of the key issues contributing to the poor O&M are as follows:

1. Lack of finance and inadequate data on O&M

2. Multiplicity of agencies, overlapping in their responsibilities
3. Inadequate training of personnel
4. Non-availability of operation & maintenance manuals.
5. Lack of awareness of the importance of storm drainage facilities by the community.
6. Lack of Management Information system and real time field information

Therefore, there is a need of exclusive Operation & Maintenance Manual for storm water
drainage system.

1.3 Type of Maintenance

The drainage system is at its best, when it is maintained properly as designed. For this
purpose, it is necessary that the drains keep their shape and slope in the designed
manner during their life time. It is also necessary to ensure that the drains retain their full
cross section, particularly during monsoons. The system of maintenance can be classified
into following three categories.

a) Continuous regular maintenance

b) Periodical maintenance
c) Special maintenance/Repairs for improvement

The extent of these repairs depends upon size of the drain, location of the drain, nature
of habitation nearby and cross drainage structures. The difficulty in maintenance is also
caused by a lesser degree of consciousness/civic sense. Malba, garbage, solid waste
and road cleanings enter the drain resulting in silting and solidification of extraneous
material making the maintenance difficult and reducing efficiency.

1
Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 1
Introduction

1.4 Organization of Maintenance

The organization responsible for the maintenance of the drainage system will vary with
the size and type of the drainage system and the relative age of the system. The larger
the Municipality, the larger and more complex will be its maintenance organization. The
size of the organization will vary from a couple of employees to several hundred regular
employees. The primary effort of the staff is to maintain conduits free flowing and
unobstructed.

The drainage system with its components properly designed and installed is handed over
to the person in charge of maintenance who assumes the responsibility to make it function
satisfactorily for the benefit of the community. One should have sufficient experience in
the design and construction of the system to enable him to perform his task efficiently
with an understanding and appreciation of the problems that may arise during
maintenance. One has not only to be a technical man but has also to deal with human
relations in order to be successful in his work. Inservice training shall be imparted to the
maintenance personnel to improve unpon the methods adopted based on the latest
trends. Failure to develop a better understanding of human relations and also lack of
development of the concept of service to the community generally results in the
maintenance part becoming unpopular. The general public is also to be made aware of
do’s and don’ts to help in keeping the drains andconduits free flowing and unobstructed.

1.5 Basic considerations of O&M

1.5.1 Environmental Considerations

The O & M should address environmental impact of urban storm water runoff that is
characterized by high level of sediment and other pollutant, both particulate and dissolved
together with the volume and rate of flow of runoff.

1.5.2 Budget

Appropriate budgetary provisions for the O&M of storm water management system
need to be provided so that it is carried out without any constraints such as human
resources and finance.

1.5.3 Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance is a set procedure whereby each component of the system

goes through a systematic check and these components are brought into dependable
use. An example can be, checking the local drains in regular interval, cleaning, and
visual inspection and retrofitting structural components as and when needed. Carrying
out these tasks regularly and timely shall be a preventive maintenance for the existing
structures. Most often this is not fully recognized and what could have been saved by
preventive maintenance finally ends up as “break down repairs.” This situation needs
the required importance for improved efficiency.

2
Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 1
Introduction

1.5.4 Workmanship and Quality of Equipment

Workmanship is defined as the art or skill of a worker with which something is made or
executed. Materials and equipment shall be new and of a quality equal to or superior to
that specified or approved. Work shall be done and completed in a thorough and
competent manner, in strict conformity with the plans and specifications. In general, the
work performed shall be in full conformity and harmony with the intent to attain the best
standards of construction and equipment of the work as a whole or in part. No material
shall be used in the work until it has been found satisfactory by the Engineer. All material
and equipment are subject to test to determine their conformity with these
specifications. Whenever standard specifications are referred to, they shall be the latest
revised edition. All work and materials shall be subject to inspection by the engineer.
The engineer may assign such assistants as he may deem necessary to inspect the
materials to be furnished and the work to be done and to see that the same is strictly in
conformity. The engineer shall be notified of the time and place of preparation,
manufacture or construction of material for work or any part of the work, which he may
wish to inspect, and of the time and place of making the factory tests required under the
contract. Such notification shall be given a sufficient length of time in advance of the
beginning of the work on such material or part or of the beginning of such test to allow
arrangements to be made for inspecting and testing or witnessing, as the case may be,
if such inspection and testing or witnessing are deemed practicable by the engineer.

All necessary machinery guards, railings and other protective devices shall be provided
as specified by the Industrial safety authority, which would be the Inspectorate of
Factories (IoF). Before final acceptance of the work, the contractor shall cause an
inspection to be made by a representative of the IoF and got certified that all safety
requirements have been complied with.

1.5.5 Outsourcing of O&M

Recent trend is to subcontract the O&M work. In this case, the contractor hires staff
from local market and deploys them on the O&M work. He will only place the staff and
earn the money and after paying to the staff earns his profit, but he may not have interest
in O&M. If the contractor is also from the same firm who has built this system, his
interests may be more sincere. In the case of exclusive O&M outsourcing not involving
the potential O&M agency in the construction activity of the system involved, the proper
qualifications, experience, personnel, etc., are to be ensured.

Improvements to the existing system for better O&M can be identified by the O&M
contractor, but it has to be separately authorized by the ULB either to the O&M
contractor himself or to another O&M contractor.

3
Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 1
Introduction

1.5.6 Key criteria for selection of O&M contractor

The qualification for a contractor to be awarded an O&M contract by the ULB shall
include not only the qualification of the contractor firm itself in previous O&M works but
also the CV and qualification and adequate experience of key personnel in the O&M
staff mentioned in the document. The ULB should ensure that such personnel to be
engaged for O&M shall be given training during the O&M period through the existing
training institutes of major utilities / ULB’s in the region and this should be mandated in
the tender document for outsourcing of the O&M work.

Incentives for career advancement of operators, for example, timescale in ULB services
and additional allowances such as risk allowance or such other chances have to be
explored to ensure efficient O&M of storm water drainage systems.

1.5.7 Complaint and Redressal

It is advisable to have the internet-based recording of complaints by the public or through

regular manual channels but that is to be recorded to avoid future such circumstances. It
will be good to also publish on the web the actions to solve them. A sample of complaint
format is given in Table 1.1.

Table 1. 1: Complaint Format

Name and address Nature of complaint Location of complaint Action taken

of complainant by the
Authority

Note: ULB may develop its own online application for redressal of such complaints
depending on the resources and manpower available with the ULB.

1.5.8 Do’s and Don’ts for Community

The public are also responsible to help maintain the system and must not put solid
wastes, vegetable cut bits, meat, plastics, etc, into the system. This is very well advertised
by many ULB’s, but the public continue to do so. Public awareness programme needs to
be regularly organized. The details may be referred to Chapter 3 of Part C: Management
of Manual on Storm Water Drainage.

4
Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 2
Storm Water Drainage Systems

CHAPTER 2:STORM WATER DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

2.1 Components of Drainage system

A storm water drainage system consists either network of drains connected with junctions
or underground conduits connected with manholes and related appurtenances as given
below:

A. Storm water drains

B. Storm water conduits
C. Appurtenance:
a) Manholes of various types
b) Junction sump
c) Gutters
d) Street Inlets
e) Catch Basins
f) Detention tanks / engineered detention basins
g) Pumping stations
h) Outfall sructures

It is necessary to operate and maintain these components regularly inorder to keep them
operational and in satisfactory working condition.

A. Maintenance of Storm Water Drains

2.2 Inspection and Maintenance of Surface Drainage System

2.2.1 Inspection and Examination

Inspection of storm water drains should be carried out in a proper manner. The first step
is to identify visually the defects and condition of drains that may affect the water way
including the following:
I. Scour of the bed and sides.
II. Full or partial blockage of the drain due to siltation or dumping of solid waste/debris.
III. Damage to drain structure.
IV. Particular attention should be paid at special locations such as junction sump,
gutters etc.
V. Walking inspections should be timed to seasonal factors, particularly before the
beginning of monsoon and post monsoon period.

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VI. Interval between walking inspection should not exceed one month.
All stormwater management facilities shall be inspected by a qualified engineer minimum
twice a year. This Manual is intended to provide a practical tool to aid in the inspection
and maintenance of drains. Inspection guidance will be focused on condition of the asset
through visual observations to evaluate how the asset is functioning relative to its
intended design. A broad check list is given below.
i. Pavement crown or cross slope is maintained in design profile conducive to quick
drainage.
ii. Road shoulders are clear and dressed for efficient clear off.
iii. If there is a need for new side drain chutes in high embankment.
iv. If the kerb channel is clean and slopes towards the inlet is to be provided
v. If the kerb inlets are clear
vi. Primary, secondary and tertiary drains should be desilted before rainy seasons
vii. Inspection after heavy rains is required to know the deficiencies in the system and
reporting unsatisfactory performance and also rectifications.
viii. Inspection in October/November can be carried out and list defects for summer
maintenance
ix. Gratings/metallic covers should be checked before monsoon for repair or
replacement if any.
x. Condition and blockage of Inlets and gutters
xi. Encroachments in boundary wall of storm water drain
xii. Discourage house sweeping and solid waste being dumped into open drains or
gutter openings
A sample inspection sheet for storm water drain is given in Table 2.1.
Table 2. 1: Inspection sheet for storm water drain

Site City Street Inspection date Time

From Manhole To Manhole / Drain Size Material of Covered /

/ Junction Junction (mm) construction Uncovered
Sump Sump Width × Depth
(number) (number)
Start End

Direction Type of Nature of Severity Level Condition of

problem problem slab cover /
overall
condition

Action required / Follow up actions

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2.2.2 Frequency of cleaning of drain

Though, it is not practicable to assign individual frequencies for each element as a routine
for each area, it should be such as to ensure that all elements are cleaned before the
drain gets blocked. However, storm water drainage system should be inspected and
cleaned pre monsoon, during monsoon and post monsoon.

2.2.3 Maintenance procedure

Periodical inspection and maintenance of drains is very necessary, as failure of drains

will occur due to deficiency in maintenance. The principal activities in maintenance are:
a. Desilting
b. Clearing of weeds
c. Cleaning of obstruction, debris and blockage
d. Repairing of lining immediately at the commencement of damage or deterioration

Continuous action and attention in detail are important aspects pertaining to maintenance
programmes. It is very essential that maintenance units should have all the drawings of
existing drains showing all technical details on ground. The drain should be identified by
suitable numbering with proper chainage. It should be to ensure that works are
maintained as per details shown in the inventory prepared just after completion of the
drainage scheme. After proper inspection, following maintenance activities should be
carried out:

I. All drains should be desilted thoroughly before onset of monsoon. It is also

essential that all the drains are in a state of good condition and works regarding,
reshaping or profile correction, wherever required is completed well before the
onset of monsoon.
II. During the rains also, there is a need to monitor at the exit and entry point of water
for the presence of undesirable collection of rubbish, polythene/paper bags
blocking the passage of water and in everyway ensuring free unobstructed flow of
rain water. Wherever feasible, at suitable intervals, solid waste arresting nets may
also be provided in larger drains to avoid its choking / disposal in main receiving
water bodies
III. The condition of road camber also needs to be watched. During rains, specially
after heavy showers, all cross drainage structures should be inspected to observe
any blockage due to debris, log of wood and other such materials. After that, the
deficiencies in the drainage system should be assessed and problem locations
identified and record kept updated. Necessary corrective measures should be
implemented immediately after rains.
IV. The missing / corroded slabs of the covered drains are also required to be
identified and replacement/repairs need to be carried out on priority to avoid
accidents.

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Some of the common deficiencies encountered in storm water drains and suggested
remedy is given in Table 2.2:

Table 2. 2: Deficiencies and remedies for storm water drains

Deficiency Cause Remedy

Ponding Inadequate cross-section, Deepening the drain, re-
formation of depression or filling eroded or depressed
settlement in bed, bed erosion area.

Silting Invert slope inadequate, excess Improvement in slope if

soil entry into the system, less possible.
flow compared to design section Check entry points for silt
rubbish etc. Provision of
grating at entry points

Blockage due to Uneven drain bed, absence of Desilting and cleaning.

debris maintenance, cleaning Provision of grating at entry
vegetation etc. Points

Erosion of bed and Steep invert slope, caving in of Provide flatter slope with
cross section sides because of lack of lateral drops, if needed. Adequate
support side support, re-alignment, if
required.

Source: IRC: SP :50-2013

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2.2.3.1 Desilting of Storm Water Drains

i. Manual Cleaning

Surface storm water drains are usually

desilted by long handle shovels, spades,
scrapers etc. manually and kept on the side
of the pavement. Debris, silt etc kept on the
side of the drains are loaded on trailors and
transported to landfill site for disposal.

It is often observed that silt removed is kept

on the side of the pavement for a long time
before it is collected and transported for
dispoal. However, in many cases, it is also
observed that due to delay in silt collectetion,
significant proportion of the silt finds its way
Figure 2. 1: Shovels and Spades
back in the drain. Therefore, it is necessary
that after cleaning of drains, silt should be
lifted and transported to the disposal sites.

ii. Mechanical Cleaning

Mechanical Excavators are employed to clean

and desilt larger drains as shown in the figure 2.2
by moving on road along the drain. The
excavated silt is deposited either in trailor or
trucks for subsequent transport to landfill site for
disposal.

Figure 2. 2: Cleaning of drains in Mumbai

iii. Robotic Excavators

Robotic excavators are now being used in India

for desilting and cleaning of larger storm water
drains. The excavator can perform the task of
both an excavator and dredger and is controlled
by one person . Since the machine takes care of
all functions, it eliminated the need to bring
heavy cranes for lifing out silt and dumping
aside. A typical robotic excatavor cleaning the
drain in Chennai is given in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2. 3: Robotic Excavator in Chennai

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2.2.3.2 Measures for Effectiveness of desilting

Water flow test by passing water through cleaned or desilted drain to be checked. After
desilting and examining the reason for silting and taking corrective measures. Incase the
silting takes place because of the indiscipline of citizens by way of throwing solid waste,
C & D waste etc. and encroachment then adequate awareness creation measures to be
taken to educate people to avoid silting / clogging / constriction of storm water drainage
channels / pathways. Hotspots should be identified and marked on GIS platform for easy
identification / preparedness and taking corrective measures.

2.2.4 Safety of maintenance personnels

It is important to be well equiped prior to start of work, as per the guidelines of OSHA with
special emphasis to the particular type of works. In the hierarchy of controls, personal
protective equipment is considered first to avoid work-related injury or illness. Basic
guidelines that should be followed before starting maintenance works.
I. Obtain proper training in principles of excavation safety and be thoroughly familiar
with equipments to be used.
II. Make sure an updated first aid kit, emergency contact information and hand held
radios or cell phones are available at the site of work.
III. Operate equipment safely in accordance with manufacturers specifications
IV. Wear highly visible apparel while working at site
V. Do not enter a trench or excavation unless it is protected against caving.
VI. Identify where to dispose off removed sediments and wastes prior to cleaning the
drains – record should be maintained and disposal should be at designated place
assigned by ULB
VII. Use shovels, trowels or high suction vacuum to remove wastes and sediments.
VIII. Do not clean out sediments and wastes with bare hands.
IX. During operation if road is open to traffic use traffic control devices such as
flaggers, pavement markings etc. – elaborate daytime, accidents,
X. Remove all temporary traffic controls when no longer required.
XI. Repair identify and address

2.2.4.1 Personal Safety

Following personal safety equipments should be used by maintenance staff while

maintaining the storm surface drains.

I. Eye protection: – Spectacles/goggles, shields, visors etc.

II. Hearing protection : – Ear muffs and plugs etc.

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III. Hand protection : – Gloves and barrier creams etc.

IV. Foot protection : – Hard toed shoes/boots etc.
V. Head protection : – Helmets, caps, hoods, hats
VI. Working from heights : – Harness and fall arrest devices etc.
VII. Skin protection : – Hats, Long sleeved clothes etc.

B Inspection and Maintenance of Storm Water Conduits

2.3 Inspection and Examination of Storm Water Conduits

The inspection can be carried out directly or indirectly. The direct inspection involves the
visual inspection and examination of the health of a particular drainage appurtenance.
However, this is applicable only for the open channels and pumping stations. Indirect
inspection is more commonly used for closed storm conduits. A number of techniques
based on the use of a camera etc. may be used for indirect inspection of the storm
conduits. The selection of a particular technique for inspection will depend upon a number
of factors including the cost involved, availability of finances with the maintenance
department, type of the appurtenance, potential defects, etc. The suggested period of
preliminary inspection is based on the best professional judgment prevailing in Indian
conditions and shall be carried out as in Table 2.3.

Table 2. 3: Preliminary inspection for Manholes &Conduits

S.No. Name of components Inspection frequency

1. Conduits & Manholes
300 mm – 600 mm Dia Once in 6 months
>600 mm – 1000 mmDia Once in 1 year
>1000 mm Dia Once in 2 years
2. Gutters and Inlets Once in 6 months (Before
monsoon)
3. Outfall structure Once in 6 months (Before
monsoon)

2.3.1 Visual inspection of storm conduits

If an abnormality is detected during direct internal inspection or externally noticed from

outside, the maintenance engineer should judge the urgency and the content of the
abnormality, and then make a proper inspection and study.

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2.3.2 Manhole Visual Inspection

The visual inspection of manhole is performed manually by inspector with proper safety
equipment. The manhole cover & internal surroundings of the manhole should be
inspected as per checklist given below:

a. Status of internal surface of manhole.

b. Status of drains on the upstream and downstream sides viewed from the manhole.
c. Status of groundwater infiltration.

To inspect the internal parts of the drains from the manhole, either a mirror or a strong
light shall be used for observation, or with the help of TV camera meant for inspecting
conduits.

Features of manhole visual inspection:

a. Inspection accuracy is high because the
inspector actually observes the abnormality
personally.
b. Economy comparison to inspection using a TV
camera.
c. The inspected results become very useful O&M
data.
d. The procedure for manhole visual inspection is
shown in the flow chart

2.3.3 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) Surveillance

Closed circuit television (CCTV) survey is a commonly used indirect inspection technique
and is used to investigate the condition, in particular the structural integrity of the drains
in close details. It is essential that CCTV surveys are conducted during low flow
conditions. If the flow quantity is large, the drain upstream should be temporarily blocked
and the flow diverted. An adequate lighting system should also be adopted so as to
produce a clear picture of the drain. Pipes which are silted and the surfaces coated with
grease should be cleansed prior to the survey. Such a survey helps the maintenance
department in determining the priority of the remedial works and future inspection
programme.

The CCTV inspection can be used for drainage pipes of diameter 100-900 mm. Above
900 mm diameter (man entry and restricted also), there are limitations due to lighting
problems and camera line angles. Continuous advances are being made in the quality
and range of TV cameras. The type of camera selected should be robust so that it can
be used in pipes and give good quality pictures. The traction of the cameras is by pulling
winches, by pushing or self-traction. The former two are not used much at present.

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However, self-traction is suitable for use in pipes above 225 mm diameter. Other
constraints in the use of self-traction are the weight of the trolley and electricity
requirements.

Heavy silting of pipes/drainage channels precludes the use of self-traction. The cameras
are attached to trolleys or mounted on a pair of skids or single flat tray. Inspection of the
storm conduit by CCTV is limited to the top portion only. The objects under scrutiny are
parallel to the camera and viewing is at an angle of 40 to 50 degrees. With radial scanning
head, inspection normal to the channel wall is also possible. A typical arrangement is as
shown in Figure 2.4.

Any abnormality detected in the pipeline during the CCTV inspection should be recorded
on videotapes or as photographs. The inspection results should be recorded in the
appropriate inspection forms.

Figure 2. 4: Typical CCTV Equipment

2.3.4 Maintenance of Records and Follow up Action

When inspections and examinations are performed, an inspection sheet should be

prepared and recorded for manholes and pipes as shown in Table 2.4 and 2.5.

Table 2. 4: Inspection sheet for manhole

Inspection Sheet No.

Location (Manhole No. etc)

Inspection Dates Inspector

Inspection Items Manhole cover Abrasion, difference in level, damaged

Inside of manhole Corrosion, damages to floor, metal

steps corroded, inferior pipe end,
rubbish, odour

Pipe Corrosion, damage, coupling

dispacement, inadequate inclination,

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roots of trees, earth, sand and mortar,

road subsidence

Lateral drains Damage, displacement, earth and

sand, road subsidence

Inspection result

Fllow up Actions  Necessary  Contracted

 Not Necessary  Self
Date of order

Date of schedule

Date of
completion

Remarks

Table 2. 5: Inspection sheet for storm conduit

Site City Street Inspection date Time

From Manhole To Manhole Pipe Size Type of pipe Direction

(number) (number) (mm)
Start End

Type of Nature of Severity Surface Condition

problem problem Level

Action required / Follow up actions

Note:Street inlets should be checked whether the gratings are in proper position, bent or
distorted etc. It should also be checked whether ther are clogged due to dumping of
garbage, leaves etc.

2.3.5 Maintenance procedure

The principal effort in the maintenance of storm water conduit is to keep them clean and
unobstructed. The storm conduits will erode, clog or otherwise deteriorate. The capital
investment in the drainage system financially justifies the preventive maintenance of
storm water drainage works, particularly storm conduits drainage that includes the
measurement of rate of flow, cleaning , flushing, supervision of connections, protection of
existing storm conduits etc. The complaints most frequently received about the systems
are caused by clogging, brekage of pipe etc. Clogging is generally confined to the storm
conduits too small for a man to enter. Storm conduits become clogged by deposition of
silt and sand that form pools in which debris and other solid materials accumulate. Storm
conduits are sometimes misused as receptacle for rubbish, waste building materials,

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ashes and other solid wastes deposited in them through manholes or unautorised
openings. Manhole covers are sometimes stolen exposing drains to easy access for such
dumping of wastes. Such difficulties may be avoided by locking the covers or fastening
them down so that they can be removed only by special tools. Maintenance also includes
emergency repairs as a result of accidents, weather conditions or other unexpected
damages or facilities.

Every storm water system needs to be properly maintained to reduce or eliminate costly
repair problems. The lack of proper maintenance is most common cause of storm water
system failure. Prior to finalizing inspection programme, operation and maintenance plan
should be developed for particular facilities that can help coordinate inspection and
maintenance activities for the particular type of system and track any problem that may
have been encountered while performing inspection and maintenance. Special attention
should be paid to any signs of deterioration in the systems both hydraulically and
structurally, since any structural defect, blockage, leakage or siltation detected at its early
stage of formation would allow preventive remedial works to be carried out at lower cost.
The frequency of inspection should be determined principally based on the nature and
importance of the installations, the likely consequence in the event of malfunctioning of
the system, the frequency of drainage complaints received in the vicinity and the
resources available.

The maintenance engineer should first delineate the entire underground storm drains
covered area into suitable sectors considering size and depth of conduit, spacing of
manholes, condition of conduits and method of cleaning whether mechanical or manual.
Each such sector should be placed under a maintenance gang consisting of one
supervisor and six men. The work of each maintenance gang should consist the following:

a) Check the accumulation of silt deposited in manhole, damage walls or steps,

manhole covers, clogged vertical pipe of drop manholes etc. as per results of
inspection program as detailed in following sections. While cleaning of the pipes
and manholes will be undertaken, repair etc. may be carried out simultaneously by
construction gang of mason and helpers.

b) Check the storm conduit line between two successive manholes for silting and flow
conditions and removes the deposited silt.

2.3.6 Desilting and cleaning of storm water conduits

During course of inspection of storm conduits as mentioned above if it is found that

particular reach of storm water conduit is either heavily silted or clogged then cleaning
and desilting of conduits should be carried out either manually or with mechanical
equipment. Storm water conduit cleaning works require usual implements like pick axes,
manhole guards, tripod stands, danger flags, lanterns, batteries, safety lamps, silt drums,
ropes, iron hooks, handcarts, plunger rods, observation rods, shovels, portable pump set
either diesel or petrol engine etc. In addition, storm conduit cleaning work calls for the

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special equipment like conduit rods, rodding machine with flexible conduit rods, scraper
etc.

2.3.7 Conduit Rods

These rods are used for cleaning small storm conduits. The conduit rods may be of
bamboo or teak wood or light metal usually about one meter long at the end of which is a
coupling, which remains intact in the storm conduit but can be easily disjointed in the
manhole. Sections of the rods are pushed down the storm conduit. In case of only shallow
conduits where man entry is not necessary, the front or the advancing end of the conduit
rod is generally fitted with a brush, a rubber ring for cleaning or a cutting edge to cut and
dislodge the obstructions. These rods are also useful to locate the obstruction from either
manhole.

2.3.7.1 Rodding Machine with Flexible Conduit Rods

This consists of a machine, which rotates a flexible rod to which is attached a cleaning
tool such as auger, corkscrew or hedgehog and sand cups.

The flexible rod consists of a series of steel rods with screw couplings. It is guided through
the manhole by a bent pipe. The machine propels the rod with the tool attached to one
end, the other end being fixed to the machine. The rotating rod is thrust into the bent pipe
manually with clamps with long handles for holding the rod near the couplings. As the rod
is thrust inside, the machine also is drawn towards the manhole. The rod is pulled in and
out in quick succession, when the tool is engaging the obstruction so as to dislodge or
loosen it. When the obstruction is cleared, the rod is pulled out by means of clamps
keeping the rod propelled to facilitate quick and easy removal. The various tools are
shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2. 5: Power rodding operation

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Figure 2. 6: Rodding heads

2.3.7.2 Scraper

This method shall be used for storm conduits of diameter larger than 750 mm. The
scraper is an assembly of wooden planks of slightly smaller size than the storm conduit
to be cleaned. If the scraper cannot be lowered through the opening of manhole, it has to
be assembled inside the manhole. The scraper chains, attached to a control chain in the
manhole into which it is lowered, are then connected to a winch in the next downstream
manhole by means of chains. The winch is then operated to push the debris ahead of the
scraper. The upward flow behind the scraper and the water dropping from the top of the
scraper will also assist in pushing it in the forward direction. This ensures that the bottom
and the sides of the conduit are cleaned thoroughly. The scraped debris is removed
manually. Circular scrapers are used on small conduits below 350 mm diameter for
cleaning. They are commonly known as discs and these discs are both collapsible and
made of metal or a wooden pair separated by about 200 mm by steel rods.

Note: Details of other storm water conduits cleaning equipment may be referred to
Sewerage and Sewage Treatment System Manual, CPHEEO, 2013.

2.3.8 Conduit Rehabilitation

Storm Conduits which are expected to be critical after inspection, have to be taken up for
rehabilitation. Conduit rehabilitation is necessitated either to improve the hydraulic
performance of the existing line or due to danger of the conduit line deteriorating further
and leading to eventual collapse or failure.

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Conduit rehabilitation may be carried out by repair, renovation or by renewal of the

conduit. The condition of the storm conduit sometimes improved by repair work or
sometimes it is requires to increase its carrying capacity or to increase its life, known as
renovation and when the storm conduit line is reconstructed or replaced to the same
dimensions as existing, it is known as renewal.

2.3.8.1 Repair

This refers to partial replacement or repair of damage to the facility. Repair provides utility,
but not an increase in functions, so it does not contribute to extension of the service life
of the facility. Repair simply maintains the capacity and life and does not cause a change
in fixed assets. It includes the following:

2.3.8.2 Non-structural lining

These techniques are primarily used to seal the buried pipes and are quite effective in
arresting the deterioration process of buried pipe line. This type of lining, however, does
not provide any structural strength to the pipe line. Two main processes are:

a) Coating
b) Spot repairs

(a) Coating: A wide variety of materials including cement mortar, epoxy resins, and
polyurethane, are available to coat the interiors of pipes. These materials are usually
sprayed onto the pipe for corrosion protection. Structural spray-on lining is also
available, made from quick setting epoxy resin or polyurethane material.
Pipe lines may be restored by treating manhole lengths with a chemical solution. The
length is first sealed and filled with one solution which is then pumped out. The length
is refilled with another solution which is subsequently pumped out. The chemical
reaction between the two components seals joints and cracks in the pipe and
stabilizes the surrounding soil.

(b) Spot repair: Internal grouting of pipe joints and radial cracks can be accomplished
with a packer. The packer is moved in to place over the pipe joint or radial crack,
then bladders are inflated at each end of the packer and grout is then injected into
and around the damaged area. When the repair is completed the bladders are
deflated and the packer removed from the system. Cementitious grout, resins, and
urethane, are the common grout materials used. Internal mechanical seals are also
available. They are generally made from a special EPDM rubber gasket reinforced
with internal stainless steel compression hoops. They form a tight yet flexible
pressure seal over the damaged area.
A section of felt tube saturated with at thermo-setting resin up to approximately 6 m
can be pulled into the existing pipe at the point of needed repair. This short tube
section differs from a conventional cured-in-place liner by the curing process. No
heat is required to cure the resin. Ambient temperature cures the pipe just in few
hours.

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2.3.8.3 Renewal

This means improvement and replacement of facilities not caused by expansion

of drainage area. It includes improvement, which is reconstruction or replacement of
the facility that has not yet reached the specified service life, and replacement which is
reconstruction or replacement of the facility that has reached the specified service life.
This is further discussed in the rehabilitation method below.

2.3.8.4 Rehabilitation Methods

Under the traditional method of conduit relief, a replacement is made or additional parallel
storm conduit is constructed by digging along the entire length of the existing pipeline,
while these traditional methods of conduit rehabilitation requires digging and replacing
the deficient pipe with (the dig-and-replace method), trenchless methods of
rehabilitation use the existing pipe as a host for a new pipe or liner. Trenchless conduit-
rehabilitation techniques may correct pipe deficiencies in the storm water drainage
system that require less restoration and cause less disturbance and environmental
degradation than the traditional dig-and-replace method. Trenchless conduit-
rehabilitation methods include:

I. Pipe bursting or in-line expansion

II. Slip lining
III. Cured in place pipe line

i. Pipe Bursting or In-line Expansion

Pipe bursting or in-line expansion is a method by which the existing pipe is forced outward
and opened by a bursting tool. During in-line expansion, the existing pipe is used as a
guide for inserting the expansion head (part of the bursting tool). The expansion head,
typically pulled by a cable rod and winch, increases the area available for the new pipe
by pushing the existing pipe radically outward until it cracks. The bursting device pulls the
new pipeline behind itself. The pipe bursting process is illustrated in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2. 7: Pipe bursting process

Source: JICA, 2011

ii. Slip lining with fusion welded continuous pipe

Slip lining is a well-established method of trenchless rehabilitation. During the slip lining
process, a new liner of smaller diameter is placed inside the existing pipe. The annular

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space, or area between the existing pipe and the new pipe, is typically grouted to prevent
leaks and to provide structural integrity. If the annulus between the sections is not
grouted, the liner is not considered a structural liner. Continuous grouting of the annular
space provides the seal. Grouting only the end-of-pipe sections can cause failures and
leaks. In most slip lining applications, manholes cannot function as proper access points
to perform the rehabilitation. In these situations, an insertion pit must be dug for each
pipeline segment. Due to this requirement in most applications, slip lining is not a
completely trenchless technique. However, the excavation required is considerably less
than that for the traditional dig-and-replace method. System and site conditions will dictate
the amount of excavation. Methods of slip lining include continuous, segmental and spiral
wound methods. All three methods require laterals to be re-connected by excavation or
by a remote cutter. In continuous slip lining, the new pipe, jointed to form a continuous
segment, is inserted into the host pipe at strategic locations. The installation access point,
such as a manhole or insertion pit, must be able to handle the bending of the continuous
pipe section. Installation by the segmental method involves assembling pipe segment at
the access point. Slip lining by the segment method can be accomplished without
rerouting the existing flow. In many applications, the existing flow reduces frictional
resistance and thereby aids in the installation process. Spiral-wound slip lining is
performed within a manhole or access point by using interlocking edges on the ends of
the pipe segments to connect the segments.

iii. Cured in place pipe

A felt tube saturated with a thermosetting resin is either pulled into the existing pipe or
inserted through as water pressure pushes the tube tightly against the pipe wall. The
water in the tube is then heated to the curing temperature from 70-80 degrees Celsius.
The plastic resin on the tube cures the solid pipe inside the existing pipe creating a new
lining. Installation goes quickly leaving no annular space to be sealed. Odd cross
sections, bends, and minor deformations can be accommodated. This method is
particularly useful when flow capacity must be maintained or slightly increased.

2.4 Safety Procedures

2.4.1 Safety requirement for working confined space

Working in a confined space such as an underground drain, box culvert, tanks, etc., is
potentially dangerous. Great care must be taken at all times, particularly when working
under adverse weather conditions. The legislative requirements of the Factories and
Industrial Undertaking (Confined Spaces) Regulation have to be followed. The essential
elements of which include:

I. Appoint a “competent person - define” to carry out a risk assessment and make
recommendations on safety and health measures before undertaking work in
confined space.
II. Allow only “trained and certified workers” to work in the confined space.

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III. Operate a “permit-to-work” system.

IV. Conduct levels of oxygen of the confined space before entry. (oxygen level
reference should be given)
V. Provide adequate ventilation.
VI. Isolate the confined space.
VII. Ensure a “standby person” is stationed outside the confined space to monitor the
weather condition and maintain communication with the workers inside.
VIII. Ensure the use of approved breathing apparatus (if recommended in the risk
assessment report) and other necessary personal protective equipment by
workers inside the confined space.
IX. Formulate and implement appropriate emergency procedures to deal with serious
or imminent danger to workers inside the confined space.
X. Provide necessary instructions, training and advice to all workers to be working
within a confined space or assisting with such works from immediately outside the
confined space.

Based on experience, it is considered necessary to add a second line of defence to

enable an early warning signal to be given out so as to increase the possibility of escape
or being rescued when the prescribed safety measures fail. The following enhanced
safety measures are introduced for confined space work, unless the risk assessment
demonstrates that such measures produce no added benefit to safety at work.
I. Continuous Gas Monitoring: The person entering a confined space shall bring along,
a gas detector, which can give out warning signals, of the sudden presence of
dangerous gases or oxygen deficiency, to continuously monitor the ambient
condition of the confined space so as to enable immediate evacuation.
II. Personal Alarm: A personal alarm of dead-man type, which is able to give out signals
soon after a person loses his mobility, shall be worn by all persons entering a
confined space to facilitate early rescue.

2.5 Maintenance of Rising Mains

Rising mains are generally of mild steel or DI pipes, regular checking of pipeline should
be exercise to detect leakage or bursting of pipe, a team should be formed to move along
a pipe and visually locate leakage etc. which should be immediately repaired. Bursting of
rising main anywhere in the alignment can be easily detected by the fall of pressure at
the pump head. The operator should inform the maintenance team whenever he detects
the fall in pressure indicated by pressure gauge fitted in delivery side of the pump. Spare
pipes and fitting should be kept in a store to replace he burst pipes in time.

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Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 3
Pumping Station

CHAPTER 3:PUMPING STATION

3.1 General

Pumping machinery in course of long operataion is subjected to wear, tear, abrasion and
therefore it is vulnerable to failures. In storm water drainage system where pumping is
employed to pump out the storm water such failures might cause flooding of upstream
zones causing risk to property and life. Therfore, correct operation and timely
maintenance and upkeep of pumping stations and pumping machinery are of vital
importance. This necessitates due attention to be paid to all aspects for efficient
functioning of pumping machinery.

3.2 Operation of the Pumps

Summarized below are a few points to be observed while operating the pumps.

a) Dry running of the pumps should be avoided.

b) Centrifugal pumps have to be primed before starting if they are not self-priming.

c) Pumps should be operated only within the recommended range on the head
discharge characteristic of the pump

d) Voltage during operation of pump – motor set should be within +/-10% of rated
voltage. Similarly current should be below the rated current as per the name plate
on the motor.

e) Delivery valve should be closed at the time of starting. Pumps of high specific
speed draw more power at shut off. Such pumps should hence be started with the
delivery valve open. While stopping, the position of the delivery valve should be as
at the time of starting.

f) The delivery valve should be operated gradually to avoid surges.

g) When pumps are to operate in parallel, the pumps should be started and stopped
with a time lag between two pumps. The time lag should be adequate to let the
pressure gauge stabilize.

h) When the pumps are to operate in series, they should be started and stopped
sequentially, but with the minimum time lag as possible. Any pump, next in
sequence, should be started immediately after the delivery valve of the previous
pump is even partly opened.

Due care should be taken to keep the air vent of the pump, next in sequence, open
before starting that pump.

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Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 3
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(g) The stuffing box should let a drip of leakage to ensure that no air is passing into
the pump and that the packing is getting adequate water for cooling and lubrication.
When the stuffing box is grease sealed, adequate refill of the grease should be
maintained,

(h) The running of the duty pumps and of the stand byes should be so scheduled that
all pumps are in ready-to-run condition.

(i) If any undue vibration or noise is noticed, the pump should be stopped immediately
and the cause for vibration or noise should be checked and rectified.

(j) Frequent starting and stopping should be avoided as each start causes
overloading of motor, starter, contactor and contacts. Though overloading lasts
only for a few seconds, it reduces the life of the equipment.

3.3 Starting the Pumps

Checks before Starting

The following checklist should be gone through before starting the pump:

i. Ensure that power is available in all three phases.

ii. Ensure that the trip circuit for relays is in a healthy state.
iii. Check voltage in all three phases. The voltage in all phases should be almost same
and within +/-10% of rated voltage, as per permissible voltage variation.
iv. Check functioning of the lubrication system.
v. Check stuffing box to ensure that it is packed properly.
vi. Check and ensure that the pump is free to rotate.
vii. Check over current setting if the pump has not been operated for a week or longer
period.
viii. Ensure that the water level in the sump/intake is above low water level and the
inflow from the source or preceding pumping station is adequate.

Starting of Pumps

The procedure for starting and operating the pumps is as follows:

i. To start a non – priming centrifugal pump, the suction pipes and the pump should be
fully primed. Positive suction centrifugal pump should be primed by opening the
suction wall and letting out air from the casing by opening air vent. If vacuum pump
is provided, the pump can be primed by operating vacuum pump till steady stream of
water is let out from delivery of vacuum pump. In the absence of vacuum pump,
priming can be done by pouring water in casing and evacuating air through air vent

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 Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 3
Pumping Station

or by admitting water pumping main by opening bypass of reflux valve and delivery
valve. Check all joints in suction pipe and fittings.

ii. Close the delivery valve and then loosen slightly.

iii. Switch on the motor, check that the direction of rotation is correct. If the pump does
not rotate, it should be switched off immediately.

iv. Check vacuum gauge if the pump operates on suction lift. If the pointer on gauge
gradually rises and becomes steady, the priming is proper.

v. Pressure gauge should be observed after starting the pump. If the pump is working
correctly, the delivery pressure gauge should rise steadily to shut off the head.

vi. When the motor attains a steady speed, the delivery valve hold be gradually opened
in steps.

vii. Check that ammeter reading is less than rated motor current.

viii. Check for undue vibration and noise.

ix. When in operation for about 10-15 minutes, check the bearing temperature, stuffing
box packing, and for leakage through mechanical seal and vibrations, if any.

x. Voltage should be checked every half an hour and should be within limit.

Stopping the Pump

Stopping the Pump under Normal Condition

The following steps should be followed for stopping a pump of low and medium specific
speed:

a) Close the delivery valve gradually. Sudden or fast closing should not be resorted to;
it can rise to water hammer pressures.
b) Switch off the motor.
c) Open the air vent in case of a submersible pump.
d) Stop lubricating oil or clear water supply in case of an oil-lubricated or clear water
lubricated VT pump as applicable.

Stopping after Power failure/tripping

In case of power supply to the pumping station fails or trips, following actions should be
immediately taken.

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Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 3
Pumping Station

a. Close all delivery valves on delivery piping of pumps, manually if necessary, as

actuators can-not be operated due to non-availability of power.
b. Check and ensure that all breakers and starters are in open condition i.e. off-
position.
c. All switches and breakers should be operated to open i.e. off-position.
d. Information about power failure should be given to all concerned, particularly to the
upstream pumping station to stop pumping so as to prevent overflow.

3.4 Preventive Maintenance of Pumping Machinery

Lack of preventive and timely maintenance or poor maintenance can cause undue wear
and tear of fast moving parts, and premature failure of the equipment. Such premature
failure or breakdown causes immense hardship to the consumers and staff, and
unavoidable increase in repair cost. Inefficient running of the pump increases burden of
power cost. The importance of preventive maintenance, therefore, needs to be
emphasized.

The general guidelines for maintenance schedules for pumps and associated electrical
and mechanical equipment are listed below. However, these should not be considered
as comprehensive, as the characteristics of equipment and site conditions differ from
place to place. For example, in dust-laden environmental or places where occurrence of
storms is frequent, renewal of oil and grease in bearing will have to be done at lesser
intervals than specified in general guidelines due to blowing-in dust in motor.

1 Check Water –Seal Packing Glands for Leakage - See that the packing box is
protected with a Clear Water- supply from the outside source; make sure that water
seal pressure is at least 5 psi greater than the maximum pump discharge pressure.
See that there are no cross connections. Check the packing glands for leakage during
operation. Allow a slight seal leakage when pumps are running to keep them cool and
in good condition. The proper amount of leakage depends on the equipment and
operating conditions. Sixty drops of water per minute is a good rule of thumb. If
excessive leakage is found, hand-tighten gland nuts evenly but not too tight. After
adjusting packing glands make sure that the shaft turns freely by hand. If serious
leakage continues, renew packing shaft or shaft sleeve.

3 Check Grease –Sealed Packing Glands- When grease is used as packing gland
seal, maintain constant grease pressure on packing during operation. When a spring
loaded gease cup is used, keep it loaded with grease.

3. Operate Pumps Alternately - If two or more pumps of the same size are installed,
alternate use to equalize their wear, keep motor windings dry and distribute lubricant
in bearing.

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Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 3
Pumping Station

4. Inspect Pump Assembly - Check floats control, noting how they respond to rising water

5. Check Motor Condition.

6. Clean Pump - First lock out power and tag switch. Clean-out hand holes are provided
on the pump volute. To clean the pump, close all valves. Then drain the pump and
remove all solids.

7. Check Packing Gland Assembly - Packing gland assembly is the unit’s most abused
and blesome part. If stuffing box leaks excessively when gland is pulled up with mild
pressure remove packing and examine the shaft sleeve carefully. Replace grooved
shaft sleeve because the packing cannot be held in the stuffing box with shaft sleeve.
Place the packing one strip at a time, tamping each strip thoroughly and staggering
joints. Position the lantern ring properly. If grease sealing is used, completely fill the
lantern ring with grease before putting the remaining rings of packing in place.

8. Check Mechanical Seals - Mechanical seals usually consist of two sub-assemblies:

 A rotating ring assembly

 A stationary assembly

Inspect the seal for leakage and excessive heat. If any part of the seal needs
replacement, replace entire seal. Always make sure that the mechanical seal is
surrounded with water before starting and running the pump.

9. Inspect and Lubricate Bearings - Unless otherwise specifically directed for a particular
pump model, drain lubricant and wash out oil wells and bearings with solvent. Check
bearings to see that all rings turn freely with shaft. Repair or replace if defective. Refill
with proper lubricant.

10. Check Operating Temperatures of Bearings - Check bearing temperature with the
thermometer, not by hand. If anti-friction bearings are running hot, check for over
lubrication and relieve if necessary. If the sleeve bearings run too hot, check for lack
of lubricant. If proper lubrication does not correct the condition, disassemble and
inspect the bearing. Check the alignment of the pump and motor if high temperature
continues.

11. Check Alignment of Pump and Motor - If misalignment recurs frequently inspect the
piping system. Vertical pumps usually have flexible shafting which permits slight
angular misalignment. However, if solid shafting is used, align exactly.

12. Inspect and Service Pumps –

 Remove the rotating element of the pump and inspect thoroughly for wear
 Remove deposits or scales, if any. Clean out the water seal piping

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Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 3
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 Examine the wearing rings. Replace the seriously worn wearing rings to improve
efficiency. Also, check the wearing rings for clearance. Generally, it should be
not more than 0.003 inch, per inch on the diameter of the wearing rings.

3.4.1 Daily Observations and Maintenance

(a) Daily Maintenance

1. Clean the pump, motor and other accessories.

2. Check coupling bushes/rubber spider.

3. Check stuffing box, gland etc.

(b) Routine Observations of Irregularities

The pump operator should be watchful and should take appropriate action on any
irregularity noticed in the, operation of the pumps. Particular attention should be paid to
the following irregularities:

1. Changes in sound of the running pump and motor

2. Abrupt changes in bearing temperature

3. Oil leakage from bearings

4. Leakage from stuffing box or mechanical seal

5. Changes in voltage

6. Changes in current

7. Changes in vacuum gauge and pressure gauge readings

8. Spark or leakage current in motor, starter, switch-gears, cable etc

9. Overheating of motor, starter, switch gear, cable etc

(C) Record of Operations and Observations

A log book should be maintained to record the hourly observations. It should cover the
following items:

i. Timing when the pumps are started, operated and stopped during 24 hours;
ii. Voltage in all three phases;

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Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 3
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iii. Current drawn by each pump-motor set and total current drawn at the installation;
iv. Frequency;
v. Readings of vacuum and pressure gauges;
vi. Motor winding temperature;
vii. Bearing temperature for pump and motor;
viii. Water level in intake/sump;
ix. Flow meter reading;
x. Daily PF over 24-hour duration;
xi. Any specific problem or event in the pumping installation or pumping system e.g.
burst in pipeline, tripping or fault, power failure.

Table 3. 1: Typical Pumping Station Operation Log

Typical Pumping Station Operating Log

Date:
Operators:
Pump Unit No No-1 No-2 No-3 Remarks
Motor Start
Time
Motor Stop
Time
Motor
Reading
Voltage
Amps
Elapsed Hour

3.4.2 Monthly Maintenance

i) Check for free movement of the gland of the stuffing box; check gland packing and
replace if necessary.
ii) Clean and apply oil to the gland bolts.
iii) Inspect the mechanical seal for wear and replace, if necessary.
iv) Check the condition of bearing oil and replace or top up, if necessary.

3.4.3 Quarterly Maintenance

(i) Check the alignment of the pump and its driver. The pump and motor should be
decoupled while correcting the alignment, and both pump and motor shafts should
be pushed to either side to eliminate the effect of end play in bearings.

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(ii) Clean oil lubricated bearings and replenish with fresh oil. If bearings are grease
lubricated, the condition of the grease should be checked and
replaced/replenished with the correct quantity. An anti-friction bearing should have
its housing so packed with grease that the void space in the bearing housing
should be between one-third to one-half. A fully packed housing will overheat the
bearing and result in reduction of life of the bearing. .

(iii) Tighten the foundation bolts and hold-down bolts of pump and motor mounted on
base plate or frame.

(iv) Check vibration level with instruments, if available; otherwise by observation.

(v) Clean the flow indicator and other instruments and appurtenances in the pump
house.

3.4.4 Annual Inspections and Maintenance

A very thorough, critical inspection and maintenance should be performed once in a year.
The following - items should be specifically attended to:

(i) Clean and flush the bearings with kerosene and examine for flaws developed, if
any, e.g. corrosion, wear and scratches. Check the end play. Immediately after
cleaning, the bearings should be coated with oil or grease to prevent ingress of dirt
or moisture.
(ii) Clean the bearing housing and examine for flaws, e.g. wear, grooving etc. Change
oil or grease in the bearing housing.
(iii) Examine the shaft sleeves for wear or scour and rectify, if necessary. If the shaft
sleeves are not used, the shaft at gland packing should be examined for wear.
(iv) Check the stuffing box, glands, lantern ring, and mechanical seal and rectify, if
necessary.
(v) Check clearance in the wearing ring. It should be within the limit recommended by
the manufacturer. An excessive clearance reduces discharge and efficiency of the
pump. If the wear is only on one side, it is indicative of misalignment. The
misalignment should be set right, and the causes of the same should be
investigated. Normally, if the clearance in wearing rings increases by about 100
per cent for small pumps and 50-75 per cent for large pumps, the rings should be
renewed or replaced to restore the original clearance.
(vi) Check the impeller hubs and vane tips for any pitting or erosion.
(vii) Check the interior of volute, casing and diffuser for pitting, erosion, and rough
surface.
(viii) All vital instruments i.e. pressure gauge, vacuum gauge, ammeter, voltmeter, watt-
meters, frequency meter, tachometer, flow meter etc should be calibrated.

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Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 3
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(ix) Conduct performance test of the pump for discharge, head and efficiency.
(x) Measures for preventing ingress of flood water should be examined. Ingress of
flood water in sump, well, tube-well or bore-well should be strictly prevented. A
seal cap should be provided above tube-well/bore-well.
(xi) Check the vibration level.

3.4.5 History Sheet

A history sheet should be maintained for all pumps. It should contain all important
particulars, cords of all maintenance, repairs, inspections and tests etc. It should generally
include the following:

I. Details of the pump, rating, model, characteristic curves, performance test report
etc.
II. Addresses of both the manufacturer and the dealer along with their phone and fax
number and e-mail addresses.
III. Date of installation and commissioning.
IV. Brief details of monthly, quarterly and annual maintenance and the observations
made during inspections.
V. Details of breakdowns and repairs along with fault diagnosis, replacement of major
components i.e. impeller, shaft, bearings, wearing rings.
VI. Results of annual performance test, including discharge and efficiency.
VII. Yearly operation hours of the pumps.
VIII. Brief findings of energy audit.

Inspection reports should be prepared for each storm water pumping stations according
to the equipment installed.
An example of an annual inspection report for pumping station is shown in Table 3.2.

Table 3. 2: Annual Inspection of Pumping Station

Date
Mechanical General condition of equipment
Storm Water Pump Sump Remarks
No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Pump
1. Pump
Bearings
2. Gates
Gate Operator (manual)
Gate operator (motor)
Stems
3. Crane and Hoist
4. Trash racks
Drive chain
Bearings

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Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 3
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Gear reducers
Electrical Date
4 Motors
5 Motor bearing
6 Switchgear Controls
7 Control panels
General
1. Water Levels Elevation Remarks
Forebay
Sumps
Building and grounds Date
Remarks
1. Sump
2. Forebay
3. Discharge chamber
4. Gatewell to river outlet
5. Structure
6. Fire extinguishers
7. Tools and cabinets
8. Painting
9. Caulking
10. Grating, rails and
ladders
11. Water system and
plumbing
12. Louvers and ventilators
13. Windows
14. Doors
Remarks

Recommended maintenance/inspection tasks for equipment in pumping stations are

summarised by frequencies and are listed in Table 3.3. Because the required
maintenance / inspection and their frequencies may differ depending on the equipment
installed, maintenance plans should be prepared according to manufacturer’s instruction
manuals of related equipment.

Table 3. 3: Recommended maintenance for pumping equipment

Start monthly 3 6 1 5 year Oper

up month month year Hrs
Trash rake CL
Motors AL PG CL
Heaters GI
Gear GI CH
reducers

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Start monthly 3 6 1 5 year Oper

up month month year Hrs
Drive chain PG PG
Pillow blocks PG
Torque limit PG
buckling
Shear pin & GI
Sprocket
Trip cam GI
Control panel GI, CL
Sub – station GI
drainage
Building GI
structure
Trash-rack GI
Toilet facility GI
Domestic GI
water
Holding tank GI PO
Siphon GI
breakers
Unit heaters GI
Fire GI GI
extinguishers
Switch gear GI
Bus & GI, CL
connections
Instruments GI GI, CL
& lamps
Heaters GI
Lighting GI GI
panel
Control panel GI GI
Grounding GRT
Float control GI GI
Main pump
motors
Entrance GI, RS
channel
sump GI, RS
Gates GI, O,
CL
Stem GI CL, SG
Thrust nut GI CL, SG

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Start monthly 3 6 1 5 year Oper

up month month year Hrs
Manual PG
operators
Motor GI, CL
operators

Legend

O Operate GRT Ground Resistance Test MR Megger and Record

CH Change TO Test Oil PG Pressure Grease
CL Clean GI General Inspection SG Surface grease
AL Add Lubricant PO Pump Out TS Test
RS Remove Silt RC Remove Condensate
Source: JICA, 2011

3.5 Maintenance Schedule for Motors

3.5.1 Daily Maintenance

I. Clean the external surface of the motor.

II. Examine the earth connections and motor leads.
III. Check the temperature of the motor and see whether it is overheated. The
permissible maxim temperature is above the level which can be comfortably felt
by hand. Hence, the temperature observation should be made with RTD
thermometer. (Note: In order to avoid opening up motors, a good practice is to
observe the stator temperature under normal working conditions. Any increase
not accounted for by seasonal increase in ambient temperature is a sign of
defect.)
IV. In case of an oil-ring lubricated bearing:
a) Examine the bearing to check whether oil rings are working.
b) Note the temperature of the bearing.
c) Add oil, if necessary.
V. Check for any abnormal bearing noise.

3.5.2 Monthly Maintenance

I. Check the belt for proper tension. In case it is excessive, it should immediately
be reduced.
II. Blow dust from the motor.

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Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 3
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III. Examine the oil in oil lubricated bearing for contamination by dust, grit, etc. (This
can be judged from the colour of the oil).
IV. Check the functioning and connections of anti-condensation heater (space
heater).
V. Check the insulation resistance by meggering.

3.5.3 Quarterly Maintenance

I. Clean oil lubricated bearings and replenish fresh oil. If bearings are grease
lubricated, the condition of the grease should be checked and
replaced/replenished to correct quantity. An anti-friction bearing should have its
housing so packed with grease that the void space in the bearing housing
should be between one-third to one-half. A fully packed housing will over-heat
the bearing and result in reduction of life of the bearing.
II. Wipe the brush holders and check the contact faces of brushes of slip-ring
motors. If the contact faces are not smooth or are irregular, file them for proper
and full contact over slip rings.
III. Check the insulation resistance of the motor.
IV. Check for tightness of cable gland, lug and connecting bolts.
V. Check and tighten foundation bolts and hold-down bolts between motor and
frame.
VI. Check the vibration level with an instrument, if available; otherwise by
observation.

3.5.4 Half Yearly Maintenance

I. Clean the windings of the motor; bake and varnish, if necessary.

II. In case of slip ring motors, check the slip-rings for grooving or unusual wear.
Polish them with smooth polish paper, if necessary

3.5.5 Annual Inspections and Maintenance

I. Clean and flush the bearings with kerosene and examine for flaws developed,
if any, e.g. wear and scratches. Check the end-play. Immediately after cleaning,
the bearings should be coated with oil or grease to prevent ingress of dirt or
moisture.
II. Clean the bearing housing and examine for flaws, e.g. wear, grooving etc.
Change oil or grease in the bearing housing.
III. Blow out dust from the windings of the motor thoroughly with clean dry air. Make
sure that the pressure is not so high as to damage the insulation.

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Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 3
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IV. Clean and varnish dirty and oily windings. Re-varnish the motor if it is subjected
to severe operating and environmental conditions e.g., operation in dust-laden
environment, polluted atmosphere etc.
V. Check the condition of stator, stamping, insulation, terminal box, fan etc.
VI. Check the insulation resistance to earth and between phases of motors
windings, control gear and wiring.
VII. Check the air gaps.
VIII. Check the resistance of earth connections.

3.5.6 History Sheet

As with a pump, a history sheet should be maintained for the motor. It should contain all
important particulars, records of periodical maintenance, repairs, inspections and tests. It
should generally include the following:

I. Details of motor, rating, model, class of duty, class of insulation, efficiency curve,
type test result and type test certificate etc;
II. Date of installation and commissioning;
III. Addresses of both the manufacturer and the dealer with their phone and fax
numbers and e-mail addresses.
IV. Brief details of monthly, quarterly, half yearly and annual maintenance and the
observations made regarding the insulation level, air gap etc during inspections.
V. Details of breakdowns and repairs along with fault diagnosis.
VI. Running hours at the time of major repairs.

3.6 Miscellaneous O&M Aspects

3.6.1 Lubrication

Pumps, motors and drives should be oiled and greased in strict accordance with the
recommendation of the manufacturers. Cheap lubricant may often turn out to be
expensive in the end. Oil should not be put in the housing while the pump shaft is rotating
because the rotator action of the ball bearing will pick up and retain a considerable
amount of oil. When the unit comes to rest, an overflow of oil around the shaft or out of
the oil cup will result.

3.6.2 Mechanical Seals

Many pumps use mechanical seals in place of packing. Mechanical seals serve the same
purpose as packing that is, they prevent leakage between the pump casing and shaft.
Like packing, they are located the stuffing box where the shaft goes through the volute;

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Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 3
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however, they should not leak. Mechanical seals are gaining popularity in the wastewater
field.

Mechanical seals have two faces which mate tightly and prevent water from passing
through them. One half of the seal is mounted in the pump or gland with an “O” ring or
gasket, thus providing sealing between the housing and the seal face. This prevents water
from going around the seal face and housing. The other half of the mechanical seal is
installed on the pump shaft. This part also has an “O” ring or gasket between the shaft
and the seal to prevent water from leaking between the seal part and the shaft. There is
a spring located behind one of the seal parts which applied pressure to hold the two
faces of the seal together and keeps any water from leaking out. One half of the seal is
stationary arid the other half is revolving with the shaft.

3.6.3 Bearings

Pump bearings usually last for years if serviced properly and used in their proper
application. There are several types of bearings used in pumps such as ball bearings,
roller bearings and sleeve bearings. Each bearing has a special purpose such as thrust
load, radial load and speed. The type of bearing used in each pump depends on the
manufacturing design and application. Whenever a bearing failure occurs, the bearing
should be examined to determine the cause and, if possible, to eliminate the problem.
Many bearings are ruined during installation or start up.

Bearing failure may be caused by:

1. Fatigue failure
2. Contamination
3. Brinelling
4. False brinelling
5. Thrust failures
6. Misalignment
7. Electric sparking
8. Lubrication failure
9. Cam failure

Table 3. 4: Troubleshooting: Pumps

Trouble Possible Cause List of Causes

(No as per list
below)
Pump does not 1,2,3,5,6,7,9,10,15, 1- Pump not fully primed.
deliver 18,21,23,26,28,29,3
water 0,31,33,40,41,42

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Trouble Possible Cause List of Causes

(No as per list
below)
2-Pressure at eye of impeller has faller pour
Insufficient 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, 10,1 pressure, causing cavitations clogging on
discharge 3,1 6,1 7,1 8, 20, suction side).
delivered 21, 23, 24, 27, 28, 3-Suction lift too high. (Reduce suction lift
29, 30, after calculating permissible suction lift from
31, 33,39,40,41 and NPSHR).
insufficient 2,3,4,21,23,24,26,2 4-Excessive amount of air in liquid.
pressure 7,28,33,39 5-Air pocket in suction line (Check point in
developed suction line is above center line of pump and
Pump loses prime 22,25,28,33,37,38,4 ¡f so, lower the line).
after 9,53,54,55, 56, 58 6-Air leaks into suction line.
starting 7- Air leaks into pump through stuffing boxes
Pump requires 22,25,28,33,37,38,4 or mechanical seal.
excessive power 9,53,54,55,56,58 8-Net opening area of foot valves less.
Stuffing box leaks 34,36,44,45,46,47,4 9. Foot valve/strainer partially or fully
excessively 8,50,51,52 clogged or silted up.
Gland packing 11,12,34,36,44,45,4 10-Suction bell mouth or foot valve
has short life 7,48,49,50, 52 insufficiently submerged.
Bearing has short 17,2O,32,34,35,36, 11- Water-seal pipe clogged.
life 37,3,41,44,48,51,54 12-Seal cage improperly mounted ¡n stuffing
,55,56,57,58,59,60, box, preventing sealing, fluid from entering
61,62,63 space to from the seal.
Pump vibrates or 10,17,19,20,22,33,3 13-Circular motion in suspended suction
noisy at all flow 4,36, 37, 38, 40, 41, pipe observed. (The problem indicates
43, 45, 46, 47, 48, occurrence of
51, 52, vortex.)
53,55,56,57,58,59,6 14-Foot valve leaks.
0,61,62,63,65 15- Flap of foot valve jammed.
Pumps vibrates or 1,2,3,9,10,17,20,21, 16-Concentric taper ¡n suction line causing
noisy at low flow 27,39 air pocket (Replace with eccentric taper).
17-Occurrence of vortex ¡n intake, sump or
Pumps vibrates or 25,28 well (Check whether all parameters for
noisy at high flow vortex-free operation are satisfied; take
Pump oscillates 38 remedial measures).
axially 18-Casing not air-tight and therefore
breathing in.
Coupling Fails 34,36,38,60,62
19-Short bend/elbow on suction side.
20-Inadequate clearance below suction bell
Pump overheat 1,2,3,1 1,12,17,20,
mouth. (Raise bell mouth to achieve
and/ or seizes 24, 26, 27, 31, 34,
recommended
36,
bottom clearance for vortex-free operation).
37,38,44,45,47,8,49

37
Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 3
Pumping Station

Trouble Possible Cause List of Causes

(No as per list
below)
,50,53,54,55,56,57, 21-Speed too low for pump driven by diesel
58 engine.
Pumps rotate in 14,64 22-Speed too high for pump driven by diesel
reverse direction engine.
on shutdown or 23-Wrong direction of rotation.
after power failure 24-Total head of system higher than design
or tripping head of pump.
25-Total head system lower than design
head of pump.
26-Static head higher than shut off head of
pump.
27-Pump characteristics unsuitable for
parallel operation of pumps.
28-Burst or leakage ¡n pumping main.
29-Pumping main partially or fully clogged.
30-Air trapped in pumping main.
31-Malfunctioning of line valve causing
partial or full closure.
32-Capacity of thrust bearing inadequate.
33-Foreign matter in impeller.
34-Misalignment.
35-Foundations not rigid or broken/loose
foundation bolts or supporting structural
member
(RCC/ structural steel beams) not rigid (Dis-
mantle existing foundation and cast new
foundation. Strengthen supporting RCC/
structural steel beams).
36-Pump (impeller) shaft bent.
37-Rotating part rubbing on stationary part.
38-Pump shaft bearing (bush bearing or anti-
friction bearing) worn.
39-Wearing rings worn.
40-Impeller damaged.
41-Impeller locking pin or coIlect1oose.
42-Pump shaft or transmission shaft broken.
43-Transmission shaft bent.
44-Shaft or shaft sleeves worn or scored at
the packing.
45-Gland packing improperly installed.
46-Incorrect type of gland packing for
operating conditions.

38
Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 3
Pumping Station

Trouble Possible Cause List of Causes

(No as per list
below)
47-Shaft running off center because of worn
bearing or misalignment.
48-Rotor out of balance, causing vibration.
49-Gland too tight, resulting in no flow of
liquid to lubricate gland.
50-Failure to provide cooling liquid to water
cooled stuffing boxes.
51-Excessive clearance at bottom of stuffing
box between shaft and casing, causing
interior packing to be forced into pump.
52-Dirt or grit in sealing liquid, leading to
scouring of shaft or shaft sleeve.
53-Excessive thrust caused by mechanical
failure inside the pump or by the failure of the
hydraulic balancing device, if any.
54-Excessive grease or highly viscous oil in
antifriction bearing housing or lack of
cooling, causing excessive bearing
temperature.
55-Lack of lubrication causing overheating
and abnormal friction in anti-friction bearing,
bush bearing or transmission shaft bearing.
56-Improper installation of anti-friction
bearing (damage during assembly, incorrect
assembly of stacked bearings, use of
unmatched bearing as a pair etc).
57-Dirt in bearings.
58-Rusting of bearing from water in housing.
59-Mechanical seal worn out.
60-Coupling bushes or rubber spider worn
out or a wear in coupling
61-Base plate or frame not properly leveled.
62-Coupling unbalance.
63-Bearing loose on shaft or in housing.
64-Reflux valve (NRV) does not close tightly
during shut down, after power failure or
tripping.
65-Critical speed close to normal speed of
pump.

39
Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 4
Storm Water Recharge Structures

CHAPTER 4: STORM WATER RECHARGE STRUCTURES

4.1 Introduction

Periodic maintenance of recharge structures is essential because infiltration capacity

reduces rapidly as a result of silting, chemical precipitation and accumulation of organic
matter.

Success of artificial recharge schemes and related developmental activities primarily

depend on the cooperation of the community and hence, should be managed at the local
level. From a basin management perspective, the division of a basin into many micro-
catchments is, hence, an essential recognition of the community role. The success of
implementation and optimal utilisation of the schemes depend on participation and active
contribution of the public.

Structural maintenance is normally carried out either by government agencies or through

initiatives of stakeholders. In case of surface spreading structures, annual maintenance
consists of scraping the infiltration surfaces to remove accumulated silt and organic
matter. In the case of injection wells, periodic maintenance of the system consists of
pumping and /or flushing with a mildly acidic solution to remove encrusting chemical
precipitates and bacterial growths on the well screens. The intervals between periodic
cleanings can be extended by converting injection wells into dual purpose wells. However,
in the case of spreading structures constructed with an overflow or outlet mechanism,
annual desilting is a must.

Several issues are to be considered in the operation and maintenance of artificial

recharge structures. These have been categorised as issues of high concern and
moderate concern (ASCE, 2001). Safety, optimisation techniques and programs, value
of wet-dry cycles, frequency of pond cleaning and condition of filters attached to the
structures fall under issues of high concern, whereas security issues and rising ground
water levels are among those of moderate concern in this regard.

4.2 Operational Data Requirements

Realistic estimates of the quantum of water entering and leaving the recharge
area/basin/sub-basin are essential for assessing the volume of water that is recharged.
Stream gauging stations in streams are needed if natural flows or a combination of natural
flow and imported water are being recharged. In case the entire water being recharged is
imported, suitable devices should be used to measure the inflow into the structure. The
accounting of a system that has both surface and sub-surface recharge structures should
also include devices to measure precipitation and evapotranspiration, which should be
added to the inflow and outflow respectively. Initial measurements should be of sufficient
frequency to determine how each of the parameters being measured varies with time.
Once the variation is determined, a schedule that provides accuracy and economy can
be set, which should integrate all the data being measured for optimizing data collection
costs.

40
Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 4
Storm Water Recharge Structures

The data that should be measured for a recharge system include but are not limited to
the following:

i. Flow rate, duration and quality of source water.

ii. Inflow and outflow rates, duration and quality of inflow and outflow into and out of
each unit of the recharge system.
iii. Recharge rates versus time for each unit and for the system as a whole.
iv. Depth to water and quality of ground water in the area being recharged and
adjacent areas.
v. Power usage by individual units and for the system as a whole.
vi. Depth to water in the recharge structures versus time ( in case of surface
structures)
vii. Thickness and composition of surface clogging layer when the structure is dry (in
case of surface structures).
viii. Pressure versus time (in case of pressure injection)
ix. Depth to water in recharge well versus time in case of gravity head recharge wells.
x. Precipitation and evaporation from surface ponds.
xi. Temperature of water at inflow and outflow locations.
xii. Time, rate and volume of pumping for each structure and for the system as a
whole.

The data mentioned above helps fine-tune the recharge facility and provides the basis for
corrections in case of problems. Periodic tests of pump efficiency, sampling of water
quality and ground water level measurements should also be made and recorded on a
defined schedule.

Measurement of any flows that pass downstream of the last recharge structure is needed
if the total recharge from the operation is to be assessed. The volume of water passing
the downstream gauging station, adjusted for precipitation and evaporation can be
subtracted from the measured inflow volume to determine the quantum of water
recharged.

4.2.1 Water Level Measurement

Measurement of ground water level in the aquifer, also known as ‘static water level’ or
‘potentiometric head’ is very important in artificial recharge schemes. Water levels have
to be measured after a sufficient time has elapsed since stoppage of pumping or recharge
to allow the water level to become stabilized and the drawdown/mounding effects to be
minimized. Measurement of water levels in wells adjacent to a surface or subsurface
recharge structure are also important as they help determine the shape and rate of growth
of the recharge mound.

41
Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 4
Storm Water Recharge Structures

4.2.2 Water Quality Measurement

Complete water quality sampling and testing of a recharge scheme including source and
aquifer should be done initially to determine the suitability of water for the intended use.
The testing will provide a basis for the design of any other water quality treatment facilities
that may be needed. After implementation of the scheme, periodic water quality
assessment should be made. Proper training should be imparted to the personnel
involved to ensure that the samples are not contaminated during collection and
transportation.

4.3 Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance of artificial recharge structures implies a periodic action taken to

forestall major repair or replacement of its components. It may be drying up and scarifying
of recharge ponds, periodic pumping of recharge wells, or regular application of lubricants
/ protective substances to the mechanical parts or replacement of minor parts that are
subject to deterioration or repeated failure. It also involves regular observation and
recording of the behaviour of both static and dynamic components of the system to detect
changes in their inherent condition that indicates the need for unscheduled maintenance.
These include reduction in the recharge rates, temperature of mechanical parts or rate of
settlement.

4.3.1 Maintenance of Surface Recharge Structures

Artificial recharge structures such as percolation ponds and check dams are examples of
‘wet/dry cycle’ operation (ASTE, 2001) in which the structures get filled up one or more
times during monsoon and remain dry during the summer season. These structures can
be maintained by removing the silt deposited at the bottom of the structure periodically.
The optimal amount of cleaning would remove the accumulation of surface material that
has reduced the recharge capacity of the structure.

4.4 Potential Problems

The Problems normally encountered in recharge projects are mainly related to the source
water available for recharge, which generally require some sort of treatment before use
in recharge installations. They are also related to the changes in the soil structure and
the biological phenomena, which take place when infiltration begins, to the changes of
land ownership and legal aspects.

4.4.1 Suspended Material

A major requirement for waters that are to be used in recharge projects is that they should
be silt-free. Silt may be defined as the content of un-dissolved solid matter, usually
measured in mg/l, which settles in stagnant water having velocities not exceeding 0.1
m/hr. This definition comprises a large variety of materials such as clay particles, organic

42
Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 4
Storm Water Recharge Structures

matter and fine particles of calcite. The silt content of river water depends upon the type
of soils in the area of run-off, the vegetative cover of this area, its topographic slopes,
meteorological characteristics prevailing in its catchment and intensity of rainfall.

Suspended matter may clog the soil in two different ways. Near the surface, the interstices
of the soil may be filled up and a layer of mud may be deposited on the surface. On the
other hand, they may penetrate deeper into the soil and accumulate there. A layer of mud
is formed on the surface by particles, the settling velocity of which exceed infiltration
velocities. Smaller suspended particles are filtered out in the uppermost layer of the soil.
The filtration process is governed not only mechanical factors, but it seems to be strongly
influenced by electro-chemical surface forces. Still finer particles, especially very fine
grains of montmorillonite clay, are carried further into the soil. Observations in spreading
grounds composed of medium-grained dune sands, showed that these particles become
lodged at depths ranging from 10 to 20 m below the surface, and some of these particles
are carried even deeper. Semipervious layers situated deep below the sand filter out even
those particles and become progressively clogged.

Methods to prevent or minimize the clogging effect by suspended matter can be classified
into the following broad groups:

a) Periodical removing of the mud cake and scraping of the surface layer
b) Installation of a filter on the surface, the permeability of which is lower than that
of the natural strata (the filter must be removed and replaced periodically)
c) Addition of organic matter or chemicals to the uppermost layer
d) Cultivation of certain plant-covers, notably certain kinds of grass

Scraping of the surface layer is effective only in coarse-grained soils. In soils composed
mainly of sand, repeated compaction by heavy machinery may easily nullify any benefit
gained from scraping. Various chemicals and organic matter have been used to restore
infiltration capacities. These include gypsum, various organic compounds, cotton-gin
trash and alfalfa (grown while the pond is still wet and then spaded under). The growth of
a permanent grass-cover has proved to be an effective method for maintaining infiltration
capacities, but it is difficult to select a grass which grows under a given climatic and soil
condition and is able to withstand alternate periods of flooding and drying.

Clogging by biological activity depends upon the mineralogical and organic composition
of the water and basin floor and upon the grain-size and permeability of the soil. The only
feasible method of treatment developed so far consists in thoroughly drying the ground
under the basin. Experiences seem to indicate that short periods of operation (about one
month), followed by drying, are more effective than prolonged periods of operation, even
if they are followed by a prolonged and most thorough period of drying during the hot
summer.

43
Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 4
Storm Water Recharge Structures

Clogging and consequent destruction of bore holes may occur as a result of erosion of
the aquifer. If velocities of flow are too high, fine sand and particles from local clay layers
may be dragged outward into the aquifer and clog it or even cause collapse of the well.
The common-sense precautions against these mishaps in semi-consolidated aquifers are
to keep injection rates somewhat below the rate of proved safe continuous pumping and
to avoid frequent sudden changes of the injection rate, which may cause vibrations.
Experience has shown that no deterioration of the aquifer occurs if these reasonable
precautions are taken.

Air bubbles, which are sucked into the well through the injection pipe, cause violent
vibrations when they finally escape upwards. The possibility of air seepage must therefore
be completely eliminated. The only certain way to achieve this is to design and operate
the installation so that positive pressures (exceeding atmospheric pressure) are
maintained everywhere in the injection pipe, even if this entails a reduction of injection
rates.

Bore holes are much more prone to silting than spreading grounds. No acceptable
standard of turbidity can be given. Clarity of the Water should conform to the standards
of good drinking water. Clogging of the bore hole wall by bacterial growth may occur,
even if water of potable standard is injected. Even when chlorination at the well-head
carried out, the wells may still require periodic re-development by mechanical means and
pumping.

4.5 Maintenance of Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting System

Maintenance of roof top rainwater harvesting system (RRHS) is simple and costs little.
As the entire system is household-based, it becomes one of the assets of the household
and hence could be maintained best by the users themselves. It requires continuous care
and maintenance just as any other asset in the household. In fact, maintenance of RRHS
should get priority over other household assets, as it ensures the good health of all people
in the household. Cleanliness of surroundings as well as the system including its various
components such as roof, gutters, filtration unit and the storage tank, will ensure supply
of water of potable quality throughout the water scarcity period for the drinking and
cooking purposes of the household.

4.5.1 Tips for Maintenance of the RRHS

a) Always keep the surroundings of the tank clean and hygienic

b) Remove algae from the roof tiles and asbestos sheets before the monsoon
c) Drain the tank completely and clean the inside of the tank thoroughly before
the monsoon
d) Clean the water channels (gutters) often during rainy season and definitely
before the first monsoon rain

44
Part B: Operation & Maintenance Chapter: 4
Storm Water Recharge Structures

e) Avoid first 15 or 20 minutes of rainfall depending on the intensity of rain. Use

the first flush arrangement to drain off this first rainwater.
f) Change the filter media every rainy season
g) Cover all inlet and outlet pipes with closely knit nylon net or fine cloth or cap
during non-rainy season to avoid entry of insects, worms and mosquitoes
h) Check and clean mesh at the inlet and outlet of the water channel (gutter) to
facilitate free flow of rain water;
i) Check the down take pipes for Cracks due to exposure to the sun, over
pressure due to faulty selection (diameter) or Rusting of pipes
j) Withdraw water from the system at the rate of 5 litres/head/day. This will
ensure availability of water throughout the water scarcity period.
k) Leakage or cracks in the storage tank should be immediately attended to.
This will obviate the need for major repairs caused by propagation of cracks.
l) Heavy loads should not be applied on the lid.
m) Water should not be allowed to stagnate in the collection pit
n) The tap should have lock system to prevent pilferage or wastage of water
o) The filter material should be washed thoroughly before replacing in the filter
bucket
p) In coastal areas, the outer side of the tank may be painted with corrosion-
resistant paint at least once in 3 years and in other areas lime (Calcium
Carbonate) based whitewash may be applied regularly.

People may be educated by providing the above tips for maintenance of the system
through pictures, handouts and wall posters. The implementing agency should visit the
structures as follow-up to monitor and motivate the users in proper maintenance of the
systems. There could be informal group discussions among the users on the maintenance
aspects of the Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting Systems.

As a precautionary and preventive measure, the water from the storage tank may also be
tested for the presence of disease causing microorganisms. This task may be taken up
by the implementing agency as an immediate follow up of the construction of the systems.
This helps the agency to find out the users attention to the maintenance of the system as
well as necessary awareness to be given on various maintenance aspects.

Note: Adapted from ‘Manual and Artiicial Recharge of Ground Water of CGWB, Sep,
2007’ for the benefit of users of the Manual.

45
Part C: Management

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................. i

LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... v

LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................... vi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 1

1.1 General............................................................................................................. 1

CHAPTER 2: INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS .................................................. 2

2.1 General............................................................................................................. 2

2.2 Organisation Setup ........................................................................................... 2

2.2.1 Central Government .................................................................................. 2

2.2.2 State Government ..................................................................................... 3

2.2.3 Urban Local Bodies ................................................................................... 3

2.3 Dedicated Cell .................................................................................................. 3

2.4 Responsibility of Senior Management Personnel ............................................. 3

2.5 Responsibility of Middle Management Personnel ............................................. 4

2.6 Responsibility of Operational Management Personnel ..................................... 4

2.7 Assignment of Responsibilities ......................................................................... 5

2.8 Reporting Structure .......................................................................................... 7

2.9 Contact Details to be displayed ........................................................................ 7

2.10 Emergency plan for flood response .................................................................. 7

2.10.1 Equipment ................................................................................................. 7

2.10.2 Evacuation................................................................................................. 7

2.10.3 Estimation of severity of flood.................................................................... 7

2.10.4 Emergency search and rescue .................................................................. 8

2.10.5 Emergency relief ....................................................................................... 8

2.10.6 Emergency Medical Response .................................................................. 8

i
Part C: Management

CHAPTER 3: CAPACITY BUILDING AND TRAINING ............................................. 9

3.1 General............................................................................................................. 9

3.2 Capacity Building .............................................................................................. 9

3.3 Institutional Capacity Building ........................................................................... 9

3.4 Human Resources Capacity Building ............................................................... 9

3.5 Fund Allocation for Capacity Building ............................................................. 10

3.6 Training Needs Assessment ........................................................................... 10

3.7 Objective of training needs identification ........................................................ 11

3.8 Identification of training needs ........................................................................ 11

3.9 Data collection and Analysis for training needs .............................................. 11

3.10 Mandatory Training ........................................................................................ 12

3.10.1 Short Term Training ................................................................................ 12

3.10.2 Long-Term Training ................................................................................. 13

3.10.3 Refresher Training ................................................................................... 13

3.10.4 Training of Trainers ................................................................................. 13

3.10.5 On-The-Job Training ............................................................................... 14

3.10.6 Capacity Building of Outsourced O & M Personnel ................................. 14

3.11 Preparatory Training for Disaster Management .............................................. 15

3.12 Quantification of Training................................................................................ 15

3.13 Number, Frequency and Duration .................................................................. 16

3.14 Exposure Visits to Best Practices ................................................................... 16

3.15 Incentives for Efficient Performance ............................................................... 16

3.16 Training Institutions ........................................................................................ 16

CHAPTER 4: PUBLIC AWARENESS ..................................................................... 17

4.1 General........................................................................................................... 17

4.2 Organising Public Participation....................................................................... 17

4.3 Modes of Communication. .............................................................................. 18

ii
Part C: Management

4.3.1 Print media .............................................................................................. 18

4.3.2 Electronic media ...................................................................................... 18

4.3.3 Social Media ............................................................................................ 19

4.3.4 Cinema Halls ........................................................................................... 19

4.3.5 Street plays ............................................................................................. 19

4.3.6 Poster, pamphlets & hoardings ............................................................... 19

4.3.7 Public transportation system ................................................................... 20

4.3.8 Educational institutes .............................................................................. 20

4.3.9 Voluntary organization ............................................................................. 20

4.3.10 Door-to-door campaigns .......................................................................... 20

4.3.11 Corporate social and environmental responsibility campaigns etc. ......... 20

4.3.12 Mobile Phones......................................................................................... 20

4.3.13 Sanitation Volunteers .............................................................................. 21

4.4 Importance of Water Harvesting Structures.................................................... 21

4.5 No sewage in storm water Drains ................................................................... 21

4.6 No Dumping in Storm Water Drains ............................................................... 21

4.7 Illegal Encroachment of drainage corridors .................................................... 22

CHAPTER 5: FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE OPERATION &

MAINTENANCE ................................................................................. 23

5.1 Background .................................................................................................... 23

5.2 Financing of Projects ...................................................................................... 23

5.2.1 Government of India (G.O.I) Level .......................................................... 24

5.2.2 State Government Level .......................................................................... 24

5.2.3 Local Body Level ..................................................................................... 24

5.2.4 Bilateral Assistance and Financial Institutions ......................................... 25

5.3 Public Private Partnerships ............................................................................ 25

5.4 Estimate for Operation & Maintenance and Capacity Building ....................... 26

iii
Part C: Management

5.5 Revenue Generation ...................................................................................... 27

5.6 Green Infrastructure Retrofit Financing .......................................................... 28

5.7 Summary ........................................................................................................ 30

iv
Part C: Management

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2. 1: Job Description......................................................................................... 5

v
Part C: Management

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4. 1: Public Participation along with ULB to clean the River Cauvery .............. 18

vi
Part C: Management Chapter: 1
Introduction

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

It is important that storm water drainage system works efficiently as per design
objectives throughout its design life. To achieve this objective, Part C includes four
chapters that comprehensibly address aspects of Institutional setup, public
awareness, capacity building, training and financing capital investment, operation-
maintenance expenses, etc.

Institutional Arrangement is necessary to assess the capabilities of the institution

that are entrusted in identifying, formulating and implementing such projects and
operating and maintaining the same after its commission. The organization
responsible for these functions must fulfill the requirement in respect of institutional
structure, personal, management procedures, etc.

Capacity building and training are necessary input in developing and strengthening
skills, abilities of the personnel employed on operating and maintaining storm water
facilities to obtain a maximum benefit when the system operates to its optimal capacity
in compliance with design requirement.

Public awareness is the growing recognized mechanism to dissuade people from the
habit of indiscriminate littering and dumping of debris and solid waste either on ground
or nearby drains/rivers or streams. Therefore, public awareness plays a pivotal role in
creating awareness, mobilizing people, and making participatory approach through
advocacy and transferring of knowledge and scheme.

Financial Management and Sustainable Operation & Maintenance Though ULBs

have mandatory responsibility to formulate, construct, operate and maintain
stormwater drainage projects but their ability to discharge these functions are limited
on account of their meagre financial resources. They receive financial aid either from
the State Government or Government of India in the form of loan and grant.
International financial institutions also extend financial assistance in the form of long
term soft loan through Government of India to such capital intensive projects like storm
water drainage schemes, sewerage scheme, water supply scheme, etc.

1
Part C: Management Chapter: 2
Institutional Arrangements

CHAPTER 2: INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

2.1 General

This section discusses the institutional arrangements in relation to the management

aspects of storm water drainage. Even with the creation of storm water infrastructure,
if these are not operated, maintained/managed properly, it may fail to provide the
desired level of services on a sustainable basis. Hence, an organisation which is
efficient is required for planning, designing, and sustainable operation and
maintenance of storm water drainage and sewerage systems. Therefore, measures
must be taken for institutional strengthening so that the efforts made can be sustained
over a period of time and the system put in place can be well managed. Institutional
strengthening can be done by adequately decentralizing the administration, delegating
adequate powers at the decentralized level, inducting professionals into the
administration and providing adequate training to the existing staff. This chapter
covers the various aspects of management of storm water drains.

2.2 Organisation Setup

Storm water drain services have been historically under the control of public health
engineering departments governing the entire State for capital works and local bodies
like corporations, municipalities, and town/gram panchayats for O&M. In a large
country like India, the management of storm water drain can be performed effectively if
administration is adequately decentralised. Decentralisation can be at the City level,
the Zonal level, and the Ward level.

Focussed attention can be delivered if all functions of the city administration are
decentralised at Zone/Division levels and senior officers are placed in-charge of each
Zone/Division functioning independently with adequately delegated powers. The 74th
Constitutional Amendment envisages formation of Ward Committees in each city that
has a population of above 3,00,000. These Ward Committees, as and when formed,
may be very usefully involved at the Ward level.

2.2.1 Central Government

The role of the Central Government is to administer uniformity in the features by

bringing out policies, manuals, and advisories and disbursing grants/funds under
various Central Government Programs. External aid is also procured through the
Government of India for major projects fulfilling certain norms. In-service training
programs are provided in coordination with recognized training institutes. Assistance
from financial institutions and other bodies like HUDCO, LIC, etc., are also available.

2
Part C: Management Chapter: 2
Institutional Arrangements

2.2.2 State Government

The State Governments offer to assist the local bodies in the planning and
implementation of storm water drainage schemes of an individual or a group of local
bodies. Financial support is also given for these schemes in the form of grant-in-aid
and loan, etc., for capital investment. The State Governments monitor general
progress of schemes of local bodies in respect of planning, implementation, and
O&M. Unlike the central government the state in most cases has more than two
departments which are in one way or the other responsible for activities pertaining to
urban development. Director Local Bodies under the department of Municipal
administration/Local Self-Government or Urban Development. Is the nodal officer to
deal with ULBs on administrative matters. However, in case of Municipal
Corporations the administrative arrangement is significantly different in some states
and they are in most cases directly supervised by Urban Development or Local Self
Government or Municipal administration. These arrangements vary from state to
state.

2.2.3 Urban Local Bodies

It is obligatory for every local body (Municipal corporation, Municipality, Nagar

Panchayat, etc.) to properly maintain the storm water drains under their respective
jurisdictions. ULBs should also prepare their drainage projects in consultation with
Regional Development Authorities to ensure that the impact of their storm water
drainage projects may not adversely affect the adjacent ULBs drainage systems.
Depending upon the financial status of each local body, the State/Central
Governments come to the help of these local bodies to meet a part/whole of their
capital investment cost on schemes in the form of grant-in-aid and/or loan. The
expenditures on annual O&M of these schemes however, have to be met by the ULB
out of its own revenue generated from taxes. As per the respective acts, local bodies
have been empowered to levy and recover tax from the habitation where storm water
drainage service is provided by the local bodies.

2.3 Dedicated Cell

In order to efficiently address (a) day to day O & M issues related to storm water drains
and (b) to carry out preventive maintenance a dedicated cell to be formed in each ULB.
This dedicated cell will have its own helpline number, manpower, vehicles and related
equipment at their disposal. Alternatively, a dedicated drainage cell/ department may
be created as per the convenience of the corporation to handle work efficiently.

2.4 Responsibility of Senior Management Personnel

The senior management personnel should define the role of the department and set
out strategies for long-term objectives. They should be in close contact with other

3
Part C: Management Chapter: 2
Institutional Arrangements

agencies involved in infrastructure services and work for coordination with government
and private agencies in design, construction, O&M, monitoring, and evaluation of the
functioning of the agency. They shall also determine and administer staffing structure,
service conditions, job descriptions, salary levels, performance standards, staff
training, and promotions.

2.5 Responsibility of Middle Management Personnel

Middle management personnel should contribute to the formulation of a long-term plan

for O&M and contribute in preparing projects for expanding and making the facilities
work effectively. For achieving this they should:

1. Update system data, select design criteria and decide how to meet the technical
standards and social needs in the most cost-effective way,
2. Formulate and implement programmes for efficient use of storm water in non-
potable uses, identifying opportunities for implementation of best management
practices and preparedness for disaster prevention, etc.
3. For defining the type of service and coverage and formulate medium-term
programmes for O&M. These programmes should aim at (a) Expanding coverage
of service, (b) Making best use of existing physical, financial and human resources,
(c) Improving quality of services provided, (d) Rehabilitation (as part of preventive
maintenance) of component parts of drainage installations and equipment with a
view to extend their useful life, (e ) Reducing costs and raising productivity in the
agency’s O&M programmes, (f) Supervising the O&M, (g) Monitoring
environmental conditions, (h) Promoting awareness of and educating users about
the proper use of storm water drainage system.

Middle management personnel should determine the technical, economic and

organisational feasibility of the O&M plan. They should determine priorities and set
targets for implementation of long-term plan for O&M. In addition, they should
consolidate all the short term O&M plans prepared by the operational management
level and submit it to senior management to ensure that it is compatible with the long
term plan. They should monitor and reallocate resources where necessary to ensure
that the targets set in the plan are achieved.

2.6 Responsibility of Operational Management Personnel

Operational management personnel are primarily responsible for short-term planning

and participate in formulating medium-term and long-term O&M plans. They shall have
responsibilities in the planning, design and construction work as well as O&M of the
agency’s equipment.
They also propose medium-term activities to operate and maintain the storm water

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Part C: Management Chapter: 2
Institutional Arrangements

drainage system and participate with middle management personnel in defining

objectives, strategies and resources both to extend and to ensure full use of the
coverage of services.

They should also evaluate the feasibility of medium-term investments for O&M. In
line with long-term and medium-term programs for O&M, they should formulate
short-term objectives, targets and programs.

They should assess the resources required and allocate them, monitor and evaluate
the performance in the following areas:

i. Studies and designs needed for rehabilitation of the installations or

expansion of the services
ii. Maintain the units under operation so that they work efficiently and last as long
as possible
iii. Update the ledger data

2.7 Assignment of Responsibilities

Work details regarding duties are shown in Table 2.1. These have to be read inter-
alia with the foregoing sections which describe the management is headed by a Chief
Engineer (CE) or Superintending Engineer (SE) at the senior management level and
supported by Executive Engineer (EE) or Assistant Executive Engineer (AEE) at the
middle level and Assistant Engineer (AE) or Junior Engineer (JE) at the operational
level depending on whether it is an ULB or PHED. The engineers are assisted by
mechanics and operators.

Table 2. 1: Job Description

No Duty Description
Execution of
1 general affairs General affairs, Personnel, Salary, Welfare,
related to SWD Dissemination
a. Procurement of materials and administration
(Fuel, Chemicals, consumables)
2 Budget Execution b. Contract of construction
c. Contract of outsourcing
Asset Management
3 Administration of fixed assets, maintenance and repair
Coordination of User survey, user charges, collection of user
4 Service Charges charges, survey of uncollected service charges

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Part C: Management Chapter: 2
Institutional Arrangements

No Duty Description
1. Maintenance and Inspection
5 O&M of SWD
a. Planning, preparing detail plans and supervising
the implementation of inspection and survey of
SWD
b. Planning, preparing detail plans and supervising
the implementation of cleaning of SWD
c. Planning, preparing detail plans and supervising
the implementation of rehabilitation and
replacement works
d. Protection of SWD
e. Approval and authorization of SWD related
matters

2. Rehabilitation and Replacement

a. Preparing detailed plan, design, and implementation
of rehabilitation

1. Maintenance and Inspection

a. Establishment of guidelines, and preparation of
maintenance and inspection plan for machine and
O&M of pumping
6 electrical equipment
station
b. Preparing detailed plans and implementation of
outsourcing the above activities

2. Rehabilitation and Replacement

a. Preparing a detailed plan, design, and
implementation of rehabilitation
a) Report to authority
b) Understanding the status and improvement on
9
Others safety and sanitation
c) Dissemination of knowledge and public awareness
d) Training of staff and operators
Source: Adapted from JSWA, 2003

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Part C: Management Chapter: 2
Institutional Arrangements

2.8 Reporting Structure

The reporting structure in regard to storm water division is concerned is as follows.

The management is headed by a Chief Engineer (CE) or Superintending Engineer

(SE) at the senior management level and supported by Executive Engineer (EE) or
Assistant Executive Engineer (AEE) at the middle level and Assistant Engineer (AE)
or Junior Engineer (JE) at the operational level depending on whether it is a ULB or a
PHED. The engineers are assisted by mechanics and operators. The operational level
officers report to the middle-level officers who in turn report to the senior level
management.

2.9 Contact Details to be displayed

Nowadays it is becoming a standard practice to provide the contact details of the

concerned officers in the website of the organisation and/or on the name boards in the
organisation. Nevertheless, this practice shall be followed in the ULB / PHED / Nagar
Nigam etc. dealing with storm water. The contact details shall also include the name
and contact details of the officer who is allotted the portfolio of disaster management.

2.10 Emergency plan for flood response

Management and control of the adverse consequences of floods will require
coordinated and effective response systems at all levels-national, state, district, local
and community. Many of the components of response initiatives will remain the same
for different types of disasters. These systems need to be developed considering the
multi-hazard scenario of the region to optimally utilise available resources.

2.10.1 Equipment
State governments will compile a list of equipment such as Motor launches, country
boats, inflatable rubber boats, life jackets, lifebuoys and other equipment, identify
suppliers thereof and enter into long-term agreement for their quick mobilization and
deployment in the event of floods.

2.10.2 Evacuation
Evacuation needs to be carried out as a precautionary measure based on warning
indicators, prior to impact, in order to protect flood-threatened persons from the full
effects of the disasters.

2.10.3 Estimation of severity of flood

As the local communication infrastructure often fails, the severity of a flood cannot be
estimated immediately after its occurrence. The preliminary assessment of the

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Institutional Arrangements

severity of a flood should be based on water level and the estimate of the area
flooded as assessed from satellite imageries.

2.10.4 Emergency search and rescue

Trained and equipped teams consisting of local people, Community level teams in
each district will be set up in flood-prone areas to respond effectively in the event of
floods.

2.10.5 Emergency relief

Trained community-level teams will assist in planning and setting up emergency

shelters, distributing relief among the affected people, identifying missing people, and
addressing the needs of education, health care, water supply, sanitation, food, etc. of
the affected community.

2.10.6 Emergency Medical Response

The prompt and efficient emergency medical response will be provided at the Site of
Floods and Hospital. A well-rehearsed medical preparedness plan will be required to
provide intensive care to cases rescued from drowning. The state will develop
contingency plans to have sufficient mortuaries to preserve the dead bodies. After
proper identification dead bodies will be immediately disposed through district
authorities, to prevent outbreak of an epidemic and environmental pollution.
Protecting existing water sources from contamination, adding chlorine tablet in the
water for residual disinfection effect and provision of latrine and proper waste disposal
to avoid contamination through flies and other insects are important steps required
immediately in the aftermath of a flood. A team comprising a social worker, a
psychologist, and a psychiatrist will provide counseling to them. Documentation of the
medical response provided after a flood will be done by a medical administrator.

The details of the emergency flood response may be referred to National Disaster
Management guidelines, Management of floods, January 2008.

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Part C: Management Chapter: 3
Capacity Building and Training

CHAPTER 3: CAPACITY BUILDING AND TRAINING

3.1 General

Capacity-building may be defined as the process of developing and strengthening of

skills, instincts, abilities, processes and resources that are needed by an organization
or a community to survive, adapt and thrive in changing conditions. This chapter
covers the aspects of capacity building and training in brief and with a guiding link to
the CPHEEO Manual on Sewerage & Sewage Treatment Part C which elaborates in
greater detail where necessary.

3.2 Capacity Building

For optimal operation of any system, capabilities have to be developed. In the case
of storm water drainage works, the maximum benefit of the system would be achieved
only when the facilities operate continuously, to its optimal capacity and in compliance
with the design requirements. For efficient and effective operation of such systems,
capacity building both Institutional and Human Resources should be strengthened as
under:

I. Institutional capacity building (it can be attained through working manuals,

guidelines, clear rules & regulations and set procedures with clarity)
II. Human resources development / individual capacity building, through training

3.3 Institutional Capacity Building

At an institutional level, capacity building is needed to render the services more

efficiently and economically, not necessarily profitably, without unnecessarily levying
unreasonable tariffs on the end users, which may compromise the affordability for
many users. This requires:

a. The creation of a dedicated municipal information unit in our country for the
purpose of collection, collation, and analysis of comparable data on municipal
services and finances on a yearly basis from across the country. This municipal
unit will also be responsible for developing a concise set of successful models
based on such data set and;

b. Developing a performance appraisal system for evaluating and recognizing the

best-performing institutions, so as to confer recognition on a rotational basis in
various categories of government institutions, such as corporations,
municipalities, townships & panchayats, etc.

3.4 Human Resources Capacity Building

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Part C: Management Chapter: 3
Capacity Building and Training

There is a scarcity of trained professionals for planning, design, implementation and

O & M in our country, especially with most of the ULBs. It is, therefore, necessary to
induct such talent from outside the organizations or develop the expertise from within
the organizations through capacity building programmes.

At an individual level, human resources have to be developed so as to have trained

personnel who can not only plan, design, implement, operate and maintain the
systems, but also can come up with novel ideas or solutions. Such level of capacity
can be built up by training programmes, refresher courses and visits to similar
agencies so as to understand how they are able to handle situations and provide
innovative solutions, etc.

It is also advisable not to create too many training centres all over the country but to
regionalise these centres. It is also advisable to incorporate field related on hands
training rather than only classroom training.

3.5 Fund Allocation for Capacity Building

It has to be recognised that capacity building is not a one-time activity and needs to
be continuous. Hence, appropriate fund allocations in the budget have to be made in
order to provide an effective capacity building program.

3.6 Training Needs Assessment

A training programme can be thought of as a planned exercise whose primary

objective includes a modification/change in the attitude, knowledge or skill of the
individuals. This objective can be achieved through enriched learning experience to
ensure effective participant performance. Another key objective is the development
of key skills that will satisfy the current and future needs of the organisation. The
training can be imparted to the existing personnel in a particular job role for
knowledge/skill enhancement or the personnel who may be chosen to carry a
different role, than what they are accustomed to, in order to develop new skills.

The training should fill the gaps in performance of the personnel so that one can
deliver effectively. It can be general or specific to a job-role. For example in case of
O&M activities personnel have to be trained through special courses or by “on the job
training” to ensure that they are thoroughly trained to carry out the required O & M
activities. Such a training exercise is essential to ensure that the operating personnel
does not “experiment” with equipment due to lack of appropriate skills to effectively
carry out maintenance activities. It is always advisable to conduct on-the-job training
rather than classroom training to develop skills. This ensures that the key
fundamentals are thoroughly entrenched through practical learning rather than

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Part C: Management Chapter: 3
Capacity Building and Training

classroom based theoretical lectures. It is a typical practice to train the supervisors

initially and entrusting these trained supervisors with the training of the eventual
operators.

Any training programme is expected to have a systematic plan of action to prevent

any ad-hoc approach. The key ingredients of such a programme include:
a. Identification and appraisal of the need for planned training
b. Well-defined training objectives
c. Appropriate strategy for training implementation to achieve the designated
objectives
d. A feedback mechanism to assess the effectiveness of proposed training

3.7 Objective of training needs identification

a. To identify the performance gap in the existing / working employees of the

organisation which will yield the training needs requirements
b. To collect more information on the work culture and communication links at
the workplace
c. To make recommendations for a training exercise that would form the
strategic basis for the development of employees

3.8 Identification of training needs

The training needs of an organisation can be identified using the following steps:

I. Identify the requirements and expectations of a particular job

II. Determine the degree to which these requirements are being successfully
met
III. An assessment of whether the training can bridge the gap between, what is
required and the entry behaviour/baseline in terms of the present knowledge,
skills, attitudes or behaviour of the employees

3.9 Data collection and Analysis for training needs

Appropriate data is needed to assess the training needs of an organisation and for a
particular job role. Such a data set can be collected by using a combination of the
following approaches:

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Part C: Management Chapter: 3
Capacity Building and Training

a. Direct data collection: through detailed discussions with the stakeholders

including, officials, employees, supervisors, and the top management.
b. Indirect data collection:

I. Through observing the employees in their routine schedule, their work,

workflow and relationships.
II. Through a review of the past records and reports, especially details of the
consumers' reactions to the services provided by the utility, organization
structure, organization policies & records of past trainings, etc.

The data, thus collected, is analysed to carry out an appraisal of the training needs
at various levels such as.
a. Corporate needs: training needs for the organization as a single entity
b. Group Needs: training needs for particular departments/teams, within the
organization, that are involved in particular processor activity
c. Individual needs: training needs for individual employees to enhance their current
level of skills and to prepare them for particular job roles

The CPHEEO Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment Systems, 2013, details
the (a) job analysis to be carried out for a particular job role and contains questions
on the why, how, with whom, where, procedure, equipment, etc. and how well
(quantity, desired results, quality, etc.) is performed and (b) individual analysis of the
employee.

3.10 Mandatory Training

The frequency of training has to be at least once a year as this will help the employee
keep in sync with the latest developments and also to refresh his skill set.

3.10.1 Short Term Training

Such training needs are typically met through short-term courses and specialised
short-term training programmes as identified for particular job roles. Such short-term
training programmes are aimed at enhancing the skillset and the competency level
of the existing employees. Short-term training needs are appropriately identified
through a comprehensive job analysis and training analysis. It is typically suggested
to use in-house competence to conduct such short-term training programmes.

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Part C: Management Chapter: 3
Capacity Building and Training

3.10.2 Long-Term Training

Long-term training programmes are conducted to build long-term competency in

order to meet the future demands of the organisation and job roles. Long-term training
programmes are decided upon following the appraisal and success of the various
short-term training programmes. Such training programmes typically include formal
educational programmes such as certificate courses, as well as specifying
recruitment criteria for new entrants. Such formal training programmes, leading to
certification may be available with universities, colleges or public/private sector
institutes.

3.10.3 Refresher Training

Any training programme is aimed at equipping the employees with the necessary
skills to ensure optimal performance and efficiency. However, many skills often
require a shorter-duration refresher courses or training programmes to ensure
effective retention of the skills by the employees. The refresher training programmes
are typically based on one or more of the following models:

a. Employee creative model

This model defines the training programmes where the primary goal is the personnel
skill enhancement and the incentive for the employee is the potential career
enhancement.

b. Organizational strategy model

In this model, the key objective is increased production and work efficiency. This
objective is achieved by identifying the basic skill set that is critical to meeting the
corporate goals and providing refresher training for the same.

c. Problem centred model

This model is used when training programmes related to some particular skills are
needed to tackle a specific issue or difficulty being faced by the organisation or a
group/team within it.

3.10.4 Training of Trainers

Training of trainers’ programmes is aimed at developing a team of master trainers

who can further pass on the necessary skills to other targeted employees. In this
programme, the trainers (master) attain new skills including transfer of knowledge &

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Part C: Management Chapter: 3
Capacity Building and Training

skills or refresh the skills they already possess. It is expected that the training
programmes for the employees would be a regular activity and that sufficient
budgetary provisions shall be made by the state governments/ULBs /Municipalities.
The master trainers are expected to be deployed appropriately to ensure fulfillment
of the long-term interests and foresight of the organisation. Similar trainings can also
be arranged for people working in the O & M sector who may, at some point, be hired
by the ULBs through outsourcing.

3.10.5 On-The-Job Training

If the employees receive training at their work/job location, such training is typically
called on-the-job training, since the employee is getting trained while doing the
assigned job. On-the-job training ensures that the trainee needs very little extra effort
in terms of equipment and human resources and is able to put his training into
practice immediately. Such a training programme also helps build competency when
new equipment or process is introduced to the workplace. The on-the-job training
prepares trainees for providing guidance to their superiors and training to the new
recruits.

As an example, a mechanic, plumber, fitter, electrician, supervisor may be given on-

the-job training in pump houses to ensure that he learns how to operate and maintain
them. This specific training will lead to skill development, attainment of practical
knowledge and will provide the hands-on experience to the trainee. After successfully
completing the training, the trainee is expected to know how, when and what of the
pump house O & M and will also be able to understand the impact of his work.

3.10.6 Capacity Building of Outsourced O & M Personnel

The typical O & M approach in India is to outsource the unskilled and semi-skilled
labour component. The outsourced job role includes the O & M of equipment such
as, motors, pumps, valves, electrical switchgears, etc. The process control is not part
of their job responsibilities and the ULBs retain the right of overall supervision.

It is essential that extensive capacity building exercise is undertaken to adequately

train such outsourced O & M personnel from the private sector so as to ensure quality
O & M operation. Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) and Polytechnic institutes were
originally envisaged to provide post-school skill-specific technical training to people.
Personnel trained by such institutes can be provided systematic on-the-job training
to enhance their skill set and improve the safety and efficiency of the O&M works.
ULBs should ideally require all the outsourced staff to undergo relevant on-the-job
training to ensure dissemination of essential skills.

To ensure that the O & M contract is awarded to the most deserving contractor firm,

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Part C: Management Chapter: 3
Capacity Building and Training

the ULBs should make a judgment based on the contractor's previous experience in
similar O & M works, as well as, the qualification and experience level of the key O &
M personnel mentioned in the bid document. The O & M personnel can be mandated
to attend and successfully complete designated training programmes, offered by
training institutes of major utilities/ ULB’s in the region, as part of the tender
requirements for outsourcing of the O&M work. Additional incentives need to be
planned for ensuring adequate skill level of the O & M staff members. These
incentives can be in the form of career advancement and/or additional allowances
and are necessary to ensure efficient O&M of storm water drainage systems.

3.11 Preparatory Training for Disaster Management

The personnel needs to undergo preparatory training related to disaster management

in order to equip them for handling any such situations in association with National
Disaster Response Force (NDRF). The list of training courses is mentioned in the
National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) website.

3.12 Quantification of Training

Training programmes can be quantified in terms of the category of staff being trained,
the number of staff members who can be accommodated in a training programme,
how often this training has to be given (frequency) and the duration of each course.

Category of trainees
a) Executive officers
b) Supervisory staff
c) Administration and establishment staff
d) Operators
e) Training for grassroots level personnel

Category of the training course

a) Technical / Public Health Engineering
b) General Management
c) Finance
d) Operation and Maintenance
e) Industrial / Personal Relations
f) Computer Applications/IT

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Capacity Building and Training

3.13 Number, Frequency and Duration

The key components are the number of trainees in a particular training course, how
frequently that course is offered and duration of the course.

Regular follow-ups after the different ascribed trainings to see how the capacitated
personnel are using their new skills.

3.14 Exposure Visits to Best Practices

Training can be in the classroom or as part of on-site job training. However, in order
for (a) the employee to develop confidence and (b) also to understand the best
practice approach exposure visits need to be arranged. It is strongly suggested that
the engineers who are concerned with the related works shall alone be sent on these
exposure visits.

3.15 Incentives for Efficient Performance

It is human nature that exceptional work/performance get recognised. This will also
lead to motivation among other employees to perform better. Hence, there is a
requirement to provide for incentives and awards to those employees who have been
found to be exceptionally efficient. In order for this to be implemented the budgetary
support shall be made.

3.16 Training Institutions

The CPHEEO Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment Systems, 2013, Part C,
in Chapter 3 titled Institutional Aspects and Capacity Building details the list of Training
Institutions. Hence, the reader is requested to refer to clause 3.11 of the said chapter
for guidance thereon.

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Part C: Management Chapter: 4
Public Awareness

CHAPTER 4: PUBLIC AWARENESS

4.1 General

Creation of awareness among the citizens has now become the new norm related to
infrastructure projects wherein the acts of citizens could hamper the functioning of
the project in some form or the other thus leading to a reduced degree of functioning.
This is all the more important when it comes to storm water drains since they are
prone to be used as receptacles for dumping of garbage, construction, and demolition
waste, etc. This has to be prevented to ensure proper functioning of storm water
drains. It can be suggested that the SWD should be covered thus preventing dumping
of garbage. However, considering the practicality of covering SWD it is generally the
norm that drains with width of 4 to 5 m and above remains uncovered. Even the
roadside drains which are liable to be covered could become a receptacle for garbage
by citizens moving the concrete slab and dumping waste inside. Similarly, the water
recharge structures could also be used to dump garbage. This chapter covers the
technique of awareness creation through information, education and communication
(IEC) which plays a pivotal role in creating awareness, mobilizing people and making
participatory approach through advocacy and transferring of knowledge and skill to
meet the identified objectives.

4.2 Organising Public Participation

Public Participation is not a onetime task, rather it is a continual exercise with

feedback mechanism. Over time, such programmes need to be reviewed, evaluated
and, if needed, modifications have to be made and implemented. A functional
community outreach office with personnel to handle information, grievance redressal,
etc. has to be in place. There is a strong need to convey to public the necessity of
such systems, costs associated with them and how their participation and
behavioural changes can reduce the cost of O & M and enhance the life of the storm
water drainage infrastructure and that such participation is not a onetime activity, but
rather a way of life.

An action plan indicating the broad IEC strategy and specific activities to be
undertaken should be prepared and implemented. Dissemination of information has
to be sustained over a period of time and also that, in order to make the
communication effective, it has to be in the language and idiom of the target groups.
Accordingly, efforts should be made during the year through print and electronic
media to disseminate information in regional languages and dialects, besides Hindi
and English. In addition, the action plan should also envisage IEC activities through
other modes of communication, outdoor publicity and other conventional or non-
conventional modes of communication for reaching out to the people and target
groups. The modes of communication are covered in the following section.

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Part C: Management Chapter: 4
Public Awareness

For example, plogging a combination of jogging with picking up litter started in

Sweden in 2016 and this had helped raise awareness on plastic pollution. In India,
plogging was carried out for the first time in Tiruchirappalli to clean the River Cauvery
as shown in Figure 3.1. This is an instance wherein the co-operation between the
ULB and public (politicians, lawyers, engineers, students, doctors, common citizen,
etc) resulted in launching a movement which is not only replicable but is understood
to be continuing every Saturday in keeping the city clean.

Figure 4. 1: Public Participation along with ULB to clean the River Cauvery

4.3 Modes of Communication.

4.3.1 Print media

For creating awareness about storm drainage facilities and to enable people to
access information, a booklet like ‘storm drainage programme at a glance’ should be
brought out in simple language in Hindi, English, as well as, in regional languages
and copies are distributed among user groups. Municipal authorities should prepare
wall calendar depicting its infrastructure developments and its use, dos and don’ts for
distribution in each ward in order to sensitize the people. They may also publish a
journal, as and when required, dovetailed to urban programmes, undertaken by them,
that could help improve the quality of life of town’s people, if used with caution and
care.

4.3.2 Electronic media

An intensive IEC campaign in the electronic media should be undertaken through

Prasar Bharti for optimum dissemination of information on urban infrastructure
projects and programmes. In order to meet the specific communication needs 15-20
minutes audio-video programme should be produced and broadcast/telecast over
local and primary stations of All India Radio and Regional Kendra of Doordarshan.

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The song and dance division, a media unit of Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting, disseminate information on development issues among target groups
through the medium of performing arts, traditional arts, puppet shows, folk media,
mythological recitals and the like. As the medium of transmission is rooted in the local
ethos and traditions, the development messages are more easily grasped by the
target groups.

4.3.3 Social Media

With the extensive coverage of internet and popularity of social media, much of our
population has access to some social media platform (such as Face book, Pinterest,
Twitter, etc.) and millions of people actively use these services daily. Short
instructional videos/messages can be widely and quickly circulated through these
platforms and their reach can be tracked easily, as well.

4.3.4 Cinema Halls

It is customary to have instructional and promotional videos before and during a

movie and such time slots can be effectively utilised to spread the message to the
audience. In fact, the same advertisement may be used on TV and in cinema halls.

4.3.5 Street plays

NGO's and/or school/college students can be roped in to create short street plays
targeted at spreading awareness related to storm water drainage system maintenance
and protection by the public. Street plays are appropriate for the target audience and
capture the attention of people through simple messages relayed through Play or
Skits.

4.3.6 Poster, pamphlets & hoardings

Posters and hoardings displayed at prominent locations such as bus stands, railway
stations, highways, etc. capture
the attention of a large
number of people on daily
basis and can be effectively
used for raising the
awareness level of public.
Pamphlets can also be
distributed at such prominent
locations or door-to-door along with newspapers for attaining an even higher level of
information dispersal.

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Part C: Management Chapter: 4
Public Awareness

4.3.7 Public transportation system

Public Transportation system such as buses and trains are used by crores of
commuters every day and can act as a good medium for display of advertisements
containing information related to public role in the maintenance of civil infrastructure
typically, in the form of Do's and Don'ts.

4.3.8 Educational institutes

Educational institutes such as schools and colleges can spread the information and
instructions through a large number of students they enroll and the same can thus be
spread over to their families and friends. Educational institutes may also participate
in public awareness campaigns by organising street plays & skits etc. for public
awareness. Such institutions can also incorporate the awareness message in their
talks, seminars, and coursework.

4.3.9 Voluntary organization

Voluntary organisations should employ educated volunteers who can develop and
organize street plays, seminars, door-to-door campaigns, demonstration activities,
etc. for raising the awareness level of public.

4.3.10 Door-to-door campaigns

An effective method of communication is door-to-door awareness campaign with

clear and easily understandable content, in which volunteers - students, NGO
members, women, etc. approach and communicate individually to people at their
homes and create awareness of the necessity and the public role in maintaining civic
infrastructure.

4.3.11 Corporate social and environmental responsibility campaigns etc.

The industry can be roped into awareness campaigns as part of their CSR initiatives.
Not only can the industries provide funding for awareness campaigns, they can also
provide training and information to their own staff, as well as, provide volunteers for
effectively running such campaigns.

4.3.12 Mobile Phones

Short messages can be sent to people through SMS and/or informational pre-
recorded calls of short duration. It is suggested that SMSs should contain the website
links if any particular websites have been created, with detailed information for public
awareness.

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Part C: Management Chapter: 4
Public Awareness

4.3.13 Sanitation Volunteers

The ULB shall endeavor to create a group of enthusiasts called as sanitation

volunteers from all walks of life. These volunteers could be students, members of
residential welfare associations, lawyers, doctors, engineers, shop keepers, etc. The
city/town are already divided in terms of wards for easy management. Each
ward/group of wards has their own officer. This officer shall identify such interested
sanitation volunteers and form a WhatsApp group for exchange of messages. These
sanitation volunteers shall be the extended arm of the ULB in that they shall be
monitoring the infrastructure such as SWD, storm water harvesting infrastructure in
their vicinity and inform the ULB of any broken cover slab, dumped garbage, siltation
of drains, etc which may have not been noticed as part of regular monitoring. On
receipt of these alerts, the ULB shall address these effectively.

4.4 Importance of Water Harvesting Structures

The public have to be made aware of the water harvesting structures since they serve
as source control and helps in reducing storm water runoff. In certain instances, it
could also be a structure in the public domain on certain identified stretches and which
need to be protected. By applying the methods mentioned in clause 3.3, effective
public communication shall be promoted to emphasize the importance of water
harvesting structures.

4.5 No sewage in storm water Drains

The importance of not allowing sewage in the storm water drains has to be effectively
communicated to the citizens. This becomes more important wherein Insitu harvesting
in the SWD is planned to be implemented. Even in the case of harvesting the storm
water outside the SWD, the storm water shall not be mixed with sewage. This requires
proper planning and mapping of certain areas of the city/town wherein separate
sewers have been laid and chances of mixing sewage with storm water is not possible.
However, the ULB shall follow the methods mentioned in clause 3.3 to ensure effective
public communication in order to emphasize the importance of not discharging sewage
into storm water drains.

4.6 No Dumping in Storm Water Drains

People should be dissuaded from habit of indiscriminate littering and dumping of
debris, plastic waste, solid waste, Construction & Demolition waste either on open
ground or nearby rivers/streams/lakes/drains. In many urban towns and cities street
children and even adults have been found defecating in open drains and nallas in
secluded part of the town and cities. Indiscriminate littering and defecation has led to
many adverse physical and biological effects on population inhabiting the area such

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Public Awareness

as blockage of drains, pollution of

rivers/ streams/ lakes. Information,
education, and communication plays
a pivotal role in creating awareness,
mobilizing people and making the
participatory approach through
advocacy and transferring of
knowledge and skill. The importance of not dumping waste in the storm water drains
has to be effectively communicated to the citizens.

4.7 Illegal Encroachment of drainage corridors

In every towns and cities, rampant illegal encroachment of natural and constructed
drainage corridors, lead to serious obstruction and choking of storm runoff with
consequent flooding. At the times of heavy rains, severe flooding also results in loss
of life and property.

ULBs and state Govt. must take steps to remove such encroachment and adopt
appropriate deterrent legislative measures to protect such illegal practices in the future
in order to safeguard the efficient functioning of the drainage system.

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Financial Management and Sustainable Operation & Maintenance

CHAPTER 5: FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE OPERATION &

MAINTENANCE

5.1 Background

It is important that a storm water drainage system works efficiently as per design
objectives throughout its design life. To achieve this objective, the financial
management of project becomes of paramount importance and so does its sustainable
operation and maintenance. Often large projects are implemented availing
government grants and also borrowing from financial institutions / bilateral assistance.
What is important is cost-effective design of storm water drainage system maintaining
adequate recharge of groundwater and minimizing the built-up concrete structures. In
several cases although projects are designed and implemented their sustainable
operation and maintenance is lacking due to poor revenue generation and high cost
of operation and maintenance because of its way of design. Lack of adequate
institutional setup and poor capacity building/training the operation and maintenance
of such created assets do not get adequate priority resulting in its poor performance.

In this chapter, the aspects like financing of projects, O&M, capacity building and
adequate revenue generation, etc. are covered which are important ingredients for
successful implementation and sustainable operation and maintenance of storm water
drainage system.

5.2 Financing of Projects

Formulation, construction and maintenance of urban storm water drainage projects is

a mandatory responsibility of Urban Local Bodies. However, when it comes to
devolution of finances to meet the revenue needs of ULBs for fulfilling these functions,
they are often dependent on state governments. Further, ULBs have only limited
powers to levy taxes and duties and they are often dependent on the state government
for levying/raising of taxes.

Storm water drainage systems are often designed following natural gradients involving
pumping at several locations according to varied topography. Rampant paving and
concretization in urban areas has increased storm run-off requiring wider storm
drainage sections to handle to run-off rendering such projects highly capital intensive.
Poor enforcement of regulations results in people connecting their wastewater outlets
in storm water drainage course rendering its routine operation and maintenance a
costly affair.

To minimize the capital intensive design of storm drainage systems, various countries
are increasingly integrating pervious storm drainage sections with rainwater
harvesting to minimize storm run-off on one hand and replenish groundwater
enhancing water security and reduction in water supply cost to its citizens.

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Similarly, to minimize operation and maintenance cost, preventing dumping of solid

waste including construction and demolition debris as well as wastewater will go a long
way in reducing the cost of O&M on one hand and improving performance of such
drains at the time of need.

In the present setup, ULBs get financial support from the government of India and
state governments to perform the tasks assigned to them by constitution and state
legislatures. Also, in many states/UTs, a number of partner institutions like water
supply and sewerage boards are involved in the delivery of such services either
independently or on behalf of the ULB. Quite often, they are not accountable to ULB
and therefore are not able to address local priorities. However, these functions are
being gradually assigned to ULB. Various types of funding available from central
government/state governments are as under.

5.2.1 Government of India (G.O.I) Level

The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) has taken several initiatives to
motivate states and ULBs to upgrade services as per requirement. The Government
of India launched two massive urban infrastructure renewal programme namely
‘JNNURM’ which ended in 2014 and a new massive investment programme for urban
development namely ‘AMRUT’ which was launched in 2015 to meet the growing
requirements of urban services in cities and towns of India which includes storm water
drainage as eligible component. External aid is also procured through the G.O.I. for
major projects fulfilling certain norms.

5.2.2 State Government Level

The stage Governments offer to assist the local bodies in planning and implementation
of storm water drainage schemes through Grant-In-Aid, part funding to centrally
sponsored schemes, and loan, etc. for capital investment. In special circumstances,
State Governments assist the local bodies in operating and maintaining their storm
water drainage schemes through their own departments or through the statutory
boards. Trained Engineers and skilled workmen are often deputed to local bodies on
request to plan, implement and operate the systems. The State Governments monitor
general progress of schemes of local bodies in respect of planning, implementation,
operation, and maintenance.

5.2.3 Local Body Level

It is obligatory responsibility of every local body to collect, transport and properly

disposes storm water run-off in the area under their respective jurisdictions.

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Depending upon the financial status of each local body, the State/Central
Governments come to the help of these local bodies to meet a part/whole of their
capital investment cost on schemes in the form of Grant-In-Aid and/or loan. The
expenditure on annual operation and maintenance of these schemes has however to
be met by the local body out of its own revenue to be generated from taxes. As per
the respective acts of local bodies, in many cases, they have been empowered to levy
and recover tax from the community to whom wastewater disposal facility is provided
by the local body.

5.2.4 Bilateral Assistance and Financial Institutions

To finance storm water projects, ULBs can avail loan assistance from bilateral
assistance and financial institutions like JICA, World Bank and ADB, etc.

5.3 Public Private Partnerships

The basic intent of the PPP is to encourage the private sector, to dedicate its capacity
to raise capital investments and ability to complete projects on time within the budget
for the welfare of the community, without having to compromise the profit motive. At
the same time the public sector would retain its responsibility to provide goods and
services to the public at large, at affordable rates. The arrangement indeed calls for
judicious approach to decision making and underscores the need for a framework that
enables the private sector partner to make reasonable returns on investment without
diluting the standards and quality of service provided. The key to success of PPP
projects is a balanced and fair sharing of risks and benefits between the partners,
transparency, and accountability in all transactions relating to the award and
management of the contract.

A typical PPP Process has four stages namely; Identification Stage, Development
Stage, Procurement Stage, Contract management and monitoring stage. A PPP
Model is often confused and used interchangeably with privatization. While PPPs
involve private management of public service through a long term contract between
an operator and a public authority, privatization involves the outright sale of public
service. In PPP Models, investments are made by and/or management is undertaken
by the private sector entity.

The typical structure of a PPP Model has the Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) at its
core with other important stakeholders such as the government, financer,
customers/community, knowledge experts, etc.
Predictability and risk mitigation are key to successful PPPs. Unlike public projects
where prices are generally determined competitively and Government resources are
not involved, PPP infrastructure projects typically involve transfer of public assets,
delegation of public authority for the recovery of user charges, private control of
monopolistic services and sharing of risks and contingent liabilities by the government.

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Protection of user interest and need to secure value for public money as such demand
a more thorough treatment of the project.

A major deterrent to the entry of private firms in the urban services in India is the
commercial non-viability of the projects. This is clearly linked to the inability of ULBs
to generate a strong internal revenue base.

To create an enabling environment for the delivery of service through PPP the state
government either amend the municipal acts or enact overarching acts to facilitate
PPP. This must be supplemented by a robust regulatory environment. State financial
intermediaries should take on the role of guiding ULB on PPP initiatives. Financial
planning and transparency become important as ULBs acquire greater autonomy in
the management of their resources and reach out to private capital.

5.4 Estimate for Operation & Maintenance and Capacity Building

Proper budget estimate for operation and maintenance and capacity building is key
for performance of created storm water drainage infrastructure. In India, not much
work done to institutionalize the earmarking the fund for operation & maintenance and
capacity building as far as storm water drainage is concerned. Funds are allocated
based on need and availability particularly before and during monsoon season.
Normally, the budget estimate should entail the fund requirement towards routine
cleaning and repair of drainage way, pumping stations, fuel and energy costs,
consumables and cost towards social and managerial aspects, etc.

Operation & Maintenance consists of activities such as:

a) Execution of general affairs related to storm water drainage
b) Budget execution
c) Asset management
d) Coordination of service charges
e) O&M of drainage systems
f) O&M of pumping station
g) Environmental conservation
h) Establishment costs
i) Fuel and consumables
j) Energy
k) Seed capital and depreciation
l) Debt servicing

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m) Taxes, duties and cess

n) Landscaping

The normal budget provision may be made on case to case basis according to existing
drainage system, which varies widely. However, the energy costs can be calculated
based on average running KW, number and hours of operation of electrical equipment.
Further, the estimated consumption of fuel requirement may be estimated as per local
requirement, including operation of regular pumps as well as those for engaging in
emergency situations. For repair and renewals of civil works, anything between 2-5%
may be sufficient carrying out repairs and periodic cleaning and maintenance of drains
before and during monsoon considering the size of drainage system and its age.
Budget estimate for establishment can be worked out by ULB in accordance with their
existing setup and roles and responsibilities assigned to the personnel for operation
and maintenance of storm water drainage system. It is recommended that cities having
a population of 1 lac and above may have a dedicated cell/wing for management of
storm water drainage system.

5.5 Revenue Generation

At present there are no separate taxes or fee are charged for storm water drainage in
almost all the Urban Local Bodies. The Municipal Acts in many States talk about
Sewerage and Drainage Tax due to the fact that earlier in those states combined
systems were there in big towns/cities. Where separate systems are there, no charges
in shape of Taxes or user charge is levied for Storm water Drainage. For using any
infrastructure, user charges must be levied for their efficient O & M according to the
present approach. Taxes and User fee can be imposed by the ULB under the
Municipal Act. Some revenue generation models are discussed here in brief:

I. Flat Storm water fee

A uniform storm water fee can be charged for all the properties in a use category.
Many communities, for instance, can employ a flat rate for residential properties in
which all homeowners are charged the same amount.

II. Storm water Drainage Tax

Storm water drainage tax can be levied as a percentage as decided by ULB within the
maximum capping for Municipal Tax.

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III. Storm water fee based on impervious area

The fee may be categorized on similar lines as mentioned below:

I. Storm water fee can be charged for every parcel of land in the city, including
residential, commercial, institutional, and public properties. Residential
customers can pay a standard amount based on the average surface area of
impervious cover of all residential properties throughout the city.
II. For non-residential properties, the charge is based on the specific square meter
of impervious area covering the property and the total square meter of the
property. Suitable reduction in tax can be provided in case large-scale in-situ
storm water management projects across multiple properties are built. These
practices reduce storm water load on city drainage infrastructure and minimize
the incidence of flooding on the one hand and replenishing groundwater on
other hand.
III. Further, if a property owner can prove that their property does not drain surface
rainwater into the public drains, they may be entitled to an exemption from
future storm water charges.

5.6 Green Infrastructure Retrofit Financing

A fee for storm water, regardless of how it is calculated, could create a new incentive
for property owners to implement green infrastructure. The key to creating such an
incentive is for utilities to allow property owners to receive a reduced fee or rate by
implementing qualifying onsite storm water management retrofits. Two case studies
are presented in boxes below:

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CASE STUDY - I

CHESTER WATER AUTHORITY (CWA), AMERICA (SOURCE: USEPA)

The Stormwater Authority of Chester has created a Community-Based Public-

Private Partnership (CBP3) to plan, finance, build and maintain up to $50 million
in green stormwater infrastructure over the next 20- 30 years on approximately
350 acres to address significant pollution and flooding issues; improve
neighbourhood quality of life; assist small, minority-owned businesses; drive
economic growth, including significant job creation and cost savings to water and
other public and private capital improvement efforts (e.g., streets, housing,
economic development, education) in the region.

Partners:
 US EPA: providing more than $150,000 in technical and planning
assistance.
 PENNVEST, Pennsylvania’s infrastructure investment authority: $1 million
planning/pre-construction grant.
 The Chester Water Authority (CWA): $50,000 grant.
The Program:
 A uniquely innovative Design Build Finance Operate Maintain (DBFOM)
Model, utilizing a Triple Bottom Line (TBL), Community-Based performance
approach to ideally create a long-term 30-year contract, establishing a
“Community-Based Public-Private Partnership” (CBP3) - to accomplish
procurement goals.
 Reduction in costs by 30-50% as compared to traditional approaches, while
engaging broad local community participation, including training and creation
of hundreds of local jobs.
 Creation of an excellent opportunity for local economic development that
improves property values, provides contracts to local employers, and creates
workforce opportunities.
 The program complements and enhances the jurisdiction’s existing
programmatic, procurement delivery capacity, to finance and deliver faster,
cheaper, greener results, offering a potential model for numerous other
communities.

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CASE STUDY - II

VICTORIA, BC, CANADA

The City of Victoria, B.C., has some of the oldest storm water infrastructure in
Canada, dating back to the early 1900’s. The city administration decided to roll-
out the storm water drainage utility in 2014 and subsequently adapted user-fee
billing based model from 2016.
The storm water utility for every property is calculated based on the
following four factors:
1. Impervious Surfaces Factor: this is based on the total area of all impervious
surfaces on a parcel;
2. Street cleaning factor: this is based on the street frontage of the parcel and
the type of street the parcel fronts on to;
3. Intensity code factor: this is based on the property classification (i.e. low
density residential, multifamily residential, civic/ institutional, and commercial/
industrial); and
4. Codes of Practice Factor: if a certain business type is listed (construction,
auto operation, recreation facility, etc.) an additional factor is calculated.
Low-density residential properties can obtain up to a 10% discount, while other
properties can obtain a maximum 40% discount or 50% if they include an
educational component. The discount expires after 5 years; upon which time it
must be renewed.
One of the main goals of the storm water management program is to encourage
green infrastructure projects on private properties. As such, one of the focus areas
of the implementation of the storm water utility for the City has been to make it as
easy as possible for residents to install green infrastructure.
Significance of the timeframe provided to the community: The year and a half
that the City gave property owners to adjust to the fee allowed issues, including
those properties not connected to the stormwater system to be brought forward
and amendments to the bylaw made.

5.7 Summary

Often storm water drainage systems get choked during monsoon and cause localized
flooding due to poor cleaning of drainage ways and also dumping of solid waste/C&D
waste into drains. The problem is aggravated in absence of routine operation and
maintenance of storm drainage system, which is often a result of not giving much

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importance to storm drainage system. The situation is further compounded due to non-
earmarking of dedicated funds for routine operation and maintenance of storm water
drains and pumping stations etc. The above problem of cost-intensive designs and
O&M may be minimized by adopting the best storm water management approaches
of integrating storm water drainage system with rainwater harvesting/drinking water
supply system of the city. Citizens’ involvement is key to efficient service delivery and
would minimize the cost of service delivery to ULB.

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