Grammar Engels 2de semester

Module 9 Modal Verbs

Ability and possibility; can could, be able to
1. Can and other modal verbs

We use a modal verb with another verb to show that an action is possible,
necessary or certain. We also use modal verbs to ask permission or to give
advive.

Positive i can swim, you must leave, she should go

Negative I can’t dance, he must not stop, we could not leave
Questions Can you speak French? Should they leave? What can you
do?

Modal verbs (can, could, may, might, should, must, would, will and shall)
are different from other verbs.

 We use them + infinitive without to:

You can to use it anywhere. You can use it anywhere

 They have the same form for all subjects

My brother cans swim my brother can swim

 We form negatives with not or n’t (not doesn’t or don’t)

I don’t can speak Japanese I can’t speak Japanese

 We put the modal verb in front of the subject for questions. We don’t
use do/does/did:
Does she can play tennis? Can she play tennis?

 They don’t have infinitive or -ing forms. If we need to use an

infinitive or -ing form, we use a form with a similar meaning e.g. for
can we use be able to
I want to can play the guitar I want to be able to play the
guitar

 They don’t have participle (-ed, -ing) forms, so we can’t make

continuous or perfect tenses with them. Instead we change the main
verb:
They can’t be waiting for us. They can’t have used it yet.

1
 2. Can for present ability and possibility

We use can or be able to say that it is possible to do something, or that

somebody/ something has an ability to do something:

You can use this phone anywhere in the world. Can you speak Japanese?

 we use be able to when something is surprising or requires some

effort:
it’s amazing – some animals are able to sleep standing up!

 We use can/ can’t with verbs of the senses (e.g. see, hear, smell)
and some verbs of thinking:
I can smell something bad. Can you remember her name?

If we are not sure if something is possible we use may, might, etc. (this
phone might work in the USA, but I’m not sure)

3. Future ability and possibility

To talk about what we can do in the future we use these modals

Be able to for After you receive your password, you’ll be able to

situations that are visit our new website. I won’t be able to eat for 3
certain hours after the operation.
Can for future The dentist can see you on Friday. Can you meet
personal me at the airport on Tuesday?
arrangements
Could for situations We could give up our jobs and live and a desert
that are possible island. I’m so angry I could scream
but unlikely
Could or would be If you had a credit card, you could buy it on the
able to for internet. If you learnt to sing, you’d be able to join
conditional the music group.
situations

4. Past ability and possibility

To talk about past ability and possibility, we use could/ couldn’t or was/
were able to:

Before I get this job I couldn’t afford a car. Could the first cameras take
colour photos?

2
But if we are making a positive statement about a single event in the past,
or asking a question about it we use was/ were able to not could.

I could transfer my old number. I was able to transfer my

old number.

For negative statements we use couldn’t or wasn’t/ weren’t able to:

We weren’t able to get any cheap flights. We couldn’t get any cheap
flights.

If something was particulary difficult, we can use managed to:

I washed it twice but I’m afraid I didn’t manage to get rid of that stain on
your shirt.

we often use managed to with expressions like in the end, eventually and
finally:

it took a while, but in the end we managed to find some cheap flights on
the internet

5. General truths

We use can for something that is generally possible:

It can be very cold in New York in January. (= it is sometimes very cold.)

We use could to talk about general truths in the past:

In the days of sailing ships it could take many months to travel across the
Atlantic.

Making a guess (may, might, could, must, can’t, should)

1. Making a guess about a present situation.

When we are completely certain about something, we don’t use modal

verbs:

The camera isn’t working because the battery hasn’t been charged.
3
But sometimes we make a guess. If we’re certain our guess is correct, we
use must or can’t: it must be the battery. It can’t be that.

With this meaning, the opposite of must is can’t, NOT musn’t: I filled the
petrol tank yesterday: it musn’t be empty. It can’t be empty.

If we are less certain that our guess is correct we use may (not), might
(not) or could:

It might be the memory card. Perhaps it’s full…

We use may or might not (not could not) if we are not sure about our
guess:

This small shop could not have batteries.

This small shop might have batteries (=perhaps they don’t have any
batteries)

2. Making a guess about the future

If we make a guess about the future we use may (not), might (not) or
could, but not couldn’t:

If we wait a few days, the prices might be cheaper.

The engineer could not be able to fix it. The engineer might not be
able to fix it

3. Expectations

When we expect something to be true, or have a strong feeling our guess

is correct, we use should or shouldn’t:

You can phone Henry at work. He should be in the office by now.

Don’t take any food. There should be plenty to eat once you get there.

Allow half an hour to get through security at the airport – it shouldn’t take
longer than that.

4
Making a guess (2) must, might, could, shoud + have
1. Past forms

The perfect form of modal verbs is modal verb + have + past participle:

Positive I might have seen him. You should have been there.
Negative I cannot have lost it. He might not have stopped
Question Could you have known? Should they have left?
s

2. Making a guess about a past situation

If we’re certain that our guess is correct we use must, can’t or couldn’t +
have + past participle:

Everything’s pink! You must have put something red in the machine.

If we’re less certain, we use may (not), might (not) or could + have + past
participle:

Where are the keys? I don’t know, I might have left them in the car.

We use mightn’t have + past participle, not couldn’t have + past

participle, if we are not certain: I’m not sure; I mightn’t have passed the
exam (= it’s possible that I haven’t passed it)

3. Expectations about the past

5
We can talk about things we expected to happen in the past with should +
have + past participle: check the post. That letter should have arrived by
now.

We can also use this form for an action that was planned but didn’t
happen: we should have had our exam results last week, but they haven’t
arrived yet.

rules must, mustn’t, have (got) to

1. Form

Prese Must I must go now. You must not smoke here.

nt
Have to You have to leave now. They don’t have to work
today.
Have got I have got to pay my phone bill. Has she got to
to work today?
Past Had to We had to buy a new TV. We didn’t have to pay.
Future Will have You’ll have to leave soon. We won’t have to pay.
to

2. Positive rules and necessary actions.

We use have to to say that something is necessary or is a rule:

the taxi’s here. We have to leave now (necessary)

all car passengers, have to wear a seat belt. (a rule)

3. Negative rules

We use can’t or not allowed to to say there is a rule not to do something:

you can’t smoke here.

6
We can also use must not but usually only for explaining rules and in
instructions: these lights must not be used outdoors.

To talk about negative rules in the past or future we use be allowed to: I
wasn’t allowed to do that when I was a child.

If there is NO rule to say something is necessary, we use don’t have to,

NOT mustn’t.

Compare: you don’t have to eat in here, you can eat outside if you prefer.
(you have a choice). You mustn’t eat in here. (you don’t have a choice. You
have to eat somewhere else)

Necessary and unnecessary actions need, needn’t, don’t

have to/ need to
1. Need as a modal, need to

Need can be a modal verb but the only modal forms that we use are
needn’t and needn’t + have + past participle: you needn’t leave yet, it’s
early.

We generally prefer to use need to, which is a regular verb, with the usual
verb changes: You need to leave now. Do I need to buy batteries?

2. Necessary actions

We can use need to:

 To say that something is physically necessary: I’m tired. I need to get

some sleep.
 When we believe that something is necessary or important. He
really needs to lose weight.
 To mean have to: you need to score 60% to pass the exam.

Past: Jane’s condition was quite serious. She needed to stay in the hospital
overnight.

7
Future: you’ll need to get some photos for this passport application.

3. Unnecessary actions, present and future

We use needn’t/ don’t need to, don’t have to or haven’t got to to say that
something isn’t necessary or isn’t a rule: you needn’t take any food –
lunch is provided (it isn’t necessary)

We use won’t need to or won’t have to for unnecessary future actions: you
won’t need to bring any extra money on Friday, everything is included in
the price.

4. Unnecessary actions in the past

We use didn’t need to or didn’t have to to say that something wasn’t

necessary in the past. We don’t know if the action happened or not: the
pain went away so I didn’t need to see a doctor.

We use needn’t + have + past participle to say that an action happened in

the past although it wasn’t necessary: You needn’t have brought a
camera. You can use mine.

Compare: carol needn’t have taken a towel. The gym provides them free
of charge. (carol took a towel but it wasn’t necessary). Carol didn’t need to
take a towel. The gym provides them. (we don’t know whether carol took
a towel or not)

Advice and criticism should, ought to, must, had better

1. Forms

Must and should are modal verbs: You should see a doctor.

We can also use the perfect form should (not) + have + past participle: we
should heve bought it. Should we have left?

Ought to and had better have this word order: I ought to go. I ought not to
go.

2. Advice and warnings

We use should/ shouldn’t and ought to/ ought not to if we think something
is a good or bad idea in general, and to give advice in a particular
situation: people shouldn’t smoke indoors.

8
We usually use should to ask for advice: should I ask my boss for a pay
rise?

We can use must or musn’t to give strong advice and warnings. It is

stronger than should or ought to: you must try this cake – it’s delicious!

3. Criticism and regrets about the past

We can use should/ shouldn’t + have + past participle to criticise

someone’s past actions: you should have done more revision.

We also use should/ shouldn’t have + past participle to express regret for
a past action: I should have phoned you but I was busy.

We don’t use must have or had better to express regret or criticism.

You must have phoned me. You’d better phoned me. You
should have phoned me.

Permission can, may, might, could, be allowed to

1. Asking for and giving/ refusing permission.

Asking for permission Giving Refusing

permission permission
Informal Can I use my laptop? Yes, you can No, you can’t
Yes, of course No, I’m sorry
Yes, sure
Formal/ Could I ask a Yes, you No, you can’t/
polite question? can/may may not.
May I make a Yes, of course! No I’m afraid not/
suggestion? Certainly. I’m sorry.
Might I interrupt for a
moment?

9
To ask for permission

 We use can in most situations, but if we need to be polite, or if we

think permission will be refused, we use may, could or might. Might
is the most formal. May I leave early today? (to your boss) Could
we stay an extra night? (to a hotel)
 We can also use Do you mind if … (formal), is it all right if… and is it
ok to… : do you mind if I open the window? Is it all right if I use your
bathroom?

When we refuse permission we often give a reason: “can we park here? No

I’m sorry. It’s only for hotel guests”.

We don’t use could or might when we give or refuse permission:

Could I use your bathroom? Yes, you could. No, you couldn’t.

Might I ask a question? Yes, you can. No, you can’t.

2. Permission in rules and laws

We use can/ can’t or be (not) allowed to when we talk about permission in

rules and laws: in the USA you can turn right at a red traffic light.

We can also use may/ may not to describe rules in written instructions:
passengers may use electronic devices once the seat belt signs have been
switched off.

3. Permission in the past and future

To talk about permission in the past, we use could/ couldn’t or was/ were
allowed to: in the 1960s you could drive without a seat belt.

But to talk about permission for a single action in the past, we use allowed
to, not could:

We could go home early last Friday. We were allowed to go home

early last Friday.

10
Requests and suggestions: offers, promises and warnings
(can, could, would, will, shall)
1. Requests

We use can to make requests in most situations: can you help me with
these bags? Yes of course.

We usually add please to requests to make them polite: can we have 2

coffees, please?

We put please in front of the verb to make a request stronger: can we

please have a menu?

We often use will you with people we know well: will you give me a hand
with this?

But we don’t use could or would to reply to requests:

Would you help me? Yes, I would. Yes, of course

2. Suggestions

Suggestions We/ You could Watch A DVD.

as statements Let’s
Suggestions Why don’t we Watch A DVD?
as questions Shall/ should we
How/ what watching
about

We often use we/ you could and should we when we are not sure that
the listener will like the suggestion. ‘we could try that new Japanese
restaurant?’

We can agree or disagree with the suggestion. If we disagree, we

usually give a reason: Shall we get pizza? Yes, let’s do that/ That’s a
good idea./ Great

3. Will for offers, promises, warnings

To agree Will you sign this for me? Yes, I will

To offer or promise to We’ll drive you to the station if you like.
do something We won’t forget how kind you’ve been to us.

11
 To say if someone Take it to Marco – he will fix it for you.
else agrees Ask my teacher about it – she’ll help you.
Promises/ warnings I’ll be with you in a minute.

We can also make offers with shall i/ we or i/ we could. We use these forms
when we are not sure that the listener will want to accept:

Shall we help you with that? No, thanks I can manage on my own.

We don’t use the present simple to make offers:

My hair’s wet. I get you a towel. I’ll get you a towel. Shall I get
you a towel?

Module 10. Conditionals

Present and future conditions
1. Present conditions (zero conditional)

A conditional sentence has 2 clauses.

The condition (if) The result

clause clause
If people steal from this The store detectives always catch

The if clause can come before or after the result clause.

We use the zero conditional to describe real situations that can happen at
any time, or one event that always follows another. We can use when
instead of if: If/ When we talk to the baby, she smiles.

We often use this conditional form, with the imperative in the result clause,
for rules and to give instructions: if the lift breaks down, press the alarm
button.

With this meaning we use if, not when in the if clause

When a red light comes on, call the technician. If a red lights comes
on, call the technician.

2. Future conditions (first conditional)

12
We use the first conditional to talk about the results of a possible future
condition, one we think is likely to happen: if they catch you, they I’ll call
the police.

In the first conditional the if clause describes the future but uses the
present tense, not will of won’t:

If jan will get the job, he’ll move to New York. If jan gets the job, he’ll
move to New York

3. Alternatives to if

Unless I won’t wash your car unless you pay me. (if you don’t pay
me)
In case Take an umbrella in case it rains. (it might (not) rain but
you will be prepared)
Even if I won’t wash your car even if you pay me! (if you pay me
or not)
Provided/ You can borrow the car provided I have it back by six
as long as o’clock. (I must have the car back by six o’clock)

Unlikely/ unreal conditions

1. Second conditional

Condition if + past simple Result would (not) + infinitive

If we moved out of the city We would be safer
If he wasn’t so miserable He might have more friends
If you lived in the country You’d be able to go/ you could go
horse riding

2. Unlikely future conditions

We use the second conditional for future actions or situations that are
possible, but unlikely. Compare:

 First conditional: my boss is pleased with my work. If I get a pay rise

this year, I’ll buy a new car. (I think I might get a pay rise)
 Second conditional: I know I’ve made a lot of mistakes at work, but if
I got a pay rise this year, I’d buy a new car. (I don’ think I will get a
pay rise)

13
 3. Unreal present conditions

We can use the second conditional for present situations that are
imaginary, not real: if they had stricter laws against crime, we wouldn’t
have to move (they don’t have these laws.).
We wouldn’t go abroad if we had hot
summers here. (we don’t have hot summers)

4. Advice

We often use the expression if I were you I’d … to give personal advice: if I
were you, I’d get a taxi home from the party (= I think you should get a
taxi.)

5. Alternatives to if

We can also introduce unlikely/ unreal condition clauses with:

 Unless for unlikely conditions:

I wouldn’t ask for your help unless I needed it

 Imagine/ suppose to ask about imaginary situations:

Imagine you had a million dollars, what would you spend it on? (you
don’t have a million dollars)
Suppose they lived in the country, would they feel safer? (they don’t
live in the country)

Past conditions
1. Third conditional

Condition if + past perfect Result would (not) + have + past

participle
If we’d arrived on time We’d have flown to Majorca
If we’d arrived on time We wouldn’t have missed the flight
If he hadn’t stolen the money He wouldn’t have lost his job

We usually use short forms (we’d, wouldn’t, etc) in this conditional.

14
 We can also use could have/ might have + past participle in the result
clause: if we hadn’t lost the semi-final, we might have won the
tournament (less certain than would)

I could have gone to university, if you’d studied harder (= you would have
been able to)

2. Unreal past conditions

We use the third conditional to imagine situations or actions in the past

that we know are the opposite of the facts: if he had stolen the company
plans, he wouldn’t have kept them in his office. (we know that he didn’t
steal the company plans, but we imagine a past where he did this)

If the past condition happened, we use a negative verb. If it didn’t happen,

we use a positive verb:

Condition Result
Condition happened If I hadn’t got I might have stayed in London.
(I got the job) the job, I wouldn’t have moved to Edinburgh
Condition didn’t If I had got the I would have moved to Edinburgh.
happen (I didn’t get job, I couldn’t have stayed in London.
the job)

Sometimes we use conditional forms of verbs on their own: we were really

enjoying the party and would have stayed longer. (… if we hadn’t to leave)

3. Regrets

We can use the third conditional to talk about regrets from our past, often
with could have: I could have got a better job if I’d stayed at university.
We might not have had the accident if the
weather had been better.

Mixed conditionals
1. Mixed past to present conditional

We use this conditional to talk about present results of an imagined past

condition/ action:

15
 Condition if + past simple Result could/would (not) + have + past
participle
if that their hadn’t tricked me I wouldn’t be in prison now
if we had missed the train We wouldn’t be here to enjoy your wedding
if you hadn’t woken me up I might still be in bed
2. Mixed present to past conditional

We use this conditional to talk about imagined past results of a present

condition/ situation:

Condition if + past simple Result could/ would (not) + have + past

participle
If I didn’t believe you, I would have left you
If John wasn’t a hard worker He wouldn’t have got a promotion
If I had a better memory I could have won the mastermind
competition

I wish, if only, it’s time, …

1. Wish and if only + past simple/ would

We use wish + past simple to talk about present situations, when we are
unhappy with the situation: I wish we were still on holiday (we aren’t on
holiday now)

We don’t use wish or if only with a present tense:

I wish I have a better job. I wish I had a better job.

2. Wish and if only + past perfect

We use wish/ if only + past perfect to talk about a past situation or action
that we regret: I’ve failed my exams. I wish I’d studied harder.

16
We don’t use wish/ if only with the past simple if we want to talk about the
past: if only I didn’t shout at my boss last week. If only I
hadn’t shouted at my boss last week.

3. It’s time and would rather

We use the past tense after it’s time and would rather when we are talking
about the present.

 It’s (about) time means we think that someone should do something:

Come on – it’s time we went home. It’s about time you got on
the plane
 It’s high time + a past simple verb is stronger and suggests that the
action is urgent: it’s high time you started looking for a flat of your
own!
 We can also use the infinitive with to (with or without for + object
pronoun)
Come on – it’s time for us to go home.

We use would rather to say what we prefer: I’d rather we stayed at home
(= I’d prefer to stay …)

Module 13. Reported speech

Reported statements
1. Reporting speech

When we repeat another person’s words, we can use direct speech or

reported speech.

 For direct speech, we use the exact words and we put quotation
marks (“”) or inverted commas around them:
I’m really hungry because I haven’t eaten since breakfast. Said
Annabel

17
  When we report speech with a reporting verb in the present, we use
the same tenses, but we have to change pronouns and verb forms
when necessary:
Annabel says (that) she’s really hungry because she hasn’t eaten
since breakfast
.
 When we report another person’s words some time after he/she said
them, we usually use a past tense verb to introduce them, and we
change the tense of the verb as well: Annabel said (that) she was
really hungry, because she hadn’t eaten since breakfast.

 We can use that after said but we often leave it out: jake said he
would meet us here.

2. Tense changes in reported speech

Original words Reported statement

Present simple: Past simple:
‘we work for the town council’ They said they worked for the town council.
Present continuous: Past continuous:
‘I’m doing the washing’ She said she was doing the washing
Past simple: Past perfect:
‘we decided to leave earlier today’ He said they had decided to leave earlier that
day
Past continuous: Past perfect continuous:
‘I wasn’t telling the truth’ She admitted she hadn’t been telling the
truth
Present perfect simple: Past perfect simple:
‘my guests haven’t arrived yet’ She said her guests hadn’t arrived yet
Present perfect continuous Past perfect continuous:
‘we’ve been waiting for ages’ They complained (that) they had been waiting
for ages
Be going to: Was/ were going to
‘they’re going to stay at home They said they were going to stay home that
tonight’ night
Most modal verbs (e.g. can, will, Could, would, had to:
must) He added that he couldn’t say any more.
‘I can’t say any more’ He said that the result would be available
‘the results will be available later’ later.
‘you must stop writing’ She said we had to/ must stop writing

Some verb forms don’t change.

18
  Past perfect: “I hadn’t met your sister before’ -> he said (that) he
hadn’t met my sister before.
 Modal verbs could, would, should and mustn’t:
“we could go to France for the day” -> len suggested (that) we could
go to France for the day.
“you mustn’t talk during the exam” ->
he insisted (that) we mustn’t talk during the exam

Reported questions
1. Word order in reported questions

When we report a question, we change the word order of the question – it

becomes the same word order as a statement.

2. Reported yes/ no questions

We introduce reported yes/ no questions with ask/ want to know + if or

whether: has your union agreed the new pay deal?

 Reporters asked the leader if his union has agreed the new pay deal.

Did the minister answer your questions?

 She asked me whether the minister has answered my questions.

3. Reported wh- questions

We introduce reported wh- questions with ask/ want to know + wh- word:

When will the article appear in the newspaper?

 They asked us when the article would appear in the newspaper.

Where’s the cash desk?

 She wanted to know where the cash desk was.

Reported orders, requests and advice

19
 1. Reporting orders

We can report orders, requests and advice with a reporting verb +

infinitive with to. These reporting verbs all need an object. We usually
report instructions and orders with tell: The doctor said: ‘Stop
working so hard. ‘ -> the doctor told me to stop working so hard.

2. Reporting requests

We usually report requests with ask:

my mother said, ‘Will you please tidy your room? ‘ ->
My mother asked me to tidy my room.

We can use beg for a strong request:

‘Please – oh, please – give us the sweets’ -> the
children begged us to give them the sweets.

3. Reporting advice

We report advice with advise, tell or warn:

The doctor said, ‘I think you should go to a gym.’ -> the doctor advised me
to go to a gym.

The teacher said, ‘You should all take the exam.’ -> the teacher told all the
students to take the exam.

4. Reporting negative orders, requests and advice

We report negative instructions, order, requests and advice with verb +

not + infinitive with to:

‘please don’t bring food into the shop’ -> the assistant asked us not to
bring food into the shop.

‘I wouldn’t buy a new car if I were you’ -> my father advised me not to buy
a car.

We can also use warn in a situation where there is some danger:

‘don’t swim beyond the rocks’ -> he warned us not to swim beyond the
rocks

20
Reporting verb patterns
1. Tell and say

the 2 most common reporting verbs are tell and say. We use these 2 verbs
to report information, but we use them in different ways.

 Tell needs an object, usually a person: He told the reporters that the
explosion had been an accident.
 Say does not usually have an object: He said that the explosion had
been an accident.
 But we can use an object with say, if we introduce it with to: He said
to the reporters that the explosion had been an accident.

2. Reporting verb patterns

There are different ways of reporting speech, with different verbs:

Pattern Verbs
1 verb + No object Add, admit, announce, claim, complain,
that clause insist, reply, respond, say, state, suggest
+ object Tell someone, warn someone
2 verb + No object Agree, claim, offer, refuse
infinitive + object Advise someone, ask someone, beg
with to someone, encourage someone, invite
someone, warn someone, tell someone,
order someone
3 verb + -ing No Admit, advise, consider, regret, suggest
form preposition
+ preposition Admit to, apologise for, complain about,
insist on, thank someone for

Module 14. Relative, participle and other clauses

1. Relative clauses

Relative clauses give us information about the subject or object of a main

clause. Defining relative clauses describe exactly which (or what kind of)
person or thing we mean.

21
 We introduce a relative clause with a relative pronoun:

Relativ For Examples

e
pronou
n
Who People Mrs Lee was the woman who taught me to
play piano
Which Animals or things Their cat has killed the rat which was living
under our house.
That People, animals and He’s the man that I spoke to.
things It’s a phone that takes photos.
Whose Possession and I know the woman whose husband used to be
relationships his, her, your boss.
its or their

Relative clauses (2)

1. Non-defining relative clauses

Non-defining relative clauses do not describe exactly who or what we

mean. Instead they give us extra information about the subject or object of
a main clause: Alexander, who was awarded the Nobel
prize in 1970, wrote several novels.

If we remove the clause, the sentence still makes sense: Alexander wrote
several novels. Compare this with defining relative clauses:

Angela Green is the woman who lives next door.

Angela Green is the woman (which woman?)

Because non defining relative clauses do not identify the subject in the
main clause, there is a difference in meaning:

Defining: the passengers who were injured in the crash were taken to the
hospital. (only the injured passengers were taken to the hospital. We know
that some were not injured)

Non-defining: The passengers, who were injured in the crash, were taken
to hospital. (all the passengers were taken to hospital. We know that they
were all injured)
22
 2. Punctuation and use of prepositions

Unlike defining relative clauses, non-defining relative clauses are

separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. We usually put the
clause immediately after the subject it refers to:

The author of the novel lives in Edinburgh, can be seen in the National
gallery. The author of the novel, which you can buy for 20$,
lives in Edinburgh.

3. Comment clauses with which

We can use a non-defining relative clause, usually at the end of the

sentence, to say something about the whole of the main clause:
The army team was unable to make the bomb
safe, which meant everyone had to leave the area.

Clauses after the noun

1. Reduced relative clauses

We often make relative clauses shorter, like this:

 If the verb in the original relative clause is active, we use the -ing
form: It’s a shop that sells designer jeans -> it’s a shop
selling designer jeans

 If the verb is passive we use the -ed form:

It’s a novel which is base on a true story -> It’s a novel based on a
true story

23
  We can only make clauses shorter when the noun we are describing
is the same as the subject of the relative clause, not if it is different.

2. Infinitive clauses

We often replace a relative clause with an infinitive clause after a

superlative, after the first, the second, etc. or after one, next, last, few and
only. Yugi was the first man
that went into space. -> Yugi was the first man to go into space.

3. Using prepositions instead of relative clauses

We often shorten sentences with the help of prepositions:

 Relative pronoun + have -> with: This queue is for passengers who
have EU passports. -> This queue is for passengers with EU
passports.

 Relative pronoun + be + preposition -> in/at/ on, etc.

I like the painting which is on the bedroom wall. -> I like the painting
on the bedroom wall.

Participle clauses
1. Participle clauses

They give more information about a noun. We use the -ed or -ing form of
the verb. Participle clauses don’t have a subject is the noun/ pronoun in
the main clause.

2. Participle clauses of reason, result, time, etc.

24
 Full clause Participle clause
Reason Because he’s a student he can get Being a student, he can get a discount
a discount on rail travel. on rail travel.
Result The result was that dozens of A snowstorm covered the motorway,
drivers were trapped in their cars. trapping dozens of drivers in their car.
Condition If you give it enough water and Given enough water and sunlight, the
sunlight, the plant will grow. plant will grow.
Time/ As I walked into the room I noticed Walking into the room, I noticed the
sequence the flowers by the window. flowers by the window.

There is also a perfect form having + past participle which we can use to
talk about an action that happened earlier:
Having paid the entrance fee, we walked in
the museum. (= after we had paid the entrance fee, we walked into the
museum)

3. Forms for active and passive meanings

In participle clauses the -ing form has an active meaning:

The bank manager opened the safe and noticed something strange inside
(active verb) Opening the safe, the bank manager noticed
something strange inside.

The -ed form has a passive meaning:

The flood victim stood on the roof.
He was trapped by the rising water. (passive verb) The flood
victim stood on the roof, trapped by rising water.

Infinitive clauses
1. Infinitive clauses (infinitive + to)

We often use infinitive clauses after the verb be:

As a child, my ambition was to study medicine. My ambition is
to become a vet.

There are active and passive forms of the infinitive:

Active infinitive Passive infinitive

simple The most important thing is to tell the I hate to be told lies
truth.

To make the negative form we put not in front of the infinitive:

It is one of the few books not to feature her
famous characters Hercule or Miss Marple.

25
 2. Infinitives after superlatives, adjectives, etc.

We often use infinitive clauses to replace relative clauses after a

superlative, after the first, the second, etc. or after one, next, last, few and
only: It was the first book by Agatha which sold
more than 100 million copies. It was the first
book by Agatha to sell more than 100 million copies.

3. Infinitive of purpose

We can use an infinitive clause to describe the purpose or reason for an

action: Carlos went to college to study law.

We don’ t use for + infinitive of purpose:

He went to the corner for to get a taxi. He
went to the corner to get a taxi.

Other noun structures

1. Wh- clauses

Wh- clauses can express the same as a noun or noun phrase, but we tend
to use them more in informal English.

Noun phrase Wh- clause

I don’t agree with their decision. I don’t agree with what they
Have you been to our house? decided.
They told us about the designer Have you been to where we live?
I don’t understand this method They told us about who designed it.
I don’t understand how you do it.

26
  Wh- clauses are not the same as relative clauses:
I don’t agree with their decision (noun phrase)
 I don’t agree with what they decided (wh-clause)
 I don’t agree with the decision that they made (relative clause)

 The wh- clauses acts like a noun, so it can be the subject or object of
a verb: What he did made us very angy (= his actions
made us angry)
It describes what life was like for poor farmers in the 1930s (= it
describes poor farmer’s living conditions)

2. Comparison clauses with nouns

We usually make comparisons using adjectives and adverbs. But we can

also compare nouns: she’s richer than me -> she got more money than
me Their house is bigger than ours ->
Their house has more space than ours.

We can also make superlative forms using the most/ the least + noun:
Of all our staff, Jackie had the fewest complaints.

27