Use of sodium hydroxide to test for cations

To test presence of cations using aqueous sodium hydroxide

Apparatus

Nine test tubes, test tube rack, dropper, spatula, labels.

Reagents

Aluminium sulphate, calcium nitrate, copper (II) sulphate, iron (II) sulphate, iron (III) chloride,
lead nitrate, zinc nitrate, aqueous sodium hydroxide and distilled water.

Procedure

1. Using a clean spatula, scoop about a quarter spatulaful of aluminium sulphate and put it into a
test tube.
2. Add about 10 cm3 of distilled water into the contents of the test tube. Shake until all the solid
dissolves. Label this solution as Al3+.

3. Take about 1 cm3 of the solution and put into a test tube. Add two drops of aqueous sodium
hydroxide to the contents of the test tube and then record your observations.

4. Add more drops of sodium hydroxide solution until in excess. Record your observations.

5. Repeat the procedure above for the rest of the salts, each in turn and complete the table below.

Table 1.1: Test results for presence of cations using NaOH(aq) Cation A few drops of
aqueous NaOH, Excess of aqueous NaOH, Al3+ Ca2+ Cu2+ Fe2+ Fe3+ Pb2+ Zn2+

Great, you're setting up an experiment to test for cations using aqueous sodium hydroxide. Based
on your procedure, here’s how the reactions typically occur for each cation:

Cation A few drops of NaOH Excess NaOH

Al³⁺ White precipitate (Al(OH)₃) Dissolves in excess to form a colorless solution
Ca²⁺ White precipitate (Ca(OH)₂) Insoluble in excess
Cu²⁺ Blue precipitate (Cu(OH)₂) Insoluble in excess
Insoluble in excess; oxidizes to reddish-brown
Fe²⁺ Green precipitate (Fe(OH)₂)
Fe(OH)₃ on standing
Reddish-brown precipitate
Fe³⁺ Insoluble in excess
(Fe(OH)₃)
Pb²⁺ White precipitate (Pb(OH)₂) Dissolves in excess, forming a colorless solution
Zn²⁺ White precipitate (Zn(OH)₂) Dissolves in excess to form a colorless solution
Testing for Cations Using Aqueous Ammonia (NH₄OH)

Aqueous ammonia is commonly used in qualitative analysis to test for metal cations. When
added in small amounts, it can form precipitates, and in excess, it may dissolve some precipitates
due to complex ion formation.

Expected Test Results

Cation A Few Drops of Aqueous NH₄⁺ Excess of Aqueous NH₄⁺

Al³⁺ White precipitate of Al(OH)₃ Insoluble in excess
Ca²⁺ No precipitate No precipitate
Dissolves to give a deep blue solution of
Cu²⁺ Pale blue precipitate of Cu(OH)₂
[Cu(NH₃)₄]²⁺
Fe²⁺ Green precipitate of Fe(OH)₂ Insoluble in excess
Reddish-brown precipitate of
Fe³⁺ Insoluble in excess
Fe(OH)₃
Pb²⁺ White precipitate of Pb (OH)₂ Insoluble in excess
Dissolves to form a colorless solution of
Zn²⁺ White precipitate of Zn (OH)₂
[Zn(NH₃)₄]²⁺

Explanation:

1. Complex Formation: Copper (II) and zinc (II) ions dissolve in excess ammonia because
they form soluble complex ions.
2. No Precipitate for Calcium: Calcium does not react significantly with aqueous
ammonia.
3. Precipitates Form Due to Hydroxide Formation: Some metal cations react with
hydroxide ions in ammonia to form insoluble hydroxides, resulting in precipitates.

Question
1. Identify cations that formed colored precipitates with a few drops of aqueous NaOH and
aqueous ammonia.

2. Identify the cations that dissolved in excess of NaOH. Why do you think they dissolved?

3. Identify the cations that dissolved in excess of aqueous ammonia. Why do you think they
dissolved?

4. Did you use dilute or concentrated solutions of NaOH and ammonia? Give reasons for the use
of this level of concentration.

1. Cations that formed colored precipitates with a few drops of NaOH and aqueous
ammonia:
 o Cu²⁺ (Copper (II)): Forms a blue precipitate of Cu (OH)₂.
o Fe²⁺ (Iron (II)): Forms a green precipitate of Fe(OH)₂, which turns brown due to
oxidation.
o Fe³⁺ (Iron(III)): Forms a reddish-brown precipitate of Fe(OH)₃.
2. Cations that dissolved in excess NaOH:
o Al³⁺, Pb²⁺, and Zn²⁺ form hydroxide precipitates that dissolve in excess NaOH,
forming soluble complex ions such as:
 Al(OH)₄⁻ (tetrahydroxoaluminate ion)
 Pb(OH)₄²⁻ (tetrahydroxoplumbate ion)
 Zn(OH)₄²⁻ (tetrahydroxozincate ion)
o These cations dissolve because they can form complex ions in alkaline conditions.
3. Cations that dissolved in excess aqueous ammonia:
o Cu²⁺ and Zn²⁺ dissolve in excess ammonia due to complex formation:
 Cu²⁺ forms a deep blue solution of [Cu(NH3)4]2+[Cu(NH₃)₄]^{2+}
(tetraamminecopper(II) complex).
 Zn²⁺ forms a colorless solution of [Zn(NH3)4]2+[Zn(NH₃)₄]^{2+}
(tetraamminezinc(II) complex).
o They dissolve because ammonia acts as a ligand, forming soluble coordination
complexes.
4. Dilute or concentrated solutions of NaOH and ammonia:
o Dilute solutions are typically used to ensure controlled precipitation and prevent
rapid complex formation.
o Excess of either reagent is added gradually to test solubility behavior. Using
concentrated solutions could lead to unwanted side reactions or excessive ion
complexation.
5. What do you think will happen when you use cold or warm solutions of NaOH and
ammonia? Explain your answer.

Effect of temperature on reactions with NaOH and ammonia:

o Warm solutions of NaOH and ammonia typically increase the reaction rate.
Some precipitates may form faster, and dissolution might occur more readily in
excess reagent.
o Cold solutions slow down reaction kinetics. Precipitates may form more slowly,
and some reactions may be incomplete. For example, the complexation reactions
of Cu²⁺ with ammonia might take longer or be less pronounced.

Heat can also affect solubility: Some hydroxides, like Ca(OH)₂, dissolve slightly better
in warm water, while others remain mostly insoluble.

6. What is a precipitate? Why are the precipitates formed? The Facts

o A precipitate is an insoluble solid that forms when two solutions react and
produce a compound that does not dissolve in water.
o Precipitates form due to:
  Solubility rules: Some hydroxides and salts are not very soluble in water,
leading to precipitation when their ions combine.
 Selective complexation: Some cations react with specific ligands like
OH⁻ or NH₃, producing insoluble compounds.
 Changes in equilibrium: Adding NaOH or NH₃ shifts the equilibrium,
promoting the formation of solid hydroxides.

These principles help in identifying cations based on their unique precipitation and solubility
behaviors. Would you like more detailed explanations on any of these processes?

Test for anions

1. What are anions? Give five examples of anions.

2. What is the precipitation reaction? How can you use precipitations reaction to identify specific
salts?

1. What are anions? Anions are negatively charged ions that form when atoms gain
electrons. They are commonly found in ionic compounds and solutions.

Here are five examples:

oChloride (Cl⁻)
oSulfate (SO₄²⁻)
oNitrate (NO₃⁻)
oCarbonate (CO₃²⁻)
oPhosphate (PO₄³⁻)
2. What is a precipitation reaction? How is it used to identify salts?

A precipitation reaction occurs when two soluble compounds in solution react to form an
insoluble solid, called a precipitate. These reactions help identify specific salts based on
solubility rules. For example:

o Testing for sulfate ions (SO₄²⁻): Adding barium chloride (BaCl₂) solution to a
sample with sulfate results in a white precipitate of BaSO₄, confirming the
presence of sulfate ions.
o Testing for chloride ions (Cl⁻): Adding silver nitrate (AgNO₃) solution leads
to a white precipitate of AgCl, indicating chloride.
o Testing for carbonate ions (CO₃²⁻): Adding dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl)
causes effervescence due to CO₂ gas release, confirming the presence of
carbonates.

These tests are key in qualitative analysis, helping chemists identify unknown substances based
on predictable reaction patterns.
Investigating solubility of salts in water

Apparatus

Seven test tubes, spatula.

Reagents

Sodium carbonate, lead carbonate, lead sulphate, lead nitrate, barium sulphate, barium chloride
and lead (II) chloride.

Procedure

1. Scoop a spatula endful amount of sodium carbonate and put it into a test tube. 2. Add water to
the salt, stir and make observations. 3. Repeat the procedure for the rest of the salts.

You’re setting up an experiment to investigate the solubility of different salts in water. Here’s
what you can expect:

Expected Results

Some salts are soluble in water, while others are insoluble due to their ionic lattice structure and
water interactions. Based on solubility rules:

 Soluble Salts
o Sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) – Readily dissolves in water.
o Lead nitrate (Pb(NO₃)₂) – Soluble in water.
o Barium chloride (BaCl₂) – Dissolves easily in water.
 Insoluble Salts
o Lead carbonate (PbCO₃) – Forms a precipitate, indicating low solubility.
o Lead(II) chloride (PbCl₂) – Slightly soluble in cold water, more soluble in warm
water.
o Lead sulphate (PbSO₄) – Virtually insoluble in water.
o Barium sulphate (BaSO₄) – Highly insoluble in water.

Explanation of Results

 Soluble salts dissolve because their ions interact strongly with water molecules,
breaking apart into solution.
 Insoluble salts remain as precipitates because their ionic bonds are too strong for water
molecules to disrupt.
 Lead(II) chloride has increased solubility in warm water due to greater kinetic energy
allowing more dissociation.
To test for presence of anions in compounds

Apparatus

Test tubes, source of heat, filter paper, spatula.

Reagents

Distilled water, solids of: sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, potassium iodide, sodium nitrate
and sodium sulphate; calcium hydroxide solution, solids of: sodium sulphite, lead (II) nitrate, 2M
nitric acid, aluminium foil, silver nitrate, barium nitrate and acidified potassium dichromate.

Procedure

Table 1.3: Investigating presence of anions in compounds

Testing for Anions in Compounds

Below is a summary of the expected observations when testing for various anions using different
reagents:

Anion Procedure Expected Observations

Effervescence due to CO₂ gas.
Add dilute nitric acid to the solid. Pass any
Carbonate Turns calcium hydroxide
gas produced through calcium hydroxide
(CO₃²⁻) (limewater) milky, confirming
solution.
carbonate.
Dissolve the solid in water. Add dilute nitric Formation of a white precipitate
Chloride
acid, then three drops of silver nitrate of AgCl, confirming chloride
(Cl⁻)
solution. presence.
Add 5 cm³ of iodide solution to a test tube. Formation of a yellow precipitate
Iodide (I⁻) Add 3 drops of nitric acid, followed by three of PbI₂, confirming iodide
drops of lead(II) nitrate solution. presence.
Add 2 cm³ of sodium hydroxide to a small
Ammonia gas (NH₃) produced,
Nitrate amount of nitrate solution, drop aluminium
turning red litmus paper blue,
(NO₃⁻) foil into the solution, and warm gently. Test
confirming nitrate presence.
the gas produced with damp red litmus paper.
To 2 cm³ of sulphate solution, add 2 cm³ of Formation of a white precipitate
Sulphate
dilute nitric acid, followed by barium nitrate of BaSO₄, confirming sulphate
(SO₄²⁻)
solution. presence.
To 2 cm³ of sulphite solution, add 2 cm³ of Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) gas turns
Sulphite nitric acid, and test gas produced using filter potassium dichromate paper from
(SO₃²⁻) paper dipped in acidified potassium orange to green, confirming
dichromate solution. sulphite presence.
These qualitative tests are commonly used in laboratories to identify specific anions in unknown
samples. Would you like additional details on how these reactions occur at the molecular level?

Identification of Gases – Laboratory Tests

In qualitative analysis, gases are identified through simple chemical tests based on their
characteristic reactions with different reagents. Below is a structured table summarizing the
expected observations for common gases.

Table 1.4: Investigating Identification Tests for Different Gases

Gas Procedure Observations

Ammonia Hold a moist red litmus paper in a gas Red litmus turns blue, indicating its
(NH₃) jar containing the gas. alkalinity.
Lime water turns milky, confirming the
Carbon
Bubble the gas through lime water. presence of CO₂ due to the formation of
dioxide (CO₂)
CaCO₃.
Both litmus papers are bleached,
Hold moist red and blue litmus papers
Chlorine (Cl₂) indicating chlorine's strong oxidizing
at the mouth of the gas jar.
properties.
Hydrogen Introduce a burning splint into the gas A ‘pop’ sound is heard as hydrogen
(H₂) jar containing hydrogen gas. burns explosively.
Introduce a glowing splint into a gas The splint relights, showing that
Oxygen (O₂)
jar containing oxygen. oxygen supports combustion.
Insert a filter paper soaked in acidified The orange potassium dichromate
Sulphur
potassium dichromate into a gas jar solution turns green, confirming SO₂ as
dioxide (SO₂)
containing the gas. a reducing agent.

Explanation:

1. Litmus Test for Ammonia and Chlorine:

o Ammonia is a basic gas, which turns red litmus paper blue.
o Chlorine is a strong oxidizer, bleaching both litmus papers.
2. Reaction of Carbon Dioxide with Lime Water:
o Carbon dioxide reacts with calcium hydroxide in lime water, forming insoluble
calcium carbonate, which appears as a milky precipitate.
3. Burning and Combustion Tests:
o Hydrogen burns with a ‘pop’ due to its flammability.
o Oxygen relights a glowing splint, proving it supports combustion.
4. Sulphur Dioxide as a Reducing Agent:
o It reduces potassium dichromate from orange (Cr2O∧2- =Cr_2O_7^{2-}) to
green (Cr3+, confirming its presence.
1. Briefly explain the properties of the gases responsible for the observations made in each case.
2. Write the chemical equation for the reaction tests for the following gases: (a) carbon dioxide
(b) chlorine (c) sulphur dioxide

1. Properties of the Gases Responsible for the Observations:

Each gas exhibits unique properties that lead to the observed chemical reactions:

 Ammonia (NH₃)
o Basic in nature, turning red litmus paper blue due to the presence of hydroxide
ions in solution.
o Has a pungent odor and is highly soluble in water.
 Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)
o Weakly acidic, reacts with lime water to form an insoluble calcium carbonate
precipitate, causing the milky appearance.
o Slightly soluble in water, forming carbonic acid.
 Chlorine (Cl₂)
o Strong oxidizing agent, capable of bleaching litmus papers due to its ability to
react with water to form hydrochloric acid and hypochlorous acid.
o Toxic and has a distinct pungent odor.
 Hydrogen (H₂)
o Highly flammable; reacts explosively with oxygen, producing water vapor and
releasing energy in the form of a ‘pop’ sound.
o Colorless and odorless.
 Oxygen (O₂)
o Supports combustion, reigniting a glowing splint due to its role in oxidation
reactions.
o Essential for respiration and many chemical reactions.
 Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂)
o Acts as a reducing agent, turning acidified potassium dichromate from orange
to green by reducing chromium(VI) to chromium(III).
o Has a sharp, irritating smell and is moderately soluble in water.

2. Chemical Equations for the Gas Reaction Tests:

(a) Carbon Dioxide Reaction with Lime Water:

CO2+Ca(OH)2→CaCO3↓+H2OCO_2 + Ca(OH)_2 → CaCO_3↓ + H_2O

This forms an insoluble calcium carbonate precipitate, turning lime water milky.

(b) Chlorine Reaction with Water and Litmus Paper Bleaching:

Cl2+H2O→HCl+HOClCl_2 + H_2O → HCl + HOCl

Hypochlorous acid (HOClHOCl) is a strong oxidizer responsible for the bleaching effect on
litmus paper.

(c) Sulphur Dioxide Reaction with Acidified Potassium Dichromate:

SO2+Cr2O72−+H+→SO42−+Cr3++H2OSO_2 + Cr_2O_7^{2-} + H^+ → SO_4^{2-} +

Cr^{3+} + H_2O

The reduction of chromium(VI) (orange) to chromium(III) (green) indicates the presence of

sulphur dioxide.