Thinking and problem solving

• It differentiate between human and animals

• Painting , poetry, computer, problem solving
all involve thinking
• Essential tool for the welfare of society and
individual
 Definitions
• Valentine (1965) in strict psychological
discussion it is well to keep that for an activity
which consists essentially of flow of ideas
which are directed towards some end or
purpose.

• Rose (1951) thinking is a mental activity in its

cognitive aspect or mental activity with regard
to psychological objects.
• Gartter (1968) thinking is behavior which is often
implicit and hidden and in which symbols (images
, ideas, concepts) are ordinarily employed.

• Mohsin (1967) thinking is an implicit problem

solving behavior.

• Gilmer (1970) thinking is problem solving process

in which we use ideas or symbols in place of
overt activity
• Definitions like the above may be divided in to two categories

• 1. in the first category we have definitions that maintain that

thinking is the internal representation of external world.

• 2. On the other hand in the second category we have definitions

that describe thinking as problem solving behavior.

• Whatever the apparent difference these two classes of definitions

tell the same story. The internal representation helps in problem
solving and problem solving behavior provides evidence for the
existence of internal representation.
 Nature of thinking
• Thinking is essentially a cognitive activity

• It is always directed to achieve some end or purpose

• Thinking is described a s a problem solving behavior

• In thinking there is mental exploration instead of motor

exploration

• Thinking is a symbolic activity

• Thinking can shift very rapidly

 Elements or tools of thinking
• a. Images:
• Image is a mental picture formed in the mind in the absence of stimulus. This takes place when we
try to remember the experience of stimulus. We are able to think on the basis of these images.
• Pictorial representation of an information.

• b. Concepts:
• A concept is general idea. That stands for a general class and represents common property of all
the objects or events of this general class. Thinking always takes place by using the concepts in the
mind. Without concepts there cannot be thinking, because everything around us is recorded in the
brain in the form of concepts.
• Reduces efforts in thinking.

• c. Language:
• In thinking we not only use concepts, but also language. Generally we think in our mother tongue
or the language which is very familiar to us. Our thinking will flow like stream because of language.
The most efficient and well developed vehicle used for carrying out the process of thinking.
• d. Symbols and signs:
• Substitute for actual object, experiences or activities
• Symbols like national flag, national animal, logo of a game or organization, etc, are
symbols of certain things. We use these symbols while thinking.

• e. Muscle and activity:

• Thinking in one way or the other shows evidence of the involvement of groups of
muscles. It can be easily noticed that there are slight muscular responses when we
think of a word, resembling the movement used when we utter the word aloud.

• f. Brain:
• Finally it is the brain which is the seat of all mental processes. Since thinking is also
a higher mental process, the role of brain is crucial. All our experiences are stored
in the brain as engrams. Our thinking takes place on the basis of these engrams.
Hence, it is quite obvious that brain is an essential tool of thinking.
 Types of thinking
• Perceptual thinking:
• It is the simplest for of thinking. The basis of this type of thinking is perception i.e. interpretation of sensation
according to one’s experience. It is also named as concrete thinking as it is carried over the perception of actual or
concrete objects or events.

• Concrete or abstract thinking:

• Its an abstract thinking where one makes use of concepts; the generalized idea or language

• Reflective Thinking
• This thinking is about going back into the past experiences and recollecting what you did or did not do in a given
situation. It's about answering where, what, how etc about a past event.
• For example, I participate in a Arts competition for the 2nd time. the 1st time I participated I won the 3rd price and
obviously this time I want to be the winner. So, when someone is asking me the question What mistakes did you
do in the last Arts competition that you will not repeat this time, I think back and recall that what I had done and
what I could have done better. I probe myself with how many hours did I practice, who helped me and so on to
make sure I do not repeat the same mistakes this time. This kind of thinking is Reflective thinking.
I. It aims at solving complex problems
II. It requires reorganization of all relevant experiences and finding new ways of reacting to a situation
III. It takes logic in to account in which all the relevant facts are arranged in a logical order, in order to get the
solution of the problem in hand.
• Lateral Thinking Lateral Thinking means to think out side the box. a person who
thinks in an innovative manner and looks beyond the obvious is a lateral thinker.
Lateral thinking makes us very creative.
• Lateral thinking offers a somewhat structured way to generate new ideas, while
creative thinking opens the door to all possibilities. While critical thinking is
needed in identifying and starting to solve problems, lateral and creative thinking
help generate multiple, different, and often unexpected solutions.

• Critical Thinking
• This type of thinking helps us in decision making. Whenever we have to make any
important decisions we must use our knowledge, experience and common sense
to reach the right decision. For example when I participate in a group discussion
such as Television is a useful resource or a useless box. What do you think and
why?. First I have to decide what I really think about Television by using my
knowledge, common sense and experience and then give my opinion. Also to
resolve any conflicts we use Critical Thinking.
• Non directive or associative thinking:

• Day dreaming ( float unconsciously in unexpected

directions)
• Free association
• Fantasy ( more self directed)
• Delusion (thought disorder)
• Day dreaming, fantasy, and free association fall in
category of withdrawal behavior that helps the
individual to escape from the demands of the real
world
 Reasoning
• It is essentially a cognitive activity and resembles thinking in so
many aspects like

• 1. it involves a defined purpose or goal

• 2. it is also an implicit act and involves problem solving behavior
• 3. like thinking here one make use of one’s previous knowledge and
experience
• 4. involves mental exploration
• 5. is a highly symbolic function

• On one account the above resemblance it becomes difficult to

distinguish between thinking and reasoning. However, reasoning is
said to be a typical thinking---- a productive and advance stage in
complex process of one’s thinking.
• Garrett (1968) reasoning is step wise thinking
with a purpose or goal in mind

• Gates (1947) reasoning is the term applied to

highly purposeful controlled selective thinking

• Woodworth (1945) in reasoning items (facts or

principles) furnished by recall, present
observation or both; are combined and examined
to see what conclusion can be drawn from the
combination.
• Reasoning may follow some logical systematic steps

• 1. identification of the goal or purpose for which reasoning is to be

directed

• 2. the mental exploration or search for the various possibilities

• 3. selection of the most appropriate possibilities or solution by

careful mental analysis of all the available alternatives

• 4. Testing the validity of the selected possible solution, purely

through mental exercise and thus finally accept or reject it for the
actual solution of the problem
 Types of reasoning
• Inductive and deductive reasoning
• Inductive reasoning is a bottom-up approach, while deductive
reasoning is top-down. Inductive reasoning takes you from the
specific to the general, while in deductive reasoning, you make
inferences by going from general premises to specific conclusions.

• Example of inductive reasoning Billy is a boy who likes to play

cricket. Joey is a boy who likes to play cricket. Using inductive
reasoning, one might conclude that all boys enjoy cricket.

• Example of deductive reasoning: All dogs have ears; golden

retrievers are dogs, therefore they have ears. All racing cars must go
over 80MPH; the Dodge Charger is a racing car, therefore it can go
over 80MPH.
 Problem solving
• Woodworth and Marquis (1948) problem solving
behavior occurs in novel or difficult situations in
which a solution is not obtainable by the habitual
methods of applying concepts and principles
derived from past experience in very familiar
situation

• Skinner (1968) problem solving is a process of

overcoming difficulties that appear to interfere
with the attainment of a goal. It is a procedure of
making adjustment in spite of interferences.
• in the realization of one’s needs and realization of the set
goals, problem-solving behavior arises only when

a. The goal is quite purposeful and essential for the

individual,
b. There is serious interference in the realization of this goal,
c. This interference or obstacle cannot be overcome by the
simple habitual acts or mechanical trial and error
methods.

• The individual has to utilize his thinking and reasoning

powers and engage in serious mental work for the removal
of the difficulties and obstacles.
• The problem solving behavior involves quite deliberate
conscious and serious efforts on the part of the
problem-solver
• Problem solving behavior helps in the removal or
adjustment with interferences and ultimately makes an
individual reach his goal and satisfaction of his motives
• Problem solving behavior helps an individual in the
growth and development of his personality making him
happy and wiser by getting him adequately adjusted. It
also contributes a lot towards the progress and
development of society
 Scientific method of problem solving
• Problem awareness
• Problem understanding
• Collection of the relevant info
• Formation of hypothesis
• Selection of a proper solution