VLSI UNIT 3

design flow in vlsi

The design flow in Very-Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) is the process of designing and
manufacturing integrated circuits (ICs) that contain a very large number of transistors. The design
flow consists of several steps, which may vary depending on the specific requirements and goals
of the IC design project.

Here is a general outline of the design flow in VLSI:

DESIGN ENTRY

SYNTHESIS

SIMULATION

IMPLIMENTATION

DEVICE PROGRAMMING

1. Specification: The first step in the design flow is to define the specification of the IC,
which includes the desired performance, functionality, and constraints. This may involve
writing a detailed specification document and identifying the key performance metrics
that need to be optimized.
2. Design: The next step is to design the IC using a hardware description language (HDL)
such as VHDL or Verilog. This involves writing code to describe the functionality of the IC
and creating a schematic diagram of the circuit.
3. Simulation: The design is then simulated using specialized software to ensure that it
behaves as expected and meets the performance requirements. This may involve running
several different types of simulations, such as functional, timing, and power simulations.
4. Synthesis: The next step is to synthesize the design, which involves converting the HDL
code into a gate-level netlist that can be used to physically manufacture the IC.
5. Place and route: The next step is to place and route the gates and interconnects of the IC
on the silicon die using specialized software. This involves optimizing the layout of the IC
to meet the performance and power requirements.
6. Physical verification: The final step is to verify the physical layout of the IC to ensure that
it meets the design rules and constraints. This may involve running additional simulations
and checking for any errors or issues.
 7. Manufacturing: Once the design is verified, it is ready to be manufactured using
photolithography and other IC fabrication processes.

CPLD ARCHITECTURE

A Complex Programmable Logic Device (CPLD) is a type of programmable logic device that is
used to implement digital logic circuits. It consists of a grid of programmable logic cells (PLCs),
which are interconnected by programmable interconnect points (ICPs).

The architecture of a CPLD typically consists of the following components:

1. Input/output blocks (IOBs): These are the interface between the CPLD and the external
signals. The IOBs contain flip-flops and other logic elements that can be used to latch or
buffer the input and output signals.
2. Programmable logic cells (PLCs): These are the core of the CPLD, containing
programmable logic elements (PLEs) that can be used to implement various logic
functions. The PLCs are typically arranged in rows and columns and are interconnected by
the ICPs.
3. Programmable interconnect points (ICPs): These are the points at which the PLCs and
IOBs can be connected together to create the desired logic circuit. The ICPs can be
programmed to create the desired connections between the different components of the
CPLD.
4. Configuration memory: This is the memory that stores the configuration data for the
CPLD. It determines the functionality of the CPLD by specifying which PLCs and IOBs are
connected together and how they are connected. The configuration memory can be
programmed using special programming tools.

CPLDs are useful for implementing small to medium-sized digital logic circuits and are often used
as glue logic or as an alternative to field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs). They are typically
faster and less expensive than FPGAs but have less programmable logic resources.

Here are some common specifications of CPLDs:

 1. Logic capacity: This is the number of gates or flip-flops that the CPLD can
implement. It is typically measured in terms of equivalent gate count or
equivalent flip-flop count.
2. I/O capacity: This is the number of input/output (I/O) pins that the CPLD has.
It determines the number of signals that the CPLD can interface with.
3. Speed: This is the maximum operating frequency of the CPLD, which
determines how fast it can process signals. It is typically measured in
megahertz (MHz).
4. Power consumption: This is the amount of power that the CPLD consumes
when operating. It is an important consideration for applications where power
efficiency is critical.
5. Package type: This is the physical package in which the CPLD is packaged. It
determines the size and form factor of the CPLD and may affect its
performance and cost.
6. Programming interface: This is the method used to program the CPLD, which
may be through a JTAG interface or through a proprietary programming
cable.
7. Voltage range: This is the range of supply voltages that the CPLD can operate
at. It may be a single voltage or a range of voltages.
8. Temperature range: This is the range of temperatures at which the CPLD can
operate. It is an important consideration for applications that will be exposed
to extreme temperatures.

CPLD APPLICATIONS

They are often used in applications where a small amount of programmable logic is
required, but where a full-fledged field-programmable gate array (FPGA) would be
too expensive or bulky. Some examples of applications for CPLDs include:

1. Digital control: CPLDs can be used to implement digital control systems, such
as in consumer electronics, automotive systems, and industrial automation
systems.
2. Data acquisition: CPLDs can be used to interface with sensors and other data
acquisition devices, and to perform data processing and communication
functions.
3. Communication systems: CPLDs can be used in communication systems to
perform functions such as protocol conversion, data formatting, and error
correction.
4. Embedded systems: CPLDs are often used in embedded systems, where they
can be programmed to perform a variety of tasks such as control, data
processing, and communication functions.
 5. Military and aerospace: CPLDs are used in military and aerospace applications
where their ability to perform complex logic functions in a compact, reliable
package is important.
6. Medical devices: CPLDs are used in medical devices such as ventilators and
infusion pumps, where they can be programmed to perform tasks such as
control, data processing, and communication functions.

FGPA ARCHITECTURE

A field-programmable gate array (FPGA) is an integrated circuit that can be

programmed by the user to implement a wide range of digital logic functions. The
architecture of an FPGA consists of an array of configurable logic blocks (CLBs) and
programmable interconnects.

The CLBs contain programmable logic elements (PLEs) that can be configured to
implement a wide range of digital logic functions. The PLEs are typically composed of
lookup tables (LUTs) and flip-flops. The LUTs can be programmed to implement any
Boolean function, while the flip-flops can be used to store data and implement
sequential logic.

The programmable interconnects allow the user to connect the CLBs and other on-
chip resources (such as memory blocks and digital signal processing (DSP) blocks) in
a wide variety of ways, enabling the FPGA to perform a wide range of functions.
In addition to the CLBs and programmable interconnects, an FPGA may also include
other on-chip resources such as memory blocks, digital signal processing (DSP)
blocks, and input/output (I/O) blocks. These resources can be used to implement
more complex digital systems, such as processors, communication systems, and
video and audio processing systems.

Overall, the architecture of an FPGA is designed to be flexible and reconfigurable,

allowing the user to program the device to perform a wide range of digital logic
functions.

FPGA FEATURES

1. Configurability: FPGAs can be programmed by the user to implement a wide

range of digital logic functions, making them highly configurable and flexible.
2. Speed: FPGAs can operate at very high speeds, making them suitable for use
in high-speed digital systems such as communication systems and video and
audio processing systems.
3. Low power consumption: FPGAs can be designed to consume low levels of
power, making them suitable for use in portable and battery-powered devices.
4. High density: FPGAs can be designed to have a high density of logic elements,
allowing them to implement complex digital systems in a compact package.
5. On-chip resources: FPGAs often include on-chip resources such as memory
blocks, digital signal processing (DSP) blocks, and input/output (I/O) blocks,
which can be used to implement more complex digital systems.
6. Reprogrammability: FPGAs can be reprogrammed, allowing the user to change
the functions implemented by the device without replacing it. This makes
FPGAs a cost-effective solution for applications that require frequent changes
to the digital logic functions being implemented.

FPGA SPECIFICATIONS

The following are some common specifications used to describe the capabilities of an FPGA:

1. Logic elements: The number of programmable logic elements (PLEs) in an FPGA

determines the amount of digital logic that can be implemented on the device. Each PLE
typically consists of a lookup table (LUT) and a flip-flop, and can be programmed to
implement any Boolean function.
2. Programmable interconnects: The number of programmable interconnects on an FPGA
determines the number of connections that can be made between the logic elements and
other on-chip resources such as memory blocks and digital signal processing (DSP)
blocks.
3. On-chip memory: Some FPGAs include on-chip memory blocks, which can be used to
store data and implement functions such as registers and FIFOs. The size of the on-chip
memory is typically measured in bits.
 4. Digital signal processing (DSP) blocks: Some FPGAs include dedicated DSP blocks, which
can be used to implement functions such as multipliers and accumulators. The number of
DSP blocks and the size of each block are important specifications for FPGAs that are
used in DSP applications.
5. Input/output (I/O) blocks: FPGAs include I/O blocks that can be used to interface with
external devices and systems. The number and type of I/O blocks, as well as the voltage
levels and signaling standards supported by the blocks, are important specifications for
FPGAs that are used in a variety of applications.
6. Package size: The physical size of an FPGA is an important consideration, especially for
applications where space is limited. FPGAs are available in a variety of package sizes,
ranging from small surface mount packages to large through-hole packages.

applications of FPGAs include:

1. Digital signal processing (DSP): FPGAs are often used in DSP applications such
as audio and video processing, radar and sonar processing, and
communication systems.
2. Embedded systems: FPGAs are used in a wide range of embedded systems,
where they can be programmed to perform tasks such as control, data
processing, and communication functions.
3. Industrial automation: FPGAs are used in industrial automation systems to
perform tasks such as control, data acquisition, and communication.
4. Military and aerospace: FPGAs are used in military and aerospace applications
where their ability to perform complex logic functions in a compact, reliable
package is important.
5. Medical devices: FPGAs are used in medical devices such as ventilators and
infusion pumps, where they can be programmed to perform tasks such as
control, data processing, and communication functions.
6. Consumer electronics: FPGAs are used in a variety of consumer electronics,
including smartphones, tablets, and televisions, where they can be
programmed to perform tasks such as image and video processing,
communication, and control.

CLOCK MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES IN VLSI

Clock management is an important aspect of the design of very-large-scale integration (VLSI)
systems, as it affects the performance, power consumption, and reliability of the system. Some
techniques for managing clocks in VLSI systems include:

1. Clock gating: Clock gating involves turning off the clock signal to a particular logic block
when it is not needed, in order to reduce power consumption.
2. Clock frequency scaling: Clock frequency scaling involves adjusting the frequency of the
clock signal to match the performance needs of the system. This can be used to reduce
 power consumption when the system is operating at lower speeds, or to increase
performance when higher speeds are required.
3. Clock distribution tree synthesis: The clock distribution tree is the network of wires and
buffers that distributes the clock signal to different parts of the system. Clock distribution
tree synthesis involves optimizing the design of the clock distribution tree to minimize
skew and reduce power consumption.
4. Clock tree power gating: Clock tree power gating involves turning off power to the clock
distribution tree when it is not needed, in order to reduce power consumption.
5. Clock and power gating of memory blocks: Memory blocks consume a significant portion
of the power in a VLSI system. Clock and power gating of memory blocks involves turning
off the clock and power to the memory blocks when they are not being accessed, in order
to reduce power consumption.
6. Clock and power gating of I/O blocks: I/O blocks are another major contributor to power
consumption in a VLSI system. Clock and power gating of I/O blocks involves turning off
the clock and power to the I/O blocks when they are not being used, in order to reduce
power consumption.

FPGA synthesis and implementation

Field-programmable gate array (FPGA) synthesis and implementation is the process of
transforming a high-level description of a digital system into a configuration that can be loaded
onto an FPGA. This process typically consists of the following steps:

1. Design entry: The designer creates a high-level description of the digital system using a
hardware description language (HDL) such as VHDL or Verilog.
2. Synthesis: The synthesis tool converts the HDL description into a gate-level description of
the digital system, mapping the high-level constructs in the HDL code to gates and other
components in the FPGA.
3. Technology mapping: The technology mapper converts the gate-level description into a
form that can be implemented on the FPGA, taking into account the specific resources
and constraints of the target FPGA.
4. Place and route: The place and route (P&R) tool maps the design to the physical
resources of the FPGA and generates a routing plan for interconnecting the components
of the design.
5. Timing analysis: The timing analysis tool verifies that the design meets the specified
timing constraints, such as maximum clock frequency and maximum propagation delay.
6. Configuration: The configuration tool generates a configuration file that can be loaded
onto the FPGA to implement the design.

Overall, the FPGA synthesis and implementation process involves converting a high-level
description of a digital system into a form that can be implemented on an FPGA, and verifying
that the resulting design meets the specified timing and resource constraints.

CPLD AND FPGA COMPARISION

here are some key differences between CPLDs and FPGAs:

 1. Architecture: CPLDs typically have a simpler architecture than FPGAs,
consisting of a small array of fixed function blocks and programmable
interconnects. In contrast, FPGAs have a more flexible architecture, consisting
of a larger array of configurable logic blocks (CLBs) and programmable
interconnects, as well as on-chip resources such as memory blocks and digital
signal processing (DSP) blocks.
2. Logic capacity: CPLDs typically have a smaller capacity for implementing
digital logic functions compared to FPGAs. This makes CPLDs suitable for
applications where a small amount of programmable logic is required, but
FPGAs are more suitable for applications that require a larger amount of
programmable logic.
3. Performance: FPGAs can operate at higher speeds than CPLDs, making them
more suitable for high-speed applications such as communication systems
and video and audio processing systems.
4. Power consumption: CPLDs typically have a lower power consumption
compared to FPGAs, making them more suitable for applications where power
is a concern, such as portable and battery-powered devices.
5. Scale: FPGAs are generally larger and more complex than CPLDs, and can
implement more complex digital logic functions. FPGAs are typically used in
applications where a larger amount of programmable logic is required, while
CPLDs are used in applications where a smaller amount of programmable
logic is sufficient.
6. Logic resources: FPGAs typically have a larger number of programmable logic
elements (PLEs) and programmable interconnects than CPLDs, allowing them
to implement more complex digital logic functions.
7. On-chip resources: FPGAs often include on-chip resources such as memory
blocks, digital signal processing (DSP) blocks, and input/output (I/O) blocks,
while CPLDs typically do not. This makes FPGAs more suitable for
implementing more complex systems that require these types of resources.
8. Speed: FPGAs can operate at higher speeds than CPLDs, making them suitable
for use in high-speed digital systems such as communication systems and
video and audio processing systems.

SYNTHESIS TOOLS INVLSI

Synthesis tools are used in very-large-scale integration (VLSI) design to convert a high-level
description of a digital system into a gate-level description that can be implemented on an
integrated circuit. Some common synthesis tools used in VLSI design include:

1. Logic synthesis: Logic synthesis tools convert a high-level description of a digital system
written in a hardware description language (HDL) such as VHDL or Verilog into a gate-
level description that can be implemented on an integrated circuit.
2. Technology mapping: Technology mapping tools convert the gate-level description of a
digital system into a form that can be implemented on a specific type of integrated
 circuit, taking into account the specific resources and constraints of the target
technology.
3. Place and route (P&R): Place and route (P&R) tools map the components of the digital
system to the physical resources of the integrated circuit and generate a routing plan for
interconnecting the components.
4. Timing analysis: Timing analysis tools verify that the digital system meets the specified
timing constraints, such as maximum clock frequency and maximum propagation delay.

Overall, synthesis tools are used to convert a high-level description of a digital system into a form
that can be implemented on an integrated circuit, and to verify that the resulting design meets
the specified timing and resource constraints.