DP CHEMISTRY HL

Structure 1. Models of the particulate nature of matter

Structure 1.1—Introduction to the particulate nature of matter

Structure 1.1.1—Elements are the primary constituents of matter, which cannot be chemically broken down into
simpler substances.
o Compounds consist of atoms of different elements chemically bonded together in a fixed ratio.
o Mixtures contain more than one element or compound in no fixed ratio, which are not chemically bonded
and so can be separated by physical methods
o Distinguish between the properties of elements, compounds and mixtures.
o Solvation, filtration, recrystallization, evaporation, distillation and chromatography should be covered.
o The differences between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures should be understood.

Structure 1.1.2—The kinetic molecular theory is a model to explain physical properties of matter (solids, liquids and
gases) and changes of state.
o Distinguish the different states of matter.
Use state symbols (s, l, g and aq) in chemical equations.
o Names of the changes of state should be covered: melting, freezing, vaporization (evaporation and boiling),
condensation, sublimation and deposition.

Structure 1.1.3—The temperature, , in Kelvin (K) is a measure of average kinetic energy of particles.
o Interpret observable changes in physical properties and temperature during changes of state.
Convert between values in the Celsius and Kelvin scales.
o The kelvin (K) is the SI unit of temperature and has the same incremental value as the Celsius degree (°C)

Structure 1.2—The nuclear atom

Structure 1.2.1—Atoms contain a positively charged, dense nucleus composed of protons and neutrons (nucleons).
o Negatively charged electrons occupy the space outside the nucleus.
o Use the nuclear symbol to deduce the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms and ions.
o Relative masses and charges of the subatomic particles should be known; actual values are given in the data
booklet. The mass of the electron can be considered negligible.

Structure 1.2.2—Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
o Perform calculations involving non-integer relative atomic masses and abundance of isotopes from given
data.
o Differences in the physical properties of isotopes should be understood
o Specific examples of isotopes need not be learned.

Structure 1.2.3—Mass spectra are used to determine the relative atomic masses of elements from their isotopic
composition.
o Interpret mass spectra in terms of identity and relative abundance of isotopes.
o The operational details of the mass spectrometer will not be assessed.

Structure 1.3—Electron configurations

Structure 1.3.1—Emission spectra are produced by atoms emitting photons when electrons in excited states return to
lower energy levels.
o Qualitatively describe the relationship between colour, wavelength, frequency and energy across the
electromagnetic spectrum.
o Distinguish between a continuous and a line spectrum.

o Details of the electromagnetic spectrum are given in the data booklet.

DP CHEMISTRY HL

Structure 1.3.2—The line emission spectrum of hydrogen provides evidence for the existence of electrons in discrete
energy levels, which converge at higher energies.

o Describe the emission spectrum of the hydrogen atom, including the relationships between the lines and
energy transitions to the first, second and third energy levels.

o The names of the different series in the hydrogen emission spectrum will not be assessed.

Structure 1.3.3—The main energy level is given an integer number, , and can hold a maximum of electrons.
o Deduce the maximum number of electrons that can occupy each energy level.
Structure 1.3.4—A more detailed model of the atom describes the division of the main energy level into s, p, d and f
sublevels of successively higher energies.
o Recognize the shape and orientation of an s atomic orbital and the three p atomic orbitals.
Structure 1.3.5—Each orbital has a defined energy state for a given electron configuration and chemical
environment, and can hold two electrons of opposite spin.
o Sublevels contain a fixed number of orbitals, regions of space where there is a high probability of finding
an electron.
o Apply the Aufbau principle, Hund’s rule and the Pauli exclusion principle to deduce electron
configurations for atoms and ions up to Z = 36.

o Full electron configurations and condensed electron configurations using the noble gas core should be
covered.

o Orbital diagrams, i.e. arrow-in-box diagrams, should be used to represent the filling and relative energy of
orbitals
o The electron configurations of Cr and Cu as exceptions should be covered.

ADDITIONAL HIGER LEVEL

Structure 1.3.6—In an emission spectrum, the limit of convergence at higher frequency corresponds to ionization.
o Explain the trends and discontinuities in first ionization energy (IE) across a period and down a group.
o Calculate the value of the first IE from spectral data that gives the wavelength or frequency of the
convergence limit. The value of the Planck constant (h) and the equations E = hf and c = f are given in
the data booklet.

Structure 1.3.7—Successive ionization energy (IE) data for an element give information about its electron
configuration.
o Deduce the group of an element from its successive ionization data.

Structure 1.4—Counting particles by mass: The mole

Structure 1.4.1—The mole (mol) is the SI unit of amount of substance. One mole contains exactly the number of
elementary entities given by the Avogadro constant.
o Convert the amount of substance, n, to the number of specified elementary entities.
o An elementary entity may be an atom, a molecule, an ion, an electron, any other particle or a specified
group of particles.
o The Avogadro constant (NA) is given in the data booklet. It has the units mol-1

Structure 1.4.2—Masses of atoms are compared on a scale relative to 12C and are expressed as relative atomic mass
(Ar) and relative formula mass (Mr).
o Determine relative formula masses (Mr) from relative atomic masses (Ar)
o Relative atomic mass and relative formula mass have no units.
o The values of relative atomic masses given to two decimal places in the data booklet should be used in
calculations.

Structure 1.4.3—Molar mass (M) has the units g mol–1.

DP CHEMISTRY HL

o Solve problems involving the relationships between the number of particles, the amount of substance in
moles and the mass in grams.
m
o The relationship n= is given in the data booklet.
M

Structure 1.4.4—The empirical formula of a compound gives the simplest ratio of atoms of each element present in
that compound.
o The molecular formula gives the actual number of atoms of each element present in a molecule.
o Interconvert the percentage composition by mass and the empirical formula.
o Determine the molecular formula of a compound from its empirical formula and molar mass.

Structure 1.4.5—The molar concentration is determined by the amount of solute and the volume of solution from
relative atomic masses .
o Solve problems involving the molar concentration, amount of solute and volume of solution.
o The use of square brackets to represent molar concentration is required.
o Units of concentration should include g dm-3 and mol dm-3 and conversion between these.
o The relationship n = CV is given in the data booklet.

Structure 1.4.6—Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of all gases measured under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules
o Solve problems involving the mole ratio of reactants and/or products and the volume of gases. Structure

1.5—Ideal gases

Structure 1.5.1—An ideal gas consists of moving particles with negligible volume and no intermolecular forces. All
collisions between particles are considered elastic.
o Recognize the key assumptions in the ideal gas model.

Structure 1.5.2—Real gases deviate from the ideal gas model, particularly at low temperature and high pressure
o Explain the limitations of the ideal gas model. No mathematical coverage is required.

Structure 1.5.3—The molar volume of an ideal gas is a constant at a specific temperature and pressure.
Investigate the relationship between temperature, pressure and volume for a fixed mass of an ideal gas and analyse
graphs relating these variables.
o The names of specific gas laws will not be assessed.
o The value for the molar volume of an ideal gas under standard temperature and pressure (STP) is given in
the data booklet.

Structure 1.5.4—The relationship between the pressure, volume, temperature and amount of an ideal gas is shown in
P1V 1 P2V 2
the ideal gas equation PV = nRT and the combined gas law =
T1 T2
o Solve problems relating to the ideal gas equation
o Units of volume and pressure should be SI only.

Structure 2. Models of bonding and structure

Structure 2.1—The ionic model

Structure 2.1.1—When metal atoms lose electrons, they form positive ions called cations. When non-metal atoms
gain electrons, they form negative ions called anions.
o Predict the charge of an ion from the electron configuration of the atom.
o The formation of ions with different charges from a transition element should be included
DP CHEMISTRY HL

Structure 2.1.2—The ionic bond is formed by electrostatic attractions between oppositely charged ions.
o Binary ionic compounds are named with the cation first, followed by the anion. The anion adopts the suffix
“ide”. Deduce the formula and name of an ionic compound from its component ions, including polyatomic
ions. Interconvert names and formulas of binary ionic compounds.
o The following polyatomic ions should be known by name and formula: ammonium NH4+ , hydroxide OH- ,
nitrate NO3- , hydrogencarbonate HCO3- , carbonate CO3-2 , sulfate SO4-2 , phosphate PO4-3.

Structure 2.1.3—Ionic compounds exist as three-dimensional lattice structures, represented by empirical formulas.
o Explain the physical properties of ionic compounds to include volatility, electrical conductivity and
solubility.
o Include lattice enthalpy as a measure of the strength of the ionic bond in different compounds, influenced
by ion radius and charge.

Structure 2.2—The covalent model

Structure 2.2.1—A covalent bond is formed by the electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of electrons and the
positively charged nuclei.
o The octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to gain a valence shell with a total of 8 electrons. Deduce the
Lewis formula of molecules and ions for up to four electron pairs on each atom.
o Lewis formulas (also known as electron dot or Lewis structures) show all the valence electrons (bonding
and non- bonding pairs) in a covalently bonded species.
o Electron pairs in a Lewis formula can be shown as dots, crosses or dashes. Molecules containing atoms
with fewer than an octet of electrons should be covered Organic and inorganic examples should be used.
o Molecules containing atoms with fewer than an octet of electrons should be covered Organic and inorganic
examples should be used.

Structure 2.2.2—Single, double and triple bonds involve one, two and three shared pairs of electrons respectively.
o Explain the relationship between the number of bonds, bond length and bond strength.

Structure 2.2.3 – A coordination bond is a covalent bond in which both the electrons of the shared pair originate
from the same compounds.
o Identify coordination bonds in compounds (NH4+, H3O+ O3)

Structure 2.2.4—The valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) model enables the shapes of molecules to be
predicted from the repulsion of electron domains around a central atom.
o Predict the electron domain geometry and the molecular geometry for species with up to four electron
domains.
o Include predicting how non-bonding pairs and multiple bonds affect bond angles.

Structure 2.2.5—Bond polarity results from the difference in electronegativities of the bonded atoms.
o Deduce the polar nature of a covalent bond from electronegativity values.
o Bond dipoles can be shown either with partial charges or vectors.
o Electronegativity values are given in the data booklet.

Structure 2.2.6—Molecular polarity depends on both bond polarity and molecular geometry.
o Deduce the net dipole moment of a molecule or ion by considering bond polarity and molecular geometry.
o Examples should include species in which bond dipoles do and do not cancel each other.

Structure 2.2.7—Carbon and silicon form covalent network structures.

o Describe the structures and explain the properties of silicon, silicon dioxide and carbon’s allotropes:
diamond, graphite, fullerenes and graphene.
o Allotropes of the same element have different bonding and structural patterns, and so have different
chemical and physical properties.
DP CHEMISTRY HL

Structure 2.2.8—The nature of the force that exists between molecules is determined by the size and polarity of the
molecules. Intermolecular forces include London (dispersion), dipole-induced dipole, dipole–dipole and hydrogen
bonding
o Deduce the types of intermolecular force present from the structural features of covalent molecules.
o The term “van der Waals forces” should be used as an inclusive term to include dipole–dipole,
dipoleinduced dipole, and London (dispersion) forces
o Hydrogen bonds occur when hydrogen, being covalently bonded to an electronegative atom, has an
attractive interaction on a neighbouring electronegative atom.

Structure 2.2.9—Given comparable molar mass, the relative strengths of intermolecular forces are generally:
London (dispersion) forces < dipole–dipole forces < hydrogen bonding.
o Explain the physical properties of covalent substances to include volatility, electrical conductivity and
solubility in terms of their structure.

Structure 2.2.10—Chromatography is a technique used to separate the components of a mixture based on their
relative attractions involving intermolecular forces to mobile and stationary phases
o Explain, calculate and interpret the retardation factor values, .
o Knowledge of the use of locating agents in chromatography is not required.
o The technical and operational details of a gas chromatograph or high-performance liquid chromatograph
will not be assessed.

ADDITIONAL HIGHER LEVEL

Structure 2.2.11—Resonance structures occur when there is more than one possible position for a double bond in a
molecule.
o Deduce resonance structures of molecules and ions. Include the term “delocalization”.

Structure 2.2.12—Benzene, , is an important example of a molecule that has resonance. Discuss the structure of
benzene from physical and chemical evidence.

Structure 2.2.13—Some atoms can form molecules in which they have an expanded octet of electrons.
o Visually represent Lewis formulas for species with five and six electron domains around the central atom.
o Deduce the electron domain geometry and the molecular geometry for these species using the VSEPR
model.

Structure 2.2.14—Formal charge values can be calculated for each atom in a species and used to determine which of
several possible Lewis formulas is preferred.
o Apply formal charge to determine a preferred Lewis formula from different Lewis formulas for a species.

Structure 2.2.15—Sigma bonds (σ) form by the head-on combination of atomic orbitals where the electron density is
concentrated along the bond axis. Pi bonds (π) form by the lateral combination of p-orbitals where the electron
density is concentrated on opposite sides of the bond axis.
o Deduce the presence of sigma bonds and pi bonds in molecules and ions. Include both organic and
inorganic examples.

Structure 2.2.16—Hybridization is the concept of mixing atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals for bonding.
o Analyse the hybridization and bond formation in molecules and ions.
o Identify the relationships between Lewis formulas, electron domains, molecular geometry and type of
hybridization.
o Predict the geometry around an atom from its hybridization, and vice versa.
o Include both organic and inorganic examples. Only , and hybridization need to be covered.

Structure 2.3 – The metallic model

Structure 2.3.1—A metallic bond is the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of cations and delocalized electrons.
o Explain the electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity and malleability of metals.
DP CHEMISTRY HL

o Relate characteristic properties of metals to their uses.

Structure 2.3.2—The strength of a metallic bond depends on the charge of the ions and the radius of the metal ion.
o Explain trends in melting points of s and p block metals.
o A simple treatment in terms of charge of cations and electron density is required

Structure 2.4 – From models to materials

Structure 2.4.1—Bonding is best described as a continuum between the ionic, covalent and metallic models, and can
be represented by a bonding triangle.
o Use bonding models to explain the properties of a material.
o A triangular bonding diagram is provided in the data booklet.

Structure 2.4.2—The position of a compound in the bonding triangle is determined by the relative contributions of
the three bonding types to the overall bond.
o Determine the position of a compound in the bonding triangle from electronegativity data. Predict the
properties of a compound based on its position in the bonding triangle.
o To illustrate the relationship between bonding type and properties, include example materials of varying
percentage bonding character. Only binary compounds need to be considered.
o Calculations of percentage ionic character are not required.
o Electronegativity data are given in the data booklet.

Structure 2.4.3—Alloys are mixtures of a metal and other metals or non-metals. They have enhanced properties.
o Explain the properties of alloys in terms of non-directional bonding
o Illustrate with common examples such as bronze, brass and stainless steel.

Structure 2.4.4—Polymers are large molecules, or macromolecules, made from repeating subunits called monomers.
o Describe the common properties of plastics in terms of their structure.
o Examples of natural and synthetic polymers should be discussed

Structure 2.4.5—Addition polymers form by the breaking of a double bond in each monomer.
o Represent the repeating unit of an addition polymer from given monomer structures. Examples should
include polymerization reactions of alkenes.
o Structures of monomers do not have to be learned but will be provided or will need to be deduced from the
polymer.

Structure 2.3.3—Transition elements have delocalized d-electrons.

o Explain the high melting point and electrical conductivity of transition elements.

ADDITIONAL HIGHER LEVEL

Structure 2.4.6—Condensation polymers form by the reaction between functional groups in each monomer with the
release of a small molecule.
o Represent the repeating unit of polyamides and polyesters from given monomer structures.
o All biological macromolecules form by condensation reactions and break down by hydrolysis.

Structure 3. Classification of matter

Structure 3.1—The periodic table: Classification of elements

Structure 3.1.1—The periodic table consists of periods, groups and blocks.

o Identify the positions of metals, metalloids and non-metals in the periodic table.
o The four blocks associated with the sublevels s, p, d, f should be recognized
DP CHEMISTRY HL

o A copy of the periodic table is available in the data booklet.

Structure 3.1.2—The period number shows the outer energy level that is occupied by electrons. Elements in a group
have a common number of valence electrons.
o Deduce the electron configuration of an atom up to Z = 36 from the element’s position in the periodic table
and vice versa.
o Groups are numbered from 1 to 18.
o The classifications “alkali metals”, “halogens”, “transition elements” and “noble gases” should be known.

Structure 3.1.3—Periodicity refers to trends in properties of elements across a period and down a group.
o Explain the periodicity of atomic radius, ionic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity and
electronegativity.

Structure 3.1.4—Trends in properties of elements down a group include the increasing metallic character of group 1
elements and decreasing non-metallic character of group 17 elements.
o Describe and explain the reactions of group 1 metals with water, and of group 17 elements with halide ions.

Structure 3.1.5—Metallic and non-metallic properties show a continuum. This includes the trend from basic metal
oxides through amphoteric to acidic non-metal oxides.
o Deduce equations for the reactions with water of the oxides of group 1 and group 2 metals, carbon and
sulfur.
o Include acid rain caused by gaseous non-metal oxides, and ocean acidification caused by increasing levels.

Structure 3.1.6—The oxidation state is a number assigned to an atom to show the number of electrons transferred in
forming a bond. It is the charge that atom would have if the compound were composed of ions.
o Deduce the oxidation states of an atom in an ion or a compound. Explain why the oxidation state of an
element is zero.
o Oxidation states are shown with a + or – sign followed by the Arabic symbol for the number, e.g. +2, –1.
Examples should include hydrogen in metal hydrides (–1) and oxygen in peroxides (–1).
o The terms “oxidation number” and “oxidation state” are often used interchangeably, and either term is
acceptable in assessment.
o Naming conventions for oxyanions use oxidation numbers shown with Roman numerals, but generic names
persist and are acceptable. Examples include – nitrate, nitrite, sulfate, sulfite.

ADDITIONAL HIGHER LEVEL

Structure 3.1.7—Discontinuities occur in the trend of increasing first ionization energy across a period.
o Explain how these discontinuities provide evidence for the existence of energy sublevels.
o Explanations should be based on the energy of the electron removed, rather than on the “special stability”
of filled and half-filled sublevels.

Structure 3.1.8—Transition elements have incomplete d-sublevels that give them characteristic properties.
o Recognize properties, including: variable oxidation state, high melting points, magnetic properties, catalytic
properties, formation of coloured compounds and formation of complex ions with ligands.
o Knowledge of different types of magnetism will not be assessed.

Structure 3.1.9—The formation of variable oxidation states in transition elements can be explained by the fact that
their successive ionization energies are close in value.
o Deduce the electron configurations of ions of the first-row transition elements.

Structure 3.1.10—Transition element complexes are coloured due to the absorption of light when an electron is
promoted between the orbitals in the split d-sublevels.
o The colour absorbed is complementary to the colour observed.
o Apply the colour wheel to deduce the wavelengths and frequencies of light absorbed and/or observed.
o Students are not expected to know the different splitting patterns and their relation to the coordination
number.
DP CHEMISTRY HL

o Color wheel and the equation c = f are given in the data booklet.

Structure 3.2—Functional groups: Classification of organic compounds

Structure 3.2.1—Organic compounds can be represented by different types of formulas. These include empirical,
molecular, structural (full and condensed), stereochemical and skeletal.
o Identify different formulas and interconvert molecular, skeletal and structural formulas. Construct 3D
models (real or virtual) of organic molecules.
o Stereochemical formulas are not expected to be drawn, except where specifically indicated.

Structure 3.2.2—Functional groups give characteristic physical and chemical properties to a compound. Organic
compounds are divided into classes according to the functional groups present in their molecules.
o Identify the following functional groups by name and structure: halogeno, hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl,
alkoxy, amino, amido, ester, phenyl.
o The terms “saturated” and “unsaturated” should be included.

Structure 3.2.3—A homologous series is a family of compounds in which successive members differ by a common
structural unit, typically .
o Each homologous series can be described by a general formula.
o Identify the following homologous series: alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, halogenoalkanes, alcohols, aldehydes,
ketones, carboxylic acids, ethers, amines, amides and esters.

Structure 3.2.4—Successive members of a homologous series show a trend in physical properties.

o Describe and explain the trend in melting and boiling points of members of a homologous series.

Structure 3.2.5—“IUPAC nomenclature” refers to a set of rules used by the International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry to apply systematic names to organic and inorganic compounds.
o Apply IUPAC nomenclature to saturated or mono-unsaturated compounds that have up to six carbon atoms
in the parent chain and contain one type of the following functional groups: halogeno, hydroxyl, carbonyl,
carboxyl.
o Include straight-chain and branched-chain isomers. Include numeric prefixes (mono, di, tri, tetra, penta,
hexa).

Structure 3.2.6—Structural isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula but different connectivities.
o Recognize isomers, including branched, straight-chain, position and functional group isomers.
o Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols, halogenoalkanes and amines should be included

ADDITIONAL HIGHER LEVEL

Structure 3.2.7—Stereoisomers have the same constitution (atom identities, connectivities and bond multiplicities)
but different spatial arrangements of atoms.
o Describe and explain the features that give rise to cis-trans isomerism; recognize it in non-cyclic alkenes
and C3 and C4 cycloalkanes.
o Draw stereochemical formulas showing the tetrahedral arrangement around a chiral carbon.
o Describe and explain a chiral carbon atom giving rise to stereoisomers with different optical properties.
Recognize a pair of enantiomers as non-superimposable mirror images from 3D modelling (real or virtual).
o Nomenclature using the E‐Z system will not be assessed.
The terms “chiral”, “optical activity”, “enantiomer” and “racemic” mixture should be understood.
o Knowledge of the different chemical properties of enantiomers can be limited to the fact that they behave
differently in chiral environments
o Wedge-dash type representations involving tapered bonds should be used for the representation of
enantiomers.

Structure 3.2.8—Mass spectrometry (MS) of organic compounds can cause fragmentation of molecules.
o Deduce information about the structural features of a compound from specific MS fragmentation patterns.
o Include reference to the molecular ion.
o Data on specific MS fragments are provided in the data booklet.
DP CHEMISTRY HL

Structure 3.2.9—Infrared (IR) spectra can be used to identify the type of bond present in a molecule.
o Interpret the functional group region of an IR spectrum, using a table of characteristic frequencies
(wavenumber/ cm-1).
o Include reference to the absorption of IR radiation by greenhouse gases.
o Data for interpretation of IR spectra are given in the data booklet.

Structure 3.2.10—Proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H NMR) gives information on the different
chemical environments of hydrogen atoms in a molecule.
o Interpret spectra to deduce the structures of organic molecules from the number of signals, the chemical
shifts, and the relative areas under signals (integration traces).

Structure 3.2.11—Individual signals can be split into clusters of peaks.

o Interpret spectra from splitting patterns showing singlets, doublets, triplets and quartets to deduce greater
structural detail.
o Data for interpretation of spectra are given in the data booklet. Structure 3.2.12—Data from different
techniques are often combined in structural analysis.
o Interpret a variety of data, including analytical spectra, to determine the structure of a molecule.

Reactivity 1. What drives chemical reactions?

Reactivity 1.1—Measuring enthalpy changes

Reactivity 1.1.1—Chemical reactions involve a transfer of energy between the system and the surroundings, while
total energy is conserved.
o Understand the difference between heat and temperature.

Reactivity 1.1.2—Reactions are described as endothermic or exothermic, depending on the direction of energy
transfer between the system and the surroundings.
o Understand the temperature change (decrease or increase) that accompanies endothermic and exothermic
reactions, respectively

Reactivity 1.1.3—The relative stability of reactants and products determines whether reactions are endothermic or
exothermic.
o Sketch and interpret energy profiles for endothermic and exothermic reactions.
o Axes for energy profiles should be labelled as reaction coordinate (x), potential energy (y).

Reactivity 1.1.4—The standard enthalpy change for a chemical reaction, , refers to the heat transferred at constant
pressure under standard conditions and states. It can be determined from the change in temperature of a pure
substance.

ADDITIONAL HIGHER LEVEL

Reactivity 1.2—Energy cycles in reactions

Reactivity 1.2.1—Bond-breaking absorbs and bond-forming releases energy.

o Calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction from given average bond enthalpy data.
o Include explanation of why bond enthalpy data are average values and may differ from those measured
experimentally.
o Average bond enthalpy values are given in the data booklet.

Reactivity 1.2.2—Hess’s law states that the enthalpy change for a reaction is independent of the pathway between
the initial and final states.
DP CHEMISTRY HL

o Apply Hess’s law to calculate enthalpy changes in multistep reactions.

Reactivity 1.2.3—Standard enthalpy changes of combustion, , and formation, data are used in thermodynamic
calculations
o Deduce equations and solutions to problems involving these terms. Enthalpy of combustion and formation
data are given in the data booklet

Reactivity 1.2.4—An application of Hess’s law uses enthalpy of formation data or enthalpy of combustion data to
calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction.
o Calculate enthalpy changes of a reaction using data or data:
o The equations to determine the enthalpy change of a reaction using data or data are given in the data
booklet.

Reactivity 1.2.5—A Born–Haber cycle is an application of Hess’s law, used to show energy changes in the
formation of an ionic compound.
o Interpret and determine values from a Born–Haber cycle for compounds composed of univalent and
divalent ions.
o The cycle includes: ionization energies, enthalpy of atomization (using sublimation and/or bond
enthalpies), electron affinities, lattice enthalpy, enthalpy of formation.
o The construction of a complete Born–Haber cycle will not be assessed. Reactivity

1.3—Energy from fuels

Reactivity 1.3.1—Reactive metals, non-metals and organic compounds undergo combustion reactions when heated
in oxygen.
o Deduce equations for reactions of combustion, including hydrocarbons and alcohols.

Reactivity 1.3.2—Incomplete combustion of organic compounds, especially hydrocarbons, leads to the production
of carbon monoxide and carbon.
o Deduce equations for the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons and alcohols.

Reactivity 1.3.3—Fossil fuels include coal, crude oil and natural gas, which have different advantages and
disadvantages
o Evaluate the amount of carbon dioxide added to the atmosphere when different fuels burn.
o Understand the link between carbon dioxide levels and the greenhouse effect.
o The tendency for incomplete combustion and energy released per unit mass should be covered.

Reactivity 1.3.4—Biofuels are produced from the biological fixation of carbon over a short period of time through
photosynthesis.
o Understand the difference between renewable and non-renewable energy sources.
o Consider the advantages and disadvantages of biofuels.
o The reactants and products of photosynthesis should be known.

Reactivity 1.3.5—A fuel cell can be used to convert chemical energy from a fuel directly to electrical energy.
o Deduce half-equations for the electrode reactions in a fuel cell.
o Hydrogen and methanol should be covered as fuels for fuel cells
o The use of proton exchange membranes will not be assessed.

ADDITIONAL HIGHER LEVEL

Reactivity 1.4—Entropy and spontaneity

Reactivity 1.4.1 - Entropy, S, is a measure of the dispersal or distribution of matter and/or energy in a system.
o The more ways the energy can be distributed, the higher the entropy.
o Under the same conditions, the entropy of a gas is greater than that of a liquid, which in turn is greater than
that of a solid.
DP CHEMISTRY HL

o Predict whether a physical or chemical change will result in an increase or decrease in entropy of a system.
o Calculate standard entropy changes, ∆ S θ, from standard entropy values, Sθ .
o Standard entropy values are given in the data booklet.

Reactivity 1.4.2—Change in Gibbs energy, ΔG, relates the energy that can be obtained from a chemical reaction to
the change in enthalpy, ΔH, change in entropy, ΔS, and absolute temperature, T.
o Apply the equation, ∆ G θ =∆ H θ−T ∆ Sθ to calculate unknown values of these terms
o Thermodynamic data values are given in the data booklet.
o Note the units: ∆ H θ =kJ mol−1 ; ∆ Sθ=J mol−1 ; ∆ G θ=kJ mol−1

Reactivity 1.4.3—At constant pressure, a change is spontaneous if the change in Gibbs energy, ΔG, is negative.
o Interpret the sign of ΔG calculated from thermodynamic data.
o Determine the temperature at which a reaction becomes spontaneous.
o ΔG takes into account the direct entropy change resulting from the transformation of the chemicals and the
indirect entropy change of the surroundings resulting from the transfer of heat energy.

Reactivity 1.4.4—As a reaction approaches equilibrium, ΔG becomes less negative and finally reaches zero.
o Perform calculations using the equation ∆ G θ =∆ G θ + RTln Qand its application to a system at
equilibrium . ∆ G θ =−RTlnQ
o The equations are given in the data booklet.

Reactivity 2. How much, how fast and how far?

Reactivity 2.1—How much? The amount of chemical change

Reactivity 2.1.1—Chemical equations show the ratio of reactants and products in a reaction.
o Deduce chemical equations when reactants and products are specified. Include the use of state symbols in
chemical equations.
Reactivity 2.1.2—The mole ratio of an equation can be used to determine: the masses and/or volumes of reactants
and products the concentrations of reactants and products for reactions occurring in solution
o Calculate reacting masses and/or volumes and concentrations of reactants and products.
Avogadro’s law and definitions of molar concentration are covered in Structure 1.4.
o The values for Ar given in the data booklet to two decimal places should be used in calculations.

Reactivity 2.1.3—The limiting reactant determines the theoretical yield. Identify the limiting and excess reactants
from given data.
o Distinguish between the theoretical yield and the experimental yield.

Reactivity 2.1.4—The percentage yield is calculated from the ratio of experimental yield to theoretical yield.
o Solve problems involving reacting quantities, limiting and excess reactants, theoretical, experimental and
percentage yields.

Reactivity 2.1.5—The atom economy is a measure of efficiency in green chemistry.

o Calculate the atom economy from the stoichiometry of a reaction.
o Include discussion of the inverse relationship between atom economy and wastage in industrial processes.
o The equation for calculation of the atom economy is given in the data booklet.

Reactivity 2.2—How fast? The rate of chemical change

Reactivity 2.2.1—The rate of reaction is expressed as the change in concentration of a particular reactant/product
per unit time.
o Determine rates of reaction.
DP CHEMISTRY HL

o Calculation of reaction rates from tangents of graphs of concentration, volume or mass against time should
be covered.

Reactivity 2.2.2—Species react as a result of collisions of sufficient energy and proper orientation.
o Explain the relationship between the kinetic energy of the particles and the temperature in kelvin, and the
role of collision geometry.

Reactivity 2.2.3—Factors that influence the rate of a reaction include pressure, concentration, surface area,
temperature and the presence of a catalyst
o Predict and explain the effects of changing conditions on the rate of a reaction.

Reactivity 2.2.4—Activation energy, Ea, is the minimum energy that colliding particles need for a successful
collision leading to a reaction
o Construct Maxwell–Boltzmann energy distribution curves to explain the effect of temperature on the
probability of successful collisions
Reactivity 2.2.5 – Catalysts increase the rate of reaction by providing an alternative reaction pathway with lower Ea.
o Sketch and explain energy profiles with and without catalysts for endothermic and exothermic reactions.
o Construct Maxwell–Boltzmann energy distribution curves to explain the effect of different values for Ea on
the probability of successful collisions.
o Biological catalysts are called enzymes.
o The different mechanisms of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts will not be assessed.

ADDITIONAL HIGHER LEVEL

Reactivity 2.2.6—Many reactions occur in a series of elementary steps. The slowest step determines the rate of the
reaction.
o Evaluate proposed reaction mechanisms and recognize reaction intermediates.
Distinguish between intermediates and transition states, and recognize both in energy profiles of reactions.
o Include examples where the rate-determining step is not the first step.
o Proposed reaction mechanisms must be consistent with kinetic and stoichiometric data.

Reactivity 2.2.7—Energy profiles can be used to show the activation energy and transition state of the rate-
determining step in a multistep reaction.
o Construct and interpret energy profiles from kinetic data.

Reactivity 2.2.8—The molecularity of an elementary step is the number of reacting particles taking part in that step.
o Interpret the terms “unimolecular”, “bimolecular” and “termolecular”

Reactivity 2.2.9—Rate equations depend on the mechanism of the reaction and can only be determined
experimentally.
o Deduce the rate equation for a reaction from experimental data.

Reactivity 2.2.10—The order of a reaction with respect to a reactant is the exponent to which the concentration of
the reactant is raised in the rate equation.
o The order with respect to a reactant can describe the number of particles taking part in the rate determining
step.
o The overall reaction order is the sum of the orders with respect to each reactant.
o Sketch, identify and analyse graphical representations of zero, first and second order reactions.
Concentration–time and rate–concentration graphs should be included.
o Only integer values for order of reaction will be assessed.

Reactivity 2.2.11—The rate constant, k, is temperature dependent and its units are determined from the overall order
of the reaction
DP CHEMISTRY HL

o Solve problems involving the rate equation, including the units of k.

Reactivity 2.2.12—The Arrhenius equation uses the temperature dependence of the rate constant to determine the
activation energy.
o Describe the qualitative relationship between temperature and the rate constant.
o Analyse graphical representations of the Arrhenius equation, including its linear form.

Reactivity 2.2.13—The Arrhenius factor, A, takes into account the frequency of collisions with proper orientations.
o Determine the activation energy and the Arrhenius factor from experimental data.

Reactivity 2.3—How far? The extent of chemical change

Reactivity 2.3.1—A state of dynamic equilibrium is reached in a closed system when the rates of forward and
backward reactions are equal.
o Describe the characteristics of a physical and chemical system at equilibrium.

Reactivity 2.3.2—The equilibrium law describes how the equilibrium constant, K, can be determined from the
stoichiometry of a reaction.
o Deduce the equilibrium constant expression from an equation for a homogeneous reaction.

Reactivity 2.3.3—The magnitude of the equilibrium constant indicates the extent of a reaction at equilibrium and is
temperature dependent.
o Determine the relationships between K values for reactions that are the reverse of each other at the same
temperature.
o Include the extent of reaction for: K<<1 ,K<1, K = 1, K>1, K>>1.

Reactivity 2.3.4—Le Châtelier’s principle enables the prediction of the qualitative effects of changes in
concentration, temperature and pressure to a system at equilibrium
o Apply Le Châtelier’s principle to predict and explain responses to changes of systems at equilibrium.

o Le Châtelier’s principle can be applied to heterogeneous equilibria such as: X(g) ⇌ X(aq)
o Include the effects on the value of K and on the equilibrium composition

ADDITIONAL HIGHER LEVEL

Reactivity 2.3.5—The reaction quotient, Q, is calculated using the equilibrium expression with nonequilibrium
concentrations of reactants and products.
o Calculate the reaction quotient Q from the concentrations of reactants and products at a particular time, and
determine the direction in which the reaction will proceed to reach equilibrium.

Reactivity 2.3.6—The equilibrium law is the basis for quantifying the composition of an equilibrium mixture.
o Solve problems involving values of K and initial and equilibrium concentrations of the components of an
equilibrium mixture.
o The approximation [reactant]initial  [reactant] eqm when K is very small should be understood.
o The use of quadratic equations is not expected. Only homogeneous equilibria will be assessed.

Reactivity 2.3.7—The equilibrium constant and Gibbs energy change, ΔG, can both be used to measure the position
of an equilibrium reaction.

o Calculations using the equation ∆ G θ =−RTln K . The equation is given in the data booklet.

Reactivity 3. What are the mechanisms of chemical change?

Reactivity 3.1—Proton transfer reactions

DP CHEMISTRY HL

Reactivity 3.1.1—Brønsted–Lowry acid is a proton donor and a Brønsted–Lowry base is a proton acceptor.
o Deduce the Brønsted–Lowry acid and base in a reaction.
o A proton in aqueous solution can be represented as H+(aq) and H3O+.
o The distinction between the terms “base” and “alkali” should be understood.

Reactivity 3.1.2—A pair of species differing by a single proton is called a conjugate acid–base pair. Deduce the
formula of the conjugate acid or base of any Brønsted–Lowry base or acid.

Reactivity 3.1.3—Some species can act as both Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases. Interpret and formulate equations
to show acid–base reactions of these species.
−pH
+¿=10 ¿
+¿;[ H ] ¿
Reactivity 3.1.4—The pH scale can be used to describe the [H+] of a solution: pH=−log 10 [ H ]
+¿¿
o Perform calculations involving the logarithmic relationship between pH and [ H ]
o Include the estimation of pH using universal indicator, and the precise measurement of pH using a pH
meter/ probe.
o The equations for pH are given in the data booklet.
+¿¿
Reactivity 3.1.5—The ion product constant of water, Kw, shows an inverse relationship between [ H ] and
−¿ ¿
−¿¿ +¿[OH ] ¿
[OH ] Kw = [ H ]
+¿¿ −¿¿
o Recognize solutions as acidic, neutral and basic from the relative values of [ H ] and [OH ]
o The equation for Kw and its value at 298 K are given in the data booklet.

Reactivity 3.1.6—Strong and weak acids and bases differ in the extent of ionization.
o Recognize the acid-base equilibria lie in the direction of the weaker conjugate.
o HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3 and H2SO4 are strong acids and group 1 hydroxides are strong bases.
o The distinction between strong and weak acids or bases and concentrated and dilute reagents should be
covered.

Reactivity 3.1.7—Acids react with bases in neutralization reactions.

o Formulate equations for the reactions between acids and metal oxides, metal hydroxides,
hydrogencarbonates and carbonates.
o Identify the parent acid and base of different salts.
o Bases should include ammonia, amines, soluble carbonates and hydrogencarbonates; acids should include
organic acids.

Reactivity 3.1.8—pH curves for neutralization reactions involving strong acids and bases have characteristic shapes
and features
o Sketch and interpret the general shape of the pH curve.
o Interpretation should include the intercept with the pH axis and equivalence point Only monoprotic
neutralization reactions will be assessed.

ADDITIONAL HIGHER LEVEL

Reactivity 3.1.9—The pOH scale describes the [OH-] of a solution. pOH = −log 10 ¿ ¿
+¿¿ −¿¿
o Interconvert [ H ] , [OH ] , pH and pOH values.
o The equations for pOH are given in the data booklet.

Reactivity 3.1.10—The strengths of weak acids and bases are described by their Ka, Kb, pKa or pKb values.
o Interpret the relative strengths of acids and bases from these data.

Reactivity 3.1.11—For a conjugate acid–base pair, the relationship Ka x Kb = Kw can be derived from the
expressions for Ka and Kb .
o Solve problems involving these values.
DP CHEMISTRY HL

o The use of quadratic equations is not expected in calculations.

Reactivity 3.1.12—The pH of a salt solution depends on the relative strengths of the parent acid and base.
o Construct equations for the hydrolysis of ions in a salt, and predict the effect of each ion on the pH of the
salt solution.
o Examples should include the ammonium ion NH4+ , the carboxylate ion RCOO- , the carbonate ion CO32- ,
and the hydrogencarbonate ion HCO3- .
o The acidity of hydrated transition element ions and Al3+ is not required.

Reactivity 3.1.13—pH curves of different combinations of strong and weak monoprotic acids and bases have
characteristic shapes and features.
o Interpret the general shapes of pH curves for all four combinations of strong and weak acids and bases.
o Interpretation should include: intercept with the pH axis, equivalence point, buffer region, points where
pH = pKa or pOH = pKb .

Reactivity 3.1.14—Acid–base indicators are weak acids, where the components of the conjugate acid–base pair have
different colours.
o The pH of the end point of an indicator, where it changes colour, approximately corresponds to its pKa
Value
o Construct equilibria expressions to show why the colour of an indicator changes with pH.
o The generalized formula HInd(aq) can be used to represent the undissociated form of an indicator
Examples of indicators with their pH range are given in the data booklet.
o Include universal indicator as a mixture of many indicators with a wide pH range of colour change

Reactivity 3.1.15—An appropriate indicator for a titration has an end point range that coincides with the pH at the
equivalence point.
o Identify an appropriate indicator for a titration from the identity of the salt and the pH range of the
indicator.
o Distinguish between the terms “end point” and “equivalence point”.

Reactivity 3.1.16—A buffer solution is one that resists change in pH on the addition of small amounts of acid or
alkali.
o Describe the composition of acidic and basic buffers and explain their actions.

Reactivity 3.1.17—The pH of a buffer solution depends on both: the pKa or pKb of its acid or base;
the ratio of the concentration of acid or base to the concentration of the conjugate base or acid.
o Solve problems involving the composition and pH of a buffer solution, using the equilibrium constant.
Include explanation of the effect of dilution of a buffer.

Reactivity 3.2—Electron transfer reactions

Reactivity 3.2.1—Oxidation and reduction can be described in terms of electron transfer, change in oxidation state,
oxygen gain/loss or hydrogen loss/gain.
o Deduce oxidation states of an atom in a compound or an ion.
o Identify the oxidized and reduced species and the oxidizing and reducing agents in a chemical reaction.

Reactivity 3.2.2—Half-equations separate the processes of oxidation and reduction, showing the loss or gain of
electrons
o Deduce redox half-equations and equations in acidic or neutral solutions.

Reactivity 3.2.3—The relative ease of oxidation and reduction of an element in a group can be predicted from its
position in the periodic table
DP CHEMISTRY HL

o The reactions between metals and aqueous metal ions demonstrate the relative ease of oxidation of
different metals.
o Predict the relative ease of oxidation of metals.
o Predict the relative ease of reduction of halogens.
o Interpret data regarding metal and metal ion reactions.
o The relative reactivity of metals observed in metal/ metal ion displacement reactions does not need to be
learned; appropriate data will be supplied in examination questions.

Reactivity 3.2.4—Acids react with reactive metals to release hydrogen.

o Deduce equations for reactions of reactive metals with dilute and .

Reactivity 3.2.5—Oxidation occurs at the anode and reduction occurs at the cathode in electrochemical cells.
o Identify electrodes as anode and cathode, and identify their signs/polarities in voltaic cells and electrolytic
cells, based on the type of reaction occurring at the electrode.

Reactivity 3.2.6—A primary (voltaic) cell is an electrochemical cell that converts energy from spontaneous redox
reactions to electrical energy.
o Explain the direction of electron flow from anode to cathode in the external circuit, and ion movement
across the salt bridge.
o Construction of primary cells should include: halfcells containing metal/metal ion, anode, cathode, electric
circuit, salt bridge.

Reactivity 3.2.7—Secondary (rechargeable) cells involve redox reactions that can be reversed using electrical
energy.
o Deduce the reactions of the charging process from given electrode reactions for discharge, and vice versa.
o Include discussion of advantages and disadvantages of fuel cells, primary cells and secondary cells

Reactivity 3.2.8—An electrolytic cell is an electrochemical cell that converts electrical energy to chemical energy by
bringing about non-spontaneous reactions
o Explain how current is conducted in an electrolytic cell. Deduce the products of the electrolysis of a
molten salt.
o Construction of electrolytic cells should include: DC power source connected to anode and cathode,
electrolyte.
Reactivity 3.2.9—Functional groups in organic compounds may undergo oxidation.
o Deduce equations to show changes in the functional groups during oxidation of primary and secondary
alcohols, including the two-step reaction in the oxidation of primary alcohols.
o Include explanation of the experimental set-up for distillation and reflux.
o Include the fact that tertiary alcohols are not oxidized under similar conditions.
o Names and formulas of specific oxidizing agents, and the mechanisms of oxidation, will not be assessed.

Reactivity 3.2.10—Functional groups in organic compounds may undergo reduction.

o Deduce equations to show reduction of carboxylic acids to primary alcohols via the aldehyde, and
reduction of ketones to secondary alcohols.
o Include the role of hydride ions in the reduction reaction.
o Names and formulas of specific reducing agents, and the mechanisms of reduction, will not be assessed.

Reactivity 3.2.11—Reduction of unsaturated compounds by the addition of hydrogen lowers the degree of
unsaturation.
o Deduce the products of the reactions of hydrogen with alkenes and alkynes.

ADDITIONAL HIGHER LEVEL

Reactivity 3.2.12—The hydrogen half-cell is assigned a standard electrode potential of zero by convention. It is used
in the measurement of standard electrode potential, .
DP CHEMISTRY HL

o Interpret standard electrode potential data in terms of ease of oxidation/reduction. Standard reduction
potentials are given in the data booklet.

Reactivity 3.2.13—Standard cell potential, , can be calculated from standard electrode potentials. has a positive
value for a spontaneous reaction.
o Predict whether a reaction is spontaneous in the forward or reverse direction from data.

Reactivity 3.2.14—The equation shows the relationship between standard change in Gibbs energy and standard cell
potential for a reaction.
o Determine the value for from data
o The equation and the value of F in C mol–1 are given in the data booklet

Reactivity 3.2.15—During electrolysis of aqueous solutions, competing reactions can occur at the anode and
cathode, including the oxidation and reduction of water.
o Deduce from standard electrode potentials the products of the electrolysis of aqueous solutions.
o Electrolytic processes should include the electrolysis of water and of aqueous solutions.
o The effects of concentration and the nature of the electrode are limited to the electrolysis of and .

Reactivity 3.2.16—Electroplating involves the electrolytic coating of an object with a metallic thin layer. Deduce
equations for the electrode reactions during electroplating.

Reactivity 3.3—Electron sharing reactions

Reactivity 3.3.1—A radical is a molecular entity that has an unpaired electron. Radicals are highly reactive.
o Identify and represent radicals, e.g. CH3 and . Cl .

Reactivity 3.3.2—Radicals are produced by homolytic fission, e.g. of halogens, in the presence of ultraviolet (UV)
light or heat.
o Explain, including with equations, the homolytic fission of halogens, known as the initiation step in a chain
reaction.
o The use of a single-barbed arrow (fish hook) to show the movement of a single electron should be
covered.

Reactivity 3.3.3—Radicals take part in substitution reactions with alkanes, producing a mixture of products.
o Explain, using equations, the propagation and termination steps in the reactions between alkanes and
halogens.
o Reference should be made to the stability of alkanes due to the strengths of the C–C and C–H bonds and
their essentially non-polar nature

Reactivity 3.4—Electron-pair sharing reactions

Reactivity 3.4.1—A nucleophile is a reactant that forms a bond to its reaction partner (the electrophile) by donating
both bonding electrons.
o Recognize nucleophiles in chemical reactions.
o Both neutral and negatively charged species should be included.

Reactivity 3.4.2—In a nucleophilic substitution reaction, a nucleophile donates an electron pair to form a new bond,
as another bond breaks producing a leaving group.
o Deduce equations with descriptions and explanations of the movement of electron pairs in nucleophilic
substitution reactions.
DP CHEMISTRY HL

Reactivity 3.4.3—Heterolytic fission is the breakage of a covalent bond when both bonding electrons remain with
one of the two fragments formed.

o Explain, with equations, the formation of ions by heterolytic fission.

o Curly arrows should be used to show the movement of electron pairs during reactions.

Reactivity 3.4.4—An electrophile is a reactant that forms a bond to its reaction partner (the nucleophile) by
accepting both bonding electrons from that reaction partner.

o Recognize electrophiles in chemical reactions.

o Both neutral and positively-charged species should be included.

Reactivity 3.4.5—Alkenes are susceptible to electrophilic attack because of the high electron density of the carbon–
carbon double bond. These reactions lead to electrophilic addition.

o Deduce equations for the reactions of alkenes with water, halogens, and hydrogen halides. The mechanisms
of these reactions will not be assessed at SL.

ADDITIONAL HIGHER LEVEL

Reactivity 3.4.6—A Lewis acid is an electron-pair acceptor and a Lewis base is an electron-pair donor.

o Apply Lewis acid–base theory to inorganic and organic chemistry to identify the role of the reacting
species.

Reactivity 3.4.7—When a Lewis base reacts with a Lewis acid, a coordination bond is formed.

o Nucleophiles are Lewis bases and electrophiles are Lewis acids.

o Draw and interpret Lewis formulas of reactants and products to show coordination bond formation in Lewis
acid–base reactions.

Reactivity 3.4.8—Coordination bonds are formed when ligands donate an electron pair to transition element cations,
forming complex ions.

o Deduce the charge on a complex ion, given the formula of the ion and ligands present.

Reactivity 3.4.9—Nucleophilic substitution reactions include the reactions between halogenoalkanes and
nucleophiles.
o Describe and explain the mechanisms of the reactions of primary and tertiary halogenoalkanes with
nucleophiles.
DP CHEMISTRY HL

o Distinguish between the concerted one-step SN2 reaction of primary halogenoalkanes and the two-step
SN1 reaction of tertiary halogenoalkanes.
o Both mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes.
o The stereospecific nature of SN2 reactions should be covered.

Reactivity 3.4.10—The rate of the substitution reactions is influenced by the identity of the leaving group.
o Predict and explain the relative rates of the substitution reactions for different halogenoalkanes.
o Different halogenoalkanes should include RCl, RBr, RI
o The roles of the solvent and the reaction mechanism on the rate will not be assessed.

Reactivity 3.4.11—Alkenes readily undergo electrophilic addition reactions.

o Describe and explain the mechanisms of the reactions between symmetrical alkenes and halogens, water
and hydrogen halides

Reactivity 3.4.12—The relative stability of carbocations in the addition reactions between hydrogen halides and
unsymmetrical alkenes can be used to explain the reaction mechanism.

o Predict and explain the major product of a reaction between an unsymmetrical alkene and a hydrogen
halide or water.

Reactivity 3.4.13—Electrophilic substitution reactions include the reactions of benzene with electrophiles

o Describe and explain the mechanism of the reaction between benzene and a charged electrophile,
o The formation of the electrophile will not be assessed.